Taking Nature's Pulse - Biodiversity BC

Taking Nature’s Pulsethe status of biodiversityin british columbia2008

Taking Nature’s Pulsethe status of biodiversityin british columbia2008

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication DataMain entry under title:Taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in British ColumbiaEditors: M.A. Austin, et al. Cf. P.Includes bibliographical references: p.ISBN 978-0-0909745-0-81. Biodiversity – British Columbia. 2. Endangered species – British Columbia.3. Biodiversity conservation – British Columbia. I. Austin, Matt, 1969–II. Biodiversity BC.QH106.2.B7T34 2008 333.9509711 C2008-960108-4Suggested citation: Austin, M.A., D.A. Buffett, D.J. Nicolson, G.G.E. Scudder and V. Stevens (eds.). 2008.Taking Nature’s Pulse: The Status of Biodiversity in British Columbia. Biodiversity BC, Victoria, BC. 268 pp.Available at: www.biodiversitybc.org.Cover photos: Jared Hobbs (owl); Laure Neish (bee on yellow flower); Dušan Zidar (orange peel fungus);Ian McAllister (kermode); Robert Koopmans (salmon); Karen Wipond (landscape); Jennifer Heron (checkerspot);Arifin Graham (footprints in sand).Banner photos: Frank Leung (p. v); Vera Bogaerts (p. 1); Karoline Cullen (p. 5); Jared Hobbs (p. 23);Robert Koopmans (p. 155); Jennifer Heron (p. 213).Design and Production: Alaris Design

T CExecutive SummaryAcknowledgementsAbout This ReportxiiixxiixxviiIntroduction 1Section 1. A Primer on Biodiversity: Its Importance and History in British Columbia 51.1 What Is Biodiversity? 51.1.1 Genetic, Species and Ecosystem Diversity 61.1.2 Composition, Structure and Function 71.2 Why Is Biodiversity Important? 101.3 Importance of Biodiversity for First Peoples of British Columbia 111.3.1 Traditional Uses of Biodiversity 111.3.2 Impacts of Biodiversity Degradation on First Peoples 151.4 Biodiversity and Geological History 151.4.1 The Pleistocene (Ice Age) Epoch 161.4.2 Before the Last Glacial Maximum: 50,000 to 17,000 Years Ago 161.4.3 The Glacial Maximum: 17,000 to 14,000 Years Ago 171.4.4 End of the Ice Age: 14,000 to 10,000 Years Ago 181.4.5 Warm Dry Early Holocene Epoch: 10,000 to 7,000 Years Ago 191.4.6 Warm Moist Middle Holocene Epoch: 7,000 to 4,000 Years Ago 211.4.7 Moderate and Moist Late Holocene Epoch: 4,000 to 200 Years Ago 21III

IVtaking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaSection 2. British Columbia’s Natural Legacy 232.1 Approach 242.2 Ecosystem Diversity in British Columbia 252.2.1 Terrestrial Ecosystems: Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification Zones 262.2.1.1 Conservation Status of Biogeoclimatic Zones 302.2.1.2 Proportion of Global Range for Biogeoclimatic Zones 352.2.1.3 Shared Ecosystems 372.2.1.4 Status of Ecological Communities 372.2.2 Freshwater Ecosystems: Major Drainage Areas 422.2.2.1 Conservation Status of Major Drainage Areas 422.2.3 Ecosystems that Overlap the Marine Realm 452.2.3.1 Intertidal 452.2.3.2 Estuaries 472.2.4 Data Gaps 492.3 Diversity of Species in British Columbia 492.3.1 Richness 502.3.2 Conservation Status 512.3.2.1 Species of Conservation Concern in the Terrestrial, Freshwater and Marine Realms 592.3.3 Proportion of Global Range for Species 612.3.3.1 Species at the Edge of their Range 652.3.4 Species Overlap: Realm and Jurisdictional 662.3.4.1 Species that Overlap with the Marine Realm 662.3.4.2 Species that Overlap with Other Jurisdictions 672.3.4.3 Migratory Species in B.C. 692.3.5 Data Gaps 712.4 Genetic Diversity in British Columbia 712.4.1 Genetic Diversity Concepts and B.C. Examples 742.4.1.1 Geographically Marginal Populations 742.4.1.2 Island and Disjunct Populations 752.4.1.3 Glacial Refugia 782.4.1.4 Major Hybridization Zones 82

table of contentsV2.4.2 Status of British Columbia Taxa Below the Species Level 822.4.3 Data Gaps 842.5 Selected Key and Special Elements of Biodiversity in British Columbia 892.5.1 Key Elements 892.5.1.1 Cross-realm Elements 922.5.1.2 Terrestrial Elements 972.5.1.3 Freshwater Elements 1142.5.1.4 Marine Overlap Elements 1272.5.2 Special Elements 1342.5.2.1 Seasonal Concentrations of Species 1372.5.2.2 Special Communities 1412.5.2.3 Special Features 145Section 3. Threats to Biodiversity in British Columbia 1553.1 Approach 1563.2 Major Stresses on Biodiversity 1563.2.1 Ecosystem Conversion 1593.2.2 Ecosystem Degradation 1623.2.3 Alien Species 1653.2.4 Environmental Contamination 1693.2.5 Species Disturbance 1713.2.6 Species Mortality 1713.3 Human Activities Impacting Biodiversity 1723.3.1 Climate Change 1743.3.1.1 Future Conditions 1843.3.1.2 Implications of Climate Change for Biodiversity in British Columbia 1863.3.2 Agriculture 1933.3.3 Forestry 1943.3.4 Urban and Rural Development 1963.3.5 Transportation and Utility Corridors 1993.3.6 Water Development 2013.3.7 Oil and Gas 2043.3.8 Recreation 205

VItaking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia3.3.9 Grazing 2073.3.10 Industrial Operations 2093.3.11 Mining 2093.3.12 Aquaculture 2103.4 Data Gaps 2103.4.1 General 2103.4.2 Climate Change 211Section 4. Major Findings 2134.1 Introduction 2134.2 Development of the Major Findings 2144.3 The Major Findings 215Glossary 225AppendicesAppendix A. Historic species in B.C. 231Appendix B. Major taxa of extant, native, free-living terrestrial and freshwater organisms in B.C.,with tabular summary of the availability of up-to-date species checklists, handbooks or systematicmonographs, computerized geo-referenced distributional databases, and local (British Columbia)taxonomic/systematic expertise. 232Endnotes 236General Index 264Species Index 266

table of contentsVIIList of Text Boxestext box 1. The Earth Summit and the Canadian Biodiversity Strategy 11text box 2. Culturally Significant Species 13text box 3. First Peoples’ Stewardship of Biodiversity 14text box 4. British Columbia’s Biogeoclimatic Zones 26text box 5. Case Study: Loss of Grasslands in the Okanagan and Lower Similkameen Valleys 39text box 6. Garry Oak Ecosystems of the Coastal Douglas-fir Zone 40text box 7. Lost Streams in the Lower Fraser Valley 43text box 8. Extinct and Extirpated Species 58text box 9. Trends in Conservation Status of Select Groups of Species and Subspecies 60text box 10. Western Sandpiper: A Far-ranging Species 70text box 11. Cryptic Species: Diversity Hiding in Plain Sight 78text box 12. Fish and Glacial Refugia 80text box 13. Mountain Caribou in Southeastern British Columbia 85text box 14. The Hidden Majority 88text box 15. Mycorrhizae: A Tree’s Best Friend 98text box 16. The Mountain Pine Beetle Epidemic in B.C. 105text box 17. Ocean Acidification 129text box 18. The Nicola River: Extreme Pressure on Water Resources 164text box 19. Aquaculture of Manila Clams in Intertidal Areas 168List of Tablestable 1. Areal extent of biogeoclimatic zones in B.C. 29table 2. Conservation status ranks for ecosystems in B.C. 31table 3. Conservation status of biogeoclimatic zones in B.C. 32table 4. Distribution of species of conservation concern in B.C. by biogeoclimatic zone. 34table 5. Proportion of global range classification for ecosystems and species. 35table 6. Distribution of biogeoclimatic zones across B.C. and neighbouring jurisdictions. 37table 7. Provincial conservation status of ecological communities in B.C. by biogeoclimatic zone. 38table 8. Historical loss of grassland ecosystems in the Okanagan Valley between 1800 and 2005. 40table 9. Provincial conservation status of Major Drainage Areas in B.C. 43table 10. Habitat types used in B.C. biophysical ShoreZone mapping. 46

VIIItaking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatable 11. Number of species considered for the analyses of species richness, conservation status,proportion of global range and realm overlap, by taxonomic group. 51table 12. Conservation status ranks for species in B.C. 53table 13. Summary of B.C. species assessed for global and provincial conservation status. 54table 14. Extinct and presumed extirpated species in B.C. 58table 15. Conservation status for B.C. vertebrate, invertebrate and vascular plant species associatedwith the terrestrial, freshwater and marine realms. 59table 16. Summary of B.C. species by global range class. 61table 17. Species of provicial or global conservation concern with a majority of their global range in B.C. 64table 18. Terrestrial and freshwater species in B.C. that overlap with the marine realm. 66table 19. Number of vertebrate species of provincial conservation concern in B.C. that are sharedwith adjacent jurisdictions. 68table 20. B.C. endemic taxa below the species level that are of provincial conservation concern. 75table 21. Number of taxa below the species level of global and provincial conservation concern,as well as those that have a majority of their global range in B.C. 83table 22. Extinct and extirpated taxa below the species level in B.C. 84table 23. Selected key elements of biodiversity in B.C. 90table 24. Selected special elements of biodiversity in B.C. 135table 25. Area of terrestrial ecosystem conversion in B.C. since European contact. 160table 26. 2003 provincial overview of top 10 human activities impacting biodiversity in B.C. 173table 27. Agricultural land use within the Greater Vancouver Regional District between 1981 and 2001. 194table 28. Percent of land logged in B.C. since the 1970s by biogeoclimatic zone. 196table 29. Presence of roads or other linear features in B.C. by biogeoclimatic zone. 201table 30. Surface water allocation in B.C. by Major Drainage Area. 204table 31. Density of oil and gas sites in B.C. by biogeoclimatic zone. 205

table of contentsIList of Mapsmap 1. Roads or other linear development features present above and below 1,000 m. 2map 2. Biogeoclimatic ecosystem classification – zones. 28map 3. Biogeoclimatic zones of conservation concern. 33map 4. Biogeoclimatic zones for which B.C. has the majority of the global range. 36map 5. Major Drainage Areas. 44map 6. Species richness. 52map 7. Species richness: species of global conservation concern. 56map 8. Species richness: species of provincial conservation concern. 57map 9. Species richness: species with a majority of their global range in B.C. 63map 10. Area of forests more than 10% impacted by mountain pine beetle. 106map 11a. Special elements: species. 138map 11b. Special elements: ecosystems. 142map 12. Terrestrial ecosystem conversion (%). 161map 13. Number of terrestrial and freshwater alien species. 167map 14. Seasonal trends in precipitation from 1971 to 2000. 179map 15. Seasonal trends in minimum temperature from 1971 to 2000. 180map 16. Seasonal trends in maximum temperature from 1971 to 2000. 181map 17. Absolute rate of change in minimum temperature (average of all months) from 1971 to 2000. 182map 18. Relative change in minimum temperature (average of all months) from 1971 to 2000. 183map 19. Logged since the 1970s (%). 197map 20. Density of roads and other linear development features (km/km 2 ). 202map 21. Areas upstream of a dam. 206map 22. Oil and gas site density (sites/km 2 ). 208

table of contentsIfigure 27. Forests in B.C. affected by mountain pine beetle, with projections to 2018. 105figure 28. Loss of black cottonwood / water birch riparian shrub ecosystem in the Okanagan since 1800. 110figure 29. The relationship between salmon returns, bears, riparian forests and futuresalmon productivity. 122figure 30. Historic and current species richness for 17 carnivore and ungulate species that haveundergone significant range contractions in North America. 145figure 31. The biodiversity threat framework. 157figure 32. Impact of stresses on elements of biodiversity. 159figure 33. Streams allocated to human uses, 1950s–2001. 162figure 34. Alien vascular plant and freshwater fish species in B.C. 166figure 35. Trends in shellfish beds closed to harvesting in British Columbia, 1989–2006. 170figure 36. Impact of human activities on elements of biodiversity. 174figure 37. Projected mean annual temperature change for the 2020s, 2050s and 2080s for threeclimate change scenarios. 185figure 38. Projected mean annual precipitation change for the 2020s, 2050s and 2080s for threeclimate change scenarios. 185figure 39. Climate envelopes for biogeoclimatic zones in B.C.: current distributionand projected distribution (2085). 187figure 40. Potential shift in biogeoclimatic zones by 2085 due to climate change. 188figure 41. Total timber harvest, 1912–2005/06. 195figure 42. Population growth for B.C. (1861–2006) with a projection to 2031. 198figure 43. B.C. population change, 1981–2001. 199figure 44. Change in impervious area in the Georgia Basin–Puget Sound region, 1992–2000. 199figure 45. Length of roads in B.C. in 1988, 2000 and 2005. 201figure 46. Trends in surface water licensing in B.C. 203

Executive SummaryBritish Columbia is a spectacular place, known worldwide for its natural beauty and diversity. The province’secosystems provide habitat for a vast array of plants and animals and have sustained humanpopulations for at least 10,000 years. Although we continue to derive huge benefits from these naturalsystems, their true value and significance is not fully understood. Nor do we fully understand the potentialthreats to the environment caused by our expanding human footprint.This report, Taking Nature’s Pulse: The Status of Biodiversity in British Columbia, is a comprehensive, sciencebasedassessment of the province’s natural environment. Its purpose is to assist British Columbians in makinginformed choices regarding biodiversity. The scope of the report is B.C.’s terrestrial and freshwater realms,including their overlap with the marine realm.Taking Nature’s Pulse was developed by Biodiversity BC, a partnership of government and non-governmentorganizations with a mandate to produce a biodiversity strategy for British Columbia. Scientists – both provincialand international – played a key role in shaping and building the report through the preparation of technicalbackground reports and peer reviews of the report as it was being drafted.The report has four main sections. Section 1 provides background on biodiversity, including its attributes,importance and history in B.C. Section 2 describes the current status of B.C.’s ecosystems, species and geneticdiversity, and key and special elements. Section 3 outlines the threats to biodiversity. Section 4 presents themajor findings of the assessment.Taking Nature’s Pulse does not assess existing conservation programs and policies in B.C. or compare approachestaken in B.C. with those in other jurisdictions. Nevertheless, there is a wide range of conservationIII

IVtaking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatools that have been employed by governments, industry, conservation organizations and the public in BritishColumbia. Examples include protected areas, covering more than 14% of the province; conservation areas, includingWildlife Management Areas, Wildlife Habitat Areas and Old Growth Management Areas; land managementguidelines and regulations; private land conservation; and strategic land use plans with land use designationsand resource management objectives designed to address biodiversity concerns.What is Biodiversity?Biodiversity is short for biological diversity – the variety of life in all its forms. It includes genes, species andecosystems, and the processes that link them, an ensemble that many people think of simply as Nature.Biodiversity provides important ecosystem services to all living things, such as regulating climate and theflow of water. It also fulfills basic human needs, providing us with essentials like food and clean water, suppliesthe natural capital upon which our economy depends and satisfies a wide range of recreational, spiritual andcultural needs.British Columbia’s glacial history, mountainous terrain, proximity to the Pacific Ocean and widelyvaried local climates have shaped its biodiversity. For at least 10,000 years, the First Peoples in BritishColumbia have relied on biodiversity, building a wealth of specialized knowledge about its uses and innerworkings. Since the arrival of Europeans, biodiversity has continued to play a vital role in the province’sdevelopment.Ecosystem DiversityAn ecosystem is a community of organisms and their physical environment. Ecosystems are complex, dynamicand adaptive systems that are continuously evolving. When they become simplified through the loss of componentparts or processes, they lose their ecological resilience – the ability to withstand and adapt to naturalor human-caused disturbances.Ecosystems can be defined and assessed at a range of scales from the very small – for example the organismsand processes occurring in a small pond – to the very large such as the coastal temperate rainforest, extendingalong the Pacific coast from northern California to Alaska. The primary scale used in this report for terrestrialecosystems is biogeoclimatic zones, which are broad geographic areas sharing similar climate and vegetation.Within B.C. there are 16 biogeoclimatic zones: 12 forested, three alpine and one grassland. The finest scale

VItaking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaSpecies DiversitySpecies are genetically distinct groups of organisms that are capable of successfully interbreeding. Eachspecies is a unique part of nature. Of all the Canadian provinces and territories, B.C. is home to the richestdiversity of vascular plants, mosses, mammals, butterflies and breeding birds, and the largest number of speciesof reptiles, tiger beetles and amphibians found only in one province or territory. More than 50,000 differentspecies (not including single-celled organisms) exist in B.C., but only about 3,800 of these have been assessedfor their conservation status. Some parts of the province (primarily unroaded and unsettled areas) have notbeen surveyed and some taxonomic groups remain largely unstudied.major findings:8. Of the species assessed to date in British Columbia, 43% are of provincial conservation concern andthese are concentrated in the four biogeoclimatic zones of conservation concern [see Major Finding 1].9. British Columbia is known to have a majority of the global range for 99 species.Genetic Diversityphoto: istock.Genetic diversity is the foundation of biodiversity. Genes are the functional units of heredity and genetic variationthat permit species to adapt to changing environments.B.C. has a disproportionately high level of genetic diversity relative to its species diversity. The province’sglacial history, complex topography and varied climate have contributed to the evolution of a wide varietyof adaptations to different environments. As a result, many species occur in the province as geographicallydistinct subspecies, which differ from each other in appearance, environmental tolerances and/or behaviour,which reflect differences in genetic make-up. For example, there are more than 400 genetically distinct populationsamong five species of Pacific salmon in B.C. This variability has allowed salmon to use all available streamsystems in the province, adding to their ability to adapt to changing conditions.Due to B.C.’s large size and biophysical variability, the province is home to many species that are at the edgeof their range. Such populations are often genetically distinct from populations at the core of the species range.B.C. also has a high density of hybrid zones that contribute to genetic diversity in both terrestrial and freshwaterecosystems. In these zones, landscape change and historic expansion and contraction of species rangeshave created conditions where individuals from genetically different populations or species interbreed, producingnew genetic combinations.

executive summaryVIImajor finding:10. British Columbia has a high level of genetic diversity within species, which is critical for adaptationand resilience.Key and Special Elements of BiodiversityKey elements are the species and ecosystem components, and the processes performed by them, that havea fundamental or disproportionate influence on how ecosystems function. Taking Nature’s Pulse highlightsa sample of the key elements that are important for biodiversity in B.C.An important example of a key element is pollination, which is the transfer of pollen between plantsby animals or by non-biological forces such as wind. The majority of animal pollination is carried out by insectssuch as bees, beetles, wasps, flies, butterflies and moths. One-third of the food consumed by people is a resultof pollination by animals.Special elements are components of biodiversity that are uncommon and, in some cases, found nowhere elsein B.C. Examples include: seasonal concentrations of species, such as rookeries where Steller sea lions gatherto breed; special communities, such as temperate rainforests and intact large mammal predator-prey systems;and noteworthy features, including karst cave systems, hot springs, saline lakes and fishless lakes, all of whichare inhabited by rare and specialized species. As with the key elements, the list presented in this report is notall-inclusive.major findings:11. The flow of water in lakes, streams, wetlands and groundwater systems is being seriously impactedin British Columbia by dams, water diversions, logging, stream crossings and climate change.12. The natural disturbance processes that shape British Columbia’s forests [e.g., wild fire, insects] arebeing disrupted by human activities.13. British Columbia’s mainland coast features a number of interconnected key and special elementsof biodiversity: intact temperate rainforest, an intact large mammal predator-prey system, glaciallyinfluenced streams and salmon-driven nutrient cycling.14. The majority of British Columbia has intact or relatively intact predator-prey systems, but a majorthreat to them is motorized access and associated human activities.15. British Columbia has many significant seasonal concentrations of species [e.g., migratory birds,spawning salmon] that are vulnerable to human impacts.

VIIItaking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaThreats to BiodiversityBiodiversity is under threat around the world. According to the 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment morethan half of the earth’s grasslands, forests, rivers and lakes have been degraded, along with their ability to performessential ecosystem functions and support life. Similarly the World Conservation Union (IUCN) has ranked40% of the 40,000 species it has evaluated as being threatened with extinction. With each species that is lost, sotoo is its potential to contribute to the production of food, fuel, building materials, pollination, decomposition,filtration and other services needed to maintain life on the planet.While British Columbia faces many of the same threats that are occurring globally, its biodiversity is in relativelybetter shape due to the shorter history of large-scale human development and the province’s mountainousterrain. However, current trends indicate that threats to B.C. species and ecosystems are increasing.In British Columbia there are six major stresses that threaten biodiversity:• ecosystem conversion (the direct and complete conversion of natural ecosystems to landscapesfor human uses);• ecosystem degradation (change to the structure of a natural system from activities such as forestharvesting or water diversion);• alien species (species that occur outside their native range due to human introduction);• environmental contamination (the release of contaminants into natural systems);• species disturbance (the alteration of the behaviour of species due to human activities);• species mortality (the direct killing of individual organisms).Ecosystem conversion, ecosystem degradation and alien species are the most significant stresses on biodiversityin B.C. and globally.The human activities that contribute most significantly to the stresses on biodiversity in B.C. are associatedwith climate change, agriculture, recreation, urban and rural development, forestry, transportation and utilitycorridors, oil and gas development and water development. Other activities that have important impacts onbiodiversity are grazing, industrial development, mining and aquaculture. Within B.C., human activities are generallyconcentrated in areas of high biodiversity, particularly along rivers, in estuaries and in fertile valleys.

executive the status summary of biodiversity in british columbiaIWhile it is logical to look at the impacts of these activities individually, losses to biodiversity generally resultfrom a combination of stresses. These cumulative impacts can affect biodiversity at a magnitude that is greaterthan the sum of the individual impacts.The impacts of climate change on biodiversity are already being felt and it is expected to be the greatestoverriding threat to biodiversity in the future, especially in areas of the province where biodiversity is alreadyaffected by ecosystem conversion, ecosystem degradation, alien species and other stresses. Precisely how ecosystemsand species will respond to climate change remains unknown. The speed with which species adapt to,or move in response to, changes in conditions will likely determine whether they thrive or disappear, and willin turn influence ecosystems. Where ecosystems are already degraded or fragmented by activities such as constructionof roads and associated stream crossings, habitat connectivity may be lost, preventing many speciesfrom shifting their ranges in response to the changing climate.major findings:16. Ecosystem conversion from urban/rural development and agriculture has seriouslyimpacted British Columbia’s biodiversity, especially in the three rarest biogeoclimatic zones[Coastal Douglas-fir, Bunchgrass and Ponderosa Pine].photo: jane drengson.17. Ecosystem degradation from forestry, oil and gas development, and transportation and utilitycorridors has seriously impacted British Columbia’s biodiversity.18. Alien species are seriously impacting British Columbia’s biodiversity, especially on islandsand in lakes.19. Climate change is already seriously impacting British Columbia and is the foremost threatto biodiversity.20. The cumulative impacts of human activities in British Columbia are increasing and are resultingin the loss of ecosystem resilience.21. Connectivity of ecosystems in British Columbia is being lost and, among other impacts, this willlimit the ability of species to shift their distributions in response to climate change.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaCapacity and Knowledgephoto: chris darling.There is a substantial and ever-growing body of knowledge about biodiversity in British Columbia, which includesscientific publications, species checklists, computer databases and individual expertise. However, thereis also much that is not known. Capacity refers to the ability to fill the many knowledge gaps and integrate newand existing information.Thousands, if not tens of thousands, of species in B.C. have not been scientifically described or are notdocumented as being present in the province. Species groups for which such information is particularly lackinginclude most of the invertebrates and non-vascular plants. This taxonomic knowledge gap is currentlybeing exacerbated by an ‘extinction of experience’ as the scientists with the knowledge, skills and inclinationto do the work required to fill the gaps are retiring and often are not being replaced.The majority of species in B.C. have not been assessed for their conservation status and the global ranks formany species that have been assessed are out of date. The ecology of most species and the distributions of all buta very few are poorly understood. Coarse-scale ecosystem classifications are complete in B.C., but informationat a finer ecosystem scale is incomplete, as is ecosystem information from neighbouring jurisdictions. Trendmonitoring is extremely limited and data on distribution and population size are lacking for many species.Information about impacts on biodiversity is generally incomplete or out of date.major findings:22. Gaps in our knowledge of biodiversity in British Columbia create major challenges for effectiveconservation action.23. The capacity to address some of the gaps in our knowledge of biodiversity in British Columbiais being impacted by the loss of already limited taxonomic expertise.ConclusionAll life is part of biodiversity and each living thing depends on a multitude of species, ecosystems and ecologicalprocesses for its existence. Throughout the province there is compelling scientific evidence that biodiversityis being significantly altered by individual and cumulative stresses resulting from human activities. Climatechange is an overriding impact that is already taking a toll on B.C.’s biodiversity and is expected to becomean increasingly significant threat.

executive the status summary of biodiversity in british columbiaITrend data for B.C. show that declines in biodiversity are occurring at the genetic, species and ecosystemlevels, critical ecosystem processes are being impacted and key and special elements of biodiversity are beinglost. Meanwhile, major gaps in our knowledge of the province’s biodiversity hinder our ability to understandand respond to this situation.British Columbia’s biodiversity is globally significant because of its variety and integrity,but without immediate action, it is vulnerable to rapid deterioration, especially in light ofclimate change.

IItaking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaAcknowledgementsAssessing the status of ‘life in all its forms’ for an entire province is no simple task. It was made possible onlyby the enormous contributions of time, expertise and hard work by the dozens of people who participated asscientific experts, reviewers, consultants and committee members. Biodiversity BC would like to thank the followingpeople for their assistance in making Taking Nature’s Pulse: The Status of Biodiversity in British Columbiaa reality and ensuring that it is as accurate and comprehensive as possible.The Biodiversity BC secretariat supports the work of the Steering Committee and the Technical Subcommitteeand provides ongoing strategic advice. The secretariat consists of Stuart Gale, executive director, andJanet Fontaine, coordinator.Taking Nature’s Pulse was prepared by Biodiversity BC’s Technical Subcommittee, with writing and editing supportfrom Ann Eriksson, Alison Leslie, David Greer and Frances Backhouse. The Technical Subcommittee consists of:• Matt Austin, B.C. Ministry of Environment;• Dan Buffett, Ducks Unlimited Canada;• Dave Nicolson, Nature Conservancy of Canada;• Geoff Scudder, The Nature Trust of British Columbia; and• Victoria (Tory) Stevens, B.C. Ministry of Environment.The Biodiversity BC Steering Committee provided direction and support to the Technical Subcommittee forthe development of Taking Nature’s Pulse. Steering Committee members reviewed the component reports thatcontributed to the development of the status report and reviewed all drafts of the status report. Since 2005,members of the Biodiversity BC Steering Committee have included:• Marian Adair, Daryll Hebert, Geoff Scudder, Jim Walker (The Nature Trust of British Columbia);• Pia Archibald, Matt Austin, Tory Stevens (B.C. Ministry of Environment);• Tamsin Baker, Bob Peart (The Land Conservancy of British Columbia);• Dan Buffett, Bruce Harrison (Ducks Unlimited Canada);• Kristy Ciruna, Andrew Harcombe, Pierre Iachetti, Dave Nicolson (Nature Conservancy of Canada);• Dianna Colnett, Heather Wornell (Metro Vancouver representing The Union of B.C. Municipalities);

IVtaking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaIn addition to the members of the TSC, the following people participated in science workshops and/or reviewedbackground reports and drafts of Taking Nature’s Pulse: aOctober 2005 Conceptual Framework Workshop: Jacky Booth (Consultant), Fred Bunnell (UBC, Emeritus),Michael Dunn (EC), John Harper (Coastal and Ocean Resources Inc.), Dave Huggard (Consultant), Glen Jamieson(DFO), Ken Lertzman (SFU), Eric Parkinson (MoE), Ian Perry (DFO), Tony Pitcher (UBC), Jason Smith (SFU),Art Tautz ( MoE), Amanda Vincent (UBC), Bill Wareham (DSF). Reed Noss (University of Central Florida) wasunable to attend, but provided a review.October 2005 Terrestrial Workshop: Carmen Cadrin (MoE), Brian Klinkenberg (UBC), Ken Lertzman (SFU),Andy MacKinnon (MoFR), Del Meidinger (MoFR), Marlow Pellatt (PC), Jim Walker (TNT).November 2005 Freshwater Workshop: Doug Biffard (MoE), Ted Down (MoE), Malcolm Gray (ILMB),Richard Hebda (UVic/RBCM), Blair Holtby (DFO), Craig Mount (MoE), Eric Parkinson (MoE), Sue Pollard (MoE),Art Tautz (MoE), Dave Tredger (MoE).November 2005 Marine Workshop: Jackie Alder (UBC), Jamie Alley (MoE), Kimberly Anthony (EC), Jeff Ardron(Consultant/ Pacific Marine Analysis and Research Association), Natalie Ban (UBC), Jacky Booth (Consultant),Cathryn Clarke (DFO), Chris Close (UBC), Ken Cripps (Coastal First Nations – Turning Point Initiative),Steve Diggon (DFO), Melody Farrell (DFO), Larry Greba (Coastal First Nations – Turning Point Initiative),Edward Gregr (UBC), Joy Hillier (DFO), Doug Hrynyk (PC), Sabine Jessen (CPAWS), Greg Kapala (LOS),Greg Kehm (Ecotrust Canada), Jamie Kenyon (EC), Jennifer Lash (LOS), Greg MacMillan (PC), Murray Manson(DFO), Jack Mathias (DFO), Krista Munro (LOS), Joe Truscott (MoE), Tony Turner (NRCAN), Scott Wallace (Consultant),Bruce Ward (MoE), Bill Wareham (DSF), Louisa Wood (UBC), Mark Zacharias (ILMB).February 2006 Science Workshop: Peter Arcese (UBC), Fred Bunnell (UBC, Emeritus), Don Eastman (UVic,Retired), Jim Irvine (DFO), Phil Lee (PC), Del Meidinger (MoFR), Eric Parkinson (MoE), Ian Perry (DFO),Art Tautz (MoE).April 2007 Ecosystem Status Workshop: Carmen Cadrin (MoE), Dave Clark (MoE), Dennis Demarchi (Consultant),Andrew Harcombe (NCC), Will MacKenzie (MoFR), Eric Parkinson (MoE), Art Tautz (MoE), Adrian Walton(MoFR).aAffiliations: CPAWS=Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society; DFO=Fisheries and Oceans Canada; DSF=David Suzuki Foundation;EC=Environment Canada; FPB=Forest Practices Board; HCTF=Habitat Conservation Trust Foundation; ILMB=Integrated Land ManagementBureau (B.C. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands); LOS=Living Oceans Society; MoE=B.C. Ministry of Environment; MoFR=B.C. Ministry ofForests and Range; NCC=Nature Conservancy of Canada; NRCAN=Natural Resources Canada; OGC=Oil and Gas Commission; PC=ParksCanada; PCIC= Pacific Climate Impacts Consortium; PSF=Pacific Salmon Foundation; RBCM=Royal British Columbia Museum; SFU=SimonFraser University; TLC=The Land Conservancy of British Columbia; TNT=The Nature Trust of British Columbia; UBC=University of BritishColumbia; UVic=University of Victoria; WCWC= Western Canada Wilderness Committee.

acknowledgementsthe status of biodiversity in british columbiaVJune 5, 2007 Science Workshop: Martin Carver (MoE), Shane Ford (MoE), Gerry Fox (OGC), Bruce Fraser (FPB),Laura Friis (MoE), Linda Gilkeson (MoE), Stewart Guy (MoE), Ted Lea (MoE), Kaaren Lewis (MoE), Eric Lofroth(MoE), Remi Odense (MoE), Sue Pollard (MoE), James Quayle (MoE), David Tesch (MoE), Richard Thompson (MoE),Mark Zacharias (ILMB). Carmen Cadrin (MoE) was unable to attend, but provided a review.June 12, 2007 Science Workshop: Peter Arcese (UBC), Doug Biffard (MoE), Fred Bunnell (UBC, Emeritus),Ted Down (MoE), Don Eastman (UVic, Retired), Andrew Harcombe (NCC), Trish Hayes (EC), Richard Hebda(UVic/RBCM), Kim Hyatt (DFO), Phil Lee (PC), Kathy Martin (UBC), Don McPhail (UBC, Emeritus),Eric Parkinson (MoE), John Richardson (UBC), Risa Smith (EC), Art Tautz (MoE), Eric Taylor (UBC).August 2007 Aquatic Essential Ecosystem Characteristics Workshop: Doug Biffard (MoE), Tom Johnston (MoE),Richard Hebda (UVic/RBCM), Kim Hyatt (DFO).August 2007 Terrestrial Essential Ecosystem Characteristics Workshop: Peter Arcese (UBC), Richard Hebda(UVic/RBCM).December 2007 Major Findings Science Workshop: Peter Arcese (UBC), Don Eastman (UVic, Retired),Andrew Harcombe (NCC), Richard Hebda (UVic/RBCM), Kim Hyatt (DFO), Andy MacKinnon (MoFR),Don McPhail (UBC, Emeritus), James Quayle (MoE), Eric Taylor (UBC).January 2008 Major Findings and Objectives Science Workshop: Rachel Holt (Consultant), Susan Pinkus(Ecojustice), John Reynolds (SFU), Risa Smith (EC), Eric Taylor (UBC).February 2008 Major Findings and Objectives Science Workshop: Doug Biffard (MoE), Carmen Cadrin (MoE),Martin Carver (MoE), Don Eastman (UVic, Retired), Gerry Fox (OGC), Andrew Harcombe (NCC), Richard Hebda(UVic/RBCM), Kim Hyatt (DFO), Don McPhail (UBC, Emeritus), Trevor Murdock (PCIC), James Quayle (MoE),David Tesch (MoE).Safety Net Gap Analysis Survey (February 2007): Marian Adair (TNT), Peter Arcese (UBC), Doug Biffard(MoE), Ken Brock (EC), Carmen Cadrin (MoE), Ted Down (MoE), Dave Fraser (MoE), Laura Friis (MoE),Andrew Harcombe (NCC), Richard Hebda (UVic/RBCM), Glen Jamieson (DFO), Chris Johnson (University ofNorthern British Columbia), Alan Kenny (PSF), Jan Kirkby (EC), Ted Lea (MoE), Don McPhail (UBC, Emeritus),Eric Parkinson (MoE), Marlow Pellatt (PC), Chris Ritchie (MoE), Val Schaefer (UVic), Risa Smith (EC), Liz Stanlake(HCTF). Participating TSC members: Dan Buffett, Matt Austin, Tory Stevens.Peer Reviewers – Component Reports: Doug Biffard (MoE), Carmen Cadrin (MoE), Glyn Fox (MoE), Jenny Fraser(MoE), Richard Hebda (UVic/RBCM), Crawford S. Hollings (University of Florida), Angela Kingerlee (MoE),

VItaking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaTed Lea (MoE), Ken Lertzman (SFU), Andy MacKinnon (MoFR), Don McPhail (UBC, Emeritus), Dave Nagorsen(Consultant), Gordon Orians (University of Washington, Emeritus), Ian Perry (DFO), John Reynolds (SFU),John Richardson (UBC).Peer Reviewers a – October 2007 Draft Status of Biodiversity Report: Marilyn Anions (NatureServe Canada),Peter Arcese (UBC), Doug Biffard (MoE), Andre Breault (EC), Fred Bunnell (UBC, Emeritus), Rob Butler (EC),Carmen Cadrin (MoE), Martin Carver (MoE), Orville Dyer (MoE), Don Eastman (UVic, Retired), Wendy Easton(EC), Bob Elner (EC), Laura Friis (MoE), Stewart Guy (MoE), Andrew Harcombe (NCC), Trish Hayes (EC),Richard Hebda (UVic/RBCM), Ole Hendrickson (EC), Rachel Holt (Consultant), Jim Irvine (DFO), Tom Johnston(MoE), Elsie Krebs (EC), Ted Lea (MoE), Ken Lertzman (SFU), Eric Lofroth (MoE), Don McPhail (UBC, Emeritus),Trevor Murdock (PCIC), Reed Noss (University of Central Florida), Ian Perry (DFO), Susan Pinkus (Ecojusticeand on behalf of DSF, ForestEthics, Sierra Club of Canada [BC Chapter] and WCWC), Sue Pollard (MoE),Hugh Possingham (University of Queensland), James Quayle (MoE), John Reynolds (SFU), Carmen Revenga(The Nature Conservancy – Worldwide Office), Art Tautz (MoE), Eric Taylor (UBC), Richard Thompson (MoE),Ken Vance Borland (Conservation Planning Institute), Jim Walker (TNT), Leanna Warman (UBC).Peer Reviewers b – February 2008 Final Draft Status of Biodiversity Report: Candace Batycki (ForestEthics),Shannon Berch (MoFR), Fred Bunnell (UBC, Emeritus), Don Eastman (UVic, Retired), Deepa Filatow (MoE),Dave Fraser (MoE), Andrew Harcombe (NCC), Richard Hebda (UVic/RBCM), Don McPhail (UBC, Emeritus),Susan Pinkus (Ecojustice and on behalf of DSF, ForestEthics, Sierra Club of Canada [BC Chapter] and WCWC),Jim Pojar (Consultant), Eric Taylor (UBC).We thank you all.Biodiversity BC Steering Committee, Technical Subcommittee.biodiversity bc partner groups: The Nature Trust of British Columbia, B.C. Ministry of Environment,B.C. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Ducks Unlimited Canada, Nature Conservancy of Canada, EnvironmentCanada, Habitat Conservation Trust Foundation, Metro Vancouver (representing the Union of British ColumbiaMunicipalities), The Land Conservancy of British Columbia, Pacific Salmon Foundation, Canadian Parks andWilderness Society (representing environmental non-governmental organizations).a,bScience experts outside of the Biodiversity Steering Committee.

about the status this report of biodiversity in british columbiaVIIAbout This ReportCreation of the Status ReportIn 2005, Biodiversity BC (a partnership of governments and non-government conservation organizations) wasgiven the mandate to develop and facilitate the implementation of a science-based biodiversity strategy forBritish Columbia. A number of reports have been developed to support this process (see below). This report,Taking Nature’s Pulse: The Status of Biodiversity in British Columbia, summarizes the current scientific knowledgeabout the state of biodiversity and threats to biodiversity in British Columbia, derived from the best availablescientific data and expert opinion.Taking Nature’s Pulse is the result of two years of consultation by Biodiversity BC with more than 100 scientistsand other experts. Between fall 2005 and spring 2006, a series of expert workshops was held to gatherinput on approaches to developing a biodiversity strategy, including the preparation of a science-based statusreport. In February 2006, the Technical Subcommittee (TSC) of Biodiversity BC was formed to coordinate thedevelopment of a status report. Members of the TSC include scientists and technical practitioners from partnerorganizations, including the B.C. Ministry of Environment, Ducks Unlimited Canada, Nature Conservancyof Canada and The Nature Trust of British Columbia.A related document – Ecological Concepts, Principles and Applications to Conservation – was commissionedby Biodiversity BC in 2006 to provide the broad context for the development of the status report. Other supportingscientific and technical reports were commissioned from experts in the field (see Acknowledgements) andhave been reviewed by members of Biodiversity BC, as well as external peer reviewers. These reports cover:The range of the Pacific chorus frog(Pseudacris regilla) extends fromsouthern B.C. to Mexico.photo: neil k. dawe.• First Nations and Biodiversity• Geologic History• Ecosystem Status• Species Status

VIIItaking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaFRESHWATERRIPARIAN-WETLANDSALTWATERWEDGEESTUARINETERRESTRIALINTERTIDAL• Species Richness• Stewardship Responsibility• Jurisdictional and Marine Realm Overlap• Genetic Diversity• Key and Special Elements• Major Impacts• Safety Net Gap Analysis• Climate ChangeMARINEfigure 1: Spatial overlap of theterrestrial, freshwater and marinerealms. Shading indicates thescope of this report.sources: Fraser, D.F., A. Banner andA. Harcombe. 1995. A Framework forEcological Classification in BritishColumbia. Resource Inventory Committee,Victoria, BC. Unpublished report. 27pp.;and Mackenzie, W.H. and J.R. Moran. 2004.Wetlands of B.C.: A Guide to Identification.Land Management Handbook 5. B.C.Ministry of Forests, Research Branch,Victoria, BC. 297pp. Available at: www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Lmh/Lmh52.htmBased on scientific information, Taking Nature’s Pulse is intended to guide government and non-governmentorganizations and citizens in taking action to conserve biodiversity. It provides a synthesis and overview of thefindings contained in a wide variety of reports on the status of biodiversity in British Columbia and elsewhere.Detailed methods and data supporting the development of the status report are provided in the backgroundreports. For those wishing more in-depth information, these reports are available on the Biodiversity BC website(www.biodiversitybc.org). Also available on the website is The Biodiversity Atlas of British Columbia (the Atlas),a companion document to Taking Nature’s Pulse. The Atlas was developed to provide a map-based, provincewideoverview of a range of biodiversity components, as well as threats affecting biodiversity at the ecosystemand species level. aTaking Nature’s Pulse considers threats to biodiversity due to human impacts following European contact.It addresses the status of the full range of terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity in the province, as well as theoverlap between the marine realm and both the freshwater and terrestrial realms, as shown in Figure 1. The fullrange of marine biodiversity is not addressed in this report, as the assessment of the marine realm was identifiedto be within the mandate of Fisheries and Oceans Canada. b Species that are solely marine, such as whalesand marine phytoplankton, are not included.Although there are currently a wide variety of conservation tools and measures in place to conserve biodiversityin B.C., Taking Nature’s Pulse does not attempt to provide an assessment of these. Its purpose is to describe thecurrent condition of biodiversity and related threats from human activity. An assessment of the extent to whichmanagement tools have proven to be effective in maintaining biodiversity is something that can better be donein the context of determining future priorities and actions for biodiversity conservation.aIn collaboration with many partners, Biodiversity BC has led the development of Hectares BC (www.hectaresbc.org), a web applicationthat allows users to access, and do analyses on, map-based information relevant to biodiversity conservation.bSee Pacific Ocean status reports at: www.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/SCI/psarc/OSRs/Ocean_SSR_e.htm.

about the status this report of biodiversity in british columbiaIExamples of current conservation tools in British Columbia include protected areas, which cover more than14% of the province; conservation areas, including Wildlife Management Areas, Wildlife Habitat Areas and OldGrowth Management Areas; land management guidelines and regulations; private land conservation; and strategicland use plans, which include land use designations and resource management objectives. Governments,industry, conservation organizations and the public all participate in implementing these measures.How to Read the Status ReportThe Status Report is organized into four sections:• Section 1: A Primer on Biodiversity provides definitions and context for the discussionof biodiversity in British Columbia. It addresses three key questions: What is biodiversity? Why isbiodiversity important? What are the elements that characterize B.C.’s biodiversity?• Section 2: British Columbia’s Natural Legacy is the core of the report, summarizing the currentstatus of ecosystems, species and genetic diversity and key and special elements. It identifiesareas of overlap with the marine environment and with other jurisdictions.• Section 3: Threats to Biodiversity in British Columbia examines the factors that are currentlydriving the loss of biodiversity in British Columbia.• Section 4: Major Findings represents a synthesis of the assessment presented in Sections 2 and 3and serves as the foundation for the development and implementation of priorities and actions.References are cited by number (e.g., 3 ) and provided in order at the end of the document. Footnotes areindicated by letter (e.g., a ) and provided at the bottom of the relevant page. All glossary terms are highlighted ingreen when first used in the body of the text and defined in the glossary, which begins after Section 4. Scientificnames are given only with the first mention of a species within the body of the text.There are two types of maps in this report: full-page provincial maps taken from the Atlas, and smaller mapsfrom a variety of sources. The smaller maps are considered figures and are numbered sequentially as part of thelist of figures in the table of contents. The full-page Atlas maps are listed separately in the table of contents.For the Atlas maps that illustrate analyses, the analysis units are the result of an overlay of biogeoclimaticzones/subzones/variants, ecosections and third-order watersheds. There are 72,335 analysis units in the province,ranging in size from 1 to 1,530 ha.Tchaikazan River in southwestern B.C.photo: moira lemon.One of two varieties of satin flower(Olsynium douglasii) that occur in B.C.photo: liz williams.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaunderstanding the status report mapsMost of the full-page maps consist of a main map and a smaller, inset map, which present the same datain two different ways.The main map uses ten percentile classes, each of which generally incorporates the same number ofanalysis units. a In effect, one-tenth of the analysis units are in each percentile class no matter what rangeof values that represents. For example, if an analysis unit has a road density that is greater than or equalto 60% of the other analysis units, it is in the 60th percentile.The inset maps mostly use an equal-interval approach, in which the data are divided into 10 equallyspaced classes, where each class may contain a different number of analysis units. For example, theroad density values range from 0 to 22.1 km/km 2 , so the first class contains all analysis units with a valuebetween 0 and 2.21 km/km 2 , the second class contains all analysis units with a value between 2.22 and4.42 km/km 2 , etc.These two cartographic approaches for presenting data were used to meet three sometimesconflicting goals: following consistent mapping methods; allowing for comparisons between maps;and accurately representing the distribution of data values, while showing spatial variation within B.C.aThe exception to each percentile class having the same number of analysis units occurs when there is a tie between the values fora particular measure in two or more analysis units; for example, when a large number of units have a value of 0 for a given measure.

I , II II VIIntroductionBritish Columbia is an exceptional place, known worldwide for its spectacular landscapes and remarkablewildlife. The province’s mountainous topography, glacial history and ocean-influenced climate havefostered a wide diversity of ecosystems and an incredible abundance of life. Of all the Canadian provincesand territories, B.C. is home to the richest diversity of vascular plants, mosses, mammals, butterflies and breedingbirds, and the largest number of species of reptiles, tiger beetles (Cicindela spp.) and amphibians found only in oneprovince or territory. 1 Some species – such as the Vancouver Island marmot (Marmota vancouverensis), Macoun’smeadowfoam (Limnanthes macounii) and at least eight south Okanagan insect species – live nowhere else in theworld. Others, like the mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) 2 and mountain caribou (Rangifer tarandus cariboumountain ecotype), 3 have a majority of their population in B.C. Several sticklebacks (Gasterosteus spp.) that arefound only in a few small B.C. lakes are considered scientific treasures because of the genetic insights they offer. 4Examples of important biological diversity or biodiversity also abound at the ecosystem level. For instance, theprovince shares the world’s only inland temperate rainforest with Idaho, Montana and Washington, a and, alongwith Alaska, is home to most of the remaining intact coastal temperate rainforest.Human activities are altering the landscape of B.C. in ways that compromise components of theprovince’s biodiversity. An increasingly large proportion of the province is roaded (Map 1) and the human populationhas grown to over four million, with 80% concentrated in urban centres in the lower mainland, on Vancouver Islandand in the interior near Kamloops and Kelowna; by 2031, B.C.’s population is expected to reach close to six million(see Sec. 3.3.4, p. 196). Urbanization has replaced large areas of low-elevation natural ecosystems with impervioussurfaces such as concrete and pavement, and agriculture has converted biologically diverse forests, wetlandsArrowleaf balsamroot(Balsamorhiza sagittata) nearGun Creek in the southernChilcotin region.photo: moira lemon.a Depending on how the inland temperate rainforest is defined, the entire global range of this ecosystem may be contained within B.C.(see Section 2.5.2.2-A, p. 141).

t130°W 120°W110°W60°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e s60°NM A P 1Roads or other lineardevelopment features*present above andbelow 1,000mLegendB r i t i s hC o l u m b i aFort St. JohnA l b e r t a!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLakePresence/AbsenceRoads PresentBelow 1000mRoads PresentAbove 1000mNo Roads PresentBelow 1000mNo Roads PresentAbove 1000m55°N55°NPrince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of DetailCalgary0 100 200Kilometres50°NP a c i f i cO c e a nKamloopsKelowna50°NData sources:TRIM-EBM, Digital Road Atlas,Oil and Gas CommissionMap by:Caslys Consulting LtdVancouverIslandVancouverProjection:BC Albers NAD83Produced for:VictoriaU N I T E D S T A T E S*Other linear development features include: transmission lines; railways; seismic lines; and pipelines.June 11, 2008130°W120°W

introductionand grasslands to pasture and crops. Resource extraction places a variety of pressures on biodiversity, particularlythrough ecosystem conversion and ecosystem degradation, environmental contamination and speciesdisturbance, while other human activities impact biodiversity through direct species mortality and introductionof alien species. Recently, changes in climate as the result of human activities have begun to affect biodiversityin the province in unprecedented and often unpredictable ways.Nevertheless, British Columbia still has wild places and is considered to be globally important to the conservationof many species and ecosystems. Its rugged terrain and short industrial history, which began with thearrival of European explorers 200 years ago, have limited human activity in much of the province. As a result,sensitive species and ecosystems that have been lost elsewhere are still found in B.C.Biodiversity, however, is more than just the sum of its parts. 5 Species and ecosystems are connected throughnumerous natural processes. All elements of biodiversity, regardless of whether we understand their roles orknow their status, play a role in maintaining functioning, evolving, resilient ecosystems. Maintaining the integrity,evolutionary potential and resilience of our natural systems will facilitate their ability to adapt, particularlyin the face of rapid climate change.Biodiversity supplies a host of benefits and services that are essential to the well-being of humans andnon-humans alike. This natural capital, which depends on maintaining native species and ecosystems and thefunctions they perform, supports the high quality of life British Columbians have come to enjoy.The mountainous terrain of B.C. has limited human habitationand development – indicated in Map 1 by the presence of roads andother linear development features such as power lines – in muchof the province. Roads or other linear features are present in 79%of the analysis units below 1,000 m in elevation and in 43%of the analysis units above 1,000 m. aaSee “About This Report” (p. XXVII) for an explanation of analysis units. For details of methods,see The Biodiversity Atlas of British Columbia, available at: www.biodiversitybc.org.

1 a primer on Biodiversity: Its Importanceand History in British Columbia1.1 What Is Biodiversity?In the 1980s, the eminent biologist Edward O. Wilson coined the term ‘biodiversity’ as a shorthand forbiological diversity. a Biodiversity describes the diversity of all living creatures and their interactions. It isthis complex web that sustains life on this planet. From among many possible definitions, Biodiversity BCuses that of the Canadian Biodiversity Strategy: the variety of species and ecosystems on earth and the ecologicalprocesses of which they are a part – including ecosystem, species and genetic diversity components. 6,7The interaction of species, ecosystems and processes is dynamic and links multiple scales (from centimetresand days to hundreds of kilometres and millennia) that collectively shape biodiversity. 8 In a forest, for example,interactions across the range of scales include: physiological processes that affect the life cycle of leaves; competitionbetween neighbouring plant species that affects populations; disturbance and predation processes; andclimatic processes that influence the physical and biological character of landscapes and regions.Ecosystems are complex, dynamic and adaptive systems that are rarely at equilibrium. However, the morean ecosystem maintains its integrity, the more resilient it is and the better it can withstand shocks and rebuilditself without changing to a different state. As ecological functions are impaired and systems simplified, resilienceis reduced, making such ecosystems more vulnerable to biophysical or human-caused events that theywould otherwise tolerate. 9 Maintaining ecological processes promotes ecological resilience and helps ensurethe continued functioning of dynamic, natural ecosystems. 10aThe first published use of ‘biodiversity’ was in 1988, in the title of the proceedings of the first U.S. national conference on thesubject, edited by Wilson (Biodiversity, National Academy Press, 1988).

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiafigure 2:Conceptualpyramid of levelsof organizationof biodiversity.illustration:I. Houde.ECOSYSTEMSSPECIESGENES1.1.1 genetic, species and ecosystem diversityComplex concepts such as biodiversity are often easier to grasp if reduced to their component pieces. Whilethis approach does not give a complete picture of how these pieces interact and combine to create biodiversity,it helps us understand different aspects of biodiversity. The various levels of organization within biodiversity(e.g., genes, species and ecosystems) express different features of the complexity and value of biodiversity andinteract with each other through ecological processes. Genes make up species, and species (linked by ecologicalprocesses) inhabit ecosystems (Figure 2), with smaller ecosystems nested within larger ones. Ecosystems varyenormously in size. 11 They may be as tiny as a drop of pond water or a glacial rivulet, or as vast as the StikineRiver watershed, the northwest Pacific coast or the whole planet.genesGenes are the working units of heredity; each gene is a segment of the DNA molecule that encodes a singleenzyme or structural protein unit. Genetic diversity is the foundation of all biodiversity.. Genetic variationpermits populations to adapt to changing environments and continue to participate in life’s processes. Studyof subspecies and populations can reveal how organisms respond to their environment, which may not beevident when looking only at the species level. Genetic diversity is continuously changing from generation togeneration as a result of natural selection and random effects such as mutation.In the long history of life on earth, genetic variants of many species have evolved, and are still evolving,in response to changing local environmental conditions. For example, the current, highly productive runsin the Bristol Bay sockeye salmon (Oncohynchus nerka) fishery in Alaska originated from low-producingruns that responded to mid 1990s climate changes. 12 Figure 3 illustrates how genetic variations influencethe fur colour of the American black bear (Ursus americanus), which occurs as different colourmorphs (see also Section 2.4.1.2, p. 75).speciesSpecies (and their subspecies and populations) are generally considered to be the only selfreplicatingunits of genetic diversity that can function as independent units. In the case ofmost living organisms, each species generally represents a complete, self-generating,unique ensemble of genetic variation, capable of interbreeding and producing fertileoffspring. Some animals 13 and many plants 14 can also exchange genes throughhybridization, which sometimes results in new species (see Section 2.4.1.4, p. 82).

a primer on biodiversityIan McAllisterIn addition to the millions of species that biologists have already documented worldwide (ranging frommicroscopic viruses and bacteria to large mammals), many millions more have yet to be identified and categorized.When species become extinct, diversity is lost at both the species and genetic levels and cannot be recovered.Species, like genes, do not exist in isolation. They interact with other organisms in groupings called communities.Retaining all member species helps maintain community resilience.ecosystemsAn ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities and non-living (abiotic)elements, all interacting as a functional unit. An ecosystem’s character changes as community members andphysical contexts change, sometimes crossing a threshold of tolerance within the system that results in its inabilityto return to its previous form. For example, severe winter temperatures regulate the survival of mountain pinebeetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) larvae. 15 Without this controlling mechanism, the increase in larval survivalover a period of years can result in a major shift in the character of interior pine forest ecosystems. Text box 16(p. 105) describes the impact of the current mountain pine beetle epidemic on B.C. forest ecosystems.1.1.2 composition, structure and functionFrank LeungBesides being examined at the various levels of organization, biodiversity can also be described in termsof attributes such as composition, structure and function.David Huchinsonfigure 3: Colour morphs ofthe American black bear (Ursusamericanus). Sustaining a species overits entire range helps to maintain itsgenetic variation. Within black bears,part of that variability is evident indifferent colour morphs, such as therare white coastal morph (known asthe Kermode or spirit bear), the moreinland cinnamon morph, and thecommon, widespread black morph.There also is a bluish morph, knownas the glacier bear, in the extremenorthwest of the province.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiamossbutterflySteller’s jaybroadleaf treesburned areasmature forestfigure 4: Patch size requirements varyby species. Members of different species usespace differently and have varying abilitiesto traverse compatible and hostile patches,and to avoid isolation.source: Adapted from original by F. Bunnelland I. Houde, University of British Columbia.illustration: Soren Henrich.all forest areaswildlife trees / fallen logsgrass / shrubs / riparian areasbearwoodpeckerlichenbird’s nest

a primer on biodiversityComposition is the identity and variety of an ecological system. Descriptors of composition are typicallylists of the species resident in an area or an ecosystem. Measures of composition, such as species richness anddiversity of species, can help demonstrate how biodiversity in an area is faring.Structure is the physical organization or pattern of a system; for example, the size and spacing of treesin a landscape. Measures of structure, which often describe the habitat of species, reveal arrangements andpatterns in both living and non-living components of the environment. These necessarily span a wide rangeof scales and patch sizes to encompass the natural range of life forms and the ways they respond to theenvironment (Figure 4) and include the mosaic pattern of communities across landscapes.Function refers to the result of ecological and evolutionary processes. Examples of function include gene flow(resulting from processes such as dispersal and reproduction) and nutrient cycling (resulting from processessuch as photosynthesis and decomposition). Measures of a function must be designed specifically for thatfunction, and perhaps for each of its component processes. For some of the most critical functions, includingwater purification, nutrient cycling and pollination, scientists know only a fraction of the species and processesinvolved – and not necessarily the most important ones.These three biodiversity attributes are inseparable. Composition changes as structure changes; functionsand processes change as composition changes. Changes in structure can influence processes such as herbivoryand predation, and these processes can change species composition. Changes in composition, such as relativeabundance of certain species, can alter structure, leading to further changes in composition. For example,when large predators are lost, populations of large browsers and grazers may increase to the point that certainvegetation elements are eradicated, thereby eliminating other species dependent on that vegetation. The lossof wolves (Canis spp.) and cougars (Puma concolor) in the eastern United States and the subsequent increasein deer (Odocoileus spp.) populations have locally eliminated many ground- and shrub-nesting birds and couldlead to the demise of local hardwoods (e.g., oak [Quercus spp.] and American beech [Fagus grandifolia]). 16,17,18On Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands, where cougars and wolves do not naturally occur, high numbers ofintroduced Sitka black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis) have had a severe impact on western redcedar(Thuja plicata), have browsed Sitka spruce seedlings (Picea sitchensis) to the point that moss sometimesgrows faster than the seedlings and have kept at least one plant species, western oxypolis (Oxypolis occidentalis),from flowering. 19

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia1.2 Why Is Biodiversity Important?Emily Carr, one of B.C.’s best-knownartists, drew inspiration from thenatural world for many of herpaintings. Emily Carr, Cedar, 1942,oil on canvas, 112.0 x 69.0 cm,collection of the Vancouver Art Gallery,Emily Carr Trust, vag 42.3.28.photo: trevor mills, vancouverart gallery.figure 5: Services derived frombiodiversity that support humanwell-being.source: Secretariat of the Conventionon Biological Diversity. 2006. GlobalBiodiversity Outlook 2. Montreal, PQ. 81pp.Available at: www.biodiv.org/gbo2/default.shtml.Biodiversity provides a long list of services critical to supporting life on earth (Figure 5). 20 Such ecosystem servicesdirectly and indirectly contribute economic value. Ten years ago, the global economic value of 17 ecosystemservices for 16 biomes was estimated to be in the range of $US16–54 trillion per year, with an average valueof US$33 trillion per year. a,21Biodiversity also provides diverse cultural services, such as opportunities for spiritual and religious experiences,education, recreation and an aesthetic connection with nature that is exemplified in many art forms. 22,23These cultural values have remained important even with increasing urbanization and are perhaps most obviousamong Aboriginal peoples whose connections to nature are well maintained. For example, western redcedarand yellow-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) are culturally important to coastal First Nations (see Text box2, p. 13). 24 Both species are also under increasing threat due to climate change. 25,26Many people believe that humans have a moral obligation to protect all life forms for their own sake, as wellas for their value to future generations. A world without the services provided by species and ecosystems isunimaginable. For example, if major groups of decomposer organisms were to fail, organic debris would simplyaccumulate, and nutrient cycling, plant growth and food production would come to a halt. Pollination offood plants by insects accounts for about one of every three mouthfuls of food eaten by humans. 27 While somespecies could disappear with little measurable impact, many of the species responsible for the critical ecosystemservices required for life and human well-being are unknown. Conserving biodiversity maintains optionsfor future generations.PROVISIONINGSERVICES (GOODS)Food, fibre & fuelGenetic resourcesBiochemicalsFresh waterHabitatCULTURAL SERVICESSpiritual valuesKnowledge systemsEducation & inspirationRecreation & aestheticvaluesecosystem ECOSYSTEM SERVICESservicesREGULATING SERVICESInvasion resistancePollinationSeed dispersalClimate regulationPest & disease regulationNatural hazard protectionErosion regulationWater purificationSUPPORTING SERVICESPrimary productionProvision of habitatNutrient cyclingSoil formation/retentionProduction ofatmospheric oxygenWater cyclinga To put this in context, the global gross national product was around US$18 trillion per year.

a primer on biodiversitytext box 1. the earth summit and the canadian biodiversity strategyIn 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 28 (UNCED ’92, commonlyknown as the Earth Summit) was convened in response to growing public concern about the lossof biodiversity. The summit led to several international agreements and treaties, including theConvention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The objectives of the CBD are:• conservation of biodiversity;• sustainable use of biological resources; and• fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.The Canadian Biodiversity Strategy is Canada’s response to the CBD. In 1996, federal, provincial andterritorial governments agreed to use the Canadian strategy as a guide to their actions and to implementit according to their own priorities and fiscal circumstances. 29 A number of provinces and territories havedeveloped biodiversity strategies and action plans, and others are in the process of developing them.1.3 Importance of Biodiversity for First Peoples of British ColumbiaFirst Nations in B.C. have relied on, and helped to sustain, biodiversity in their home territories for at least10,000 years. More than 30 linguistically distinct indigenous groups have resided here, often in dense populations,especially along the coast and the major river systems. Many of these peoples still live in communitieswithin their traditional territories. Although they have distinctive languages (Figure 6) and cultural traits, theyalso share many similarities in their cultural practices.1.3.1 traditional uses of biodiversityBiodiversity is important to traditional First Nations food systems, technology and medicine (Text box 2). Dietsbased on a combination of animal and plant foods (including salmon, other finfish, shellfish, marine and landmammals, game birds, birds’ eggs, berries and other fruits, green and root vegetables, mushrooms and the innerbark of trees) have nourished and sustained people for countless generations. 30,31,32,33 Plants and animals havealso provided a wide range of important material resources: wood for fuel, construction, canoes and implements;sheets of bark and fibrous materials for canoes, cordage, mats, basketry and clothing; pitch for waterproofing

TlingitTlingitHaidaHaidaTutchoneTutchoneTsimshianHeiltsukGeorgia Straits Region:A) ComoxB) SecheltC) SquamishD) HalkomelemE) Northern Straits SalishF) ClallamG) NooksackGeorgia Straits Region:A) ComoxB) SecheltC) SquamishD) HalkomelemE) Northern Straits SalishF) ClallamG) NooksackTagishTsimshianHeiltsukTagishPrince Rupert------------------TahltanInlandTlingítSekaniTahltanNat'ootenGitxsanHaislaNisga'aWet'suwet'enPrince RupertKwakwalaKwakwalaDitidahtNisga'aGitxsanSekaniHaislaOweekeno Tsilhqot'inWet'suwet'enNuxalkANuu-chah-nulthOweekenoNuu-chah-nulthDitidahtfigure 6: First Nationslanguages of BritishColumbia.InlandTlingítNuxalkFKaskaNat'ootenDakelhDakelhB Tsilhqot'inCFABKaskaStl'atl'imxVancouverDE GStl'atl'imxCVancouverDE GNlaka’pamuxNlaka’pamuxare approximate and subject to revision. NamesFirst Nationsused here are those which are preferred by FirstNations and have come into general acceptanceLanguages of Britishfor the languages concerned. They are alsosubject to revision. ColumbiaDunne-zaDene-thahDunne-za CreePrince GeorgeCreeSecwepemcPrince GeorgeKamloopsSecwepemcOkanaganFirst NationsLanguages of BritishColumbia taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaKamloopsOkanagan© 1994 UBC Museum of AnthropologyThis map is regularly revised. Latest revision October 15, 1996.No reproduction without permission.Boundaries on this map mark out areas withinwhich distinct languages are spoken. The areas© 1994 UBC Museum of AnthropologyThis map is regularly revised. Latest revision October 15, 1996.No reproduction without permission.Dene-thahBoundaries on this map mark out areas withinwhich distinct languages are spoken. The areasare approximate and subject to revision. Namesused here are those which are preferred by FirstNations and have come into general acceptancefor the languages concerned. They are alsosubject to revision.KalispellKalispellKtunaxaKtunaxasource: UBC Museumof Anthropology.notes: This map is regularly revised. Latest revision October 15, 1996.No reproduction without permission.Boundaries on this map mark out areas within which district languages arespoken. The areas are approximate and subject to revision. Names used hereare those which are preferred by First Nations and have come into generalacceptance for the languages concerned. They are also subject to revision.and glue; kelp for fishing line and containers; shells, bone and antler for knives,chisels and points; and a host of other substances for dyes, stains, waterproofing,cleansing and protective scents. 34 A host of medicines for maintaining healthand treating injuries and ailments of many kinds have been derived from plants,35, 36, 37as well as some animals and fungi.Plants, animals and fungi are also prominent in First Nations’ belief systems,art, songs and ceremonies. 38,39 Ceremonial species and those featured in art andnarrative are often the same ones that have practical applications. 40 The richnessof Northwest Coast First Peoples’ connections with biodiversity is reflectedperhaps most famously in their world-renowned art forms, which representanimals, birds, fish and other beings in totem poles, masks, dishes, jewellery,sculptures and paintings. 41,42,43 These designs represent key figures in the historiesof families, clans and individuals. Their immense power and compelling formsymbolize the depth of human reliance on biodiversity.Food species alone include at least 100 animal species and 150 plant speciesacross the different nations and regions of the province. Species used for materialor technology number at least 100, and medicinal species probably 300 or more.Altogether, about 400 to 500 species (some used for more than one purpose) arenamed and used or have specific cultural importance for B.C.’s First Peoples.Many others – including many attractive wildflowers that might not be namedindividually, but are nonetheless recognized and distinguished – have generalimportance. First Nations’ knowledge systems encompass immense expertiseabout the ecological and morphological characteristics of plants and animals.Many species serve as indicators of traditional seasonal rounds, with the floweringof certain plants, the songs of certain birds or the appearance of certain typesof butterflies or other insects marking seasonal changes or signalling the time forimportant harvest events. 44Some plants and animals are so important and well known that First Peoplesrecognized and named different varieties and strains. For example, the Gitga’atof Hartley Bay have names for at least six different varieties of Pacific crab apple

a primer on biodiversitytext box 2. culturally significant speciesCulturally significant species shape the cultural identity of a people in a major way. Their importanceis reflected in the fundamental roles they play in diet, materials, medicine and/or spiritual practices. 45Species that are culturally significant for First Peoples in British Columbia include:• Pacific salmon: Five species of Pacific salmon – chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), chum (O.keta), coho (O. kisutch), pink (O. gorbuscha) and sockeye – as well as steelhead (O. mykiss), are a keyeconomic, nutritional and cultural resource for First Nations in both coastal and interior B.C. Fresh,dried or smoked salmon, as well as salmon eggs and salmon oil, have been widely traded by FirstPeoples since pre-European times. More recently, salmon has formed the basis of a major commercialfishery and cannery industry that has supported many First Nations communities. First Peopleshave been important stewards of salmon populations and their habitats.• Eulachon (Thaleichthys pacificus): A small smelt also known as oolichan, oulachen or ooligan,spawns in early spring along the shores of rivers from the Fraser River to the Nass River. It has beena major source of a nutritious oil (commonly called ‘grease’), rendered from the fish caught afterspawning. Smoked and dried eulachon are also consumed. These products are still important intrade, although some eulachon runs have declined drastically in recent years. 46• Western redcedar: Known as a sacred tree, western redcedar is the cornerstone of Northwest CoastAboriginal culture. It is prized for its important and varied uses in material technology and ceremonialpurposes.• Edible red laver seaweed (Porphyra abbottiae): This marine alga is an important food source forAboriginal people in coastal areas. It is valued not only for its nutritional properties, but alsoas a gift or trade item and for its medicinal uses.• Wapato (Sagittaria latifolia var. latifolia): Also known as the Indian swamp potato by the Katzie andother Sto:lo peoples of B.C., wapato was a traditional staple root vegetable and valued as a tradeitem. The maintenance of wapato patches by particular families was an important part of FirstPeoples’ community structure, which was disrupted as wetlands in the Fraser River valley wereconverted to intensive agriculture, decreasing the amount of habitat suitable for growing wapato.• Bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva): The thick, fleshy taproot of bitterroot is an important food of theThompson people from Lytton to Ashcroft and eastwards. Bitterroot was an important trade itemand so valuable it was usually served only on special occasions. 47First Peoples of B.C. have many usesfor western redcedar (Thuja plicata),from clothing to longhouses. Picturedhere is Nani Florence collectingcedar bark.photo: robert d. turner.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatext box 3.first peoples’ stewardship of biodiversityCoastal strawberries (Fragariachiloensis), one of several wildstrawberry varieties found in B.C.photo: nancy turner.In many cases, First Peoples have maintained and enhanced plant and animal populations and productivityand increased habitat diversity through resource management strategies that yield a greater varietyand abundance of foods and materials than would be naturally available. 48 Early Europeans arriving invarious parts of B.C. were impressed by the tremendous richness of the fisheries, game populations, berriesand other traditional resources that were under First Nations stewardship. For example, when JamesDouglas arrived on southern Vancouver Island at the site near where he would build Fort Victoria, he wasstruck by the majestic, park-like appearance of the landscape, with its oak groves and extensive fields oflush clover (Trifolium spp.), common camas (Camassia quamash) and other flowering plants. 49,50While caring for and maintaining biodiversity was essential for First Peoples’ survival, they also sawit as part of their cultural responsibility. Fish, trees and other animals and plants were all regarded intraditional world views as generous relatives, willing to give themselves to humans within a reciprocalsystem that demanded proper care and respect in return. Children were raised in traditional indigenoussociety with the understanding that animals and plants had their own societies and possessed powersgiven to them by the Creator to influence human lives in positive or negative ways, dependingon whether the humans were worthy and behaved properly toward them. 51,52,53,54(Malus fusca) and the Nlaka’pmx (Thompson) and Stl’atl’imx (Lillooet) of the southern interior name and usefive or more varieties of Saskatoon (Amelanchier alnifolia). 55,56Biodiversity at the broader scale of community or ecosystem variation is also critically important to FirstNations. People routinely moved between ecosystems, from the ocean and valley bottoms to the high mountaintops,to gain access to a range of resources. Generally residing in permanent winter villages on the coast oralong rivers and lakeshores, they would, and still do, travel to different sites throughout their territories followingthe availability of various seasonal resources. They were also able to obtain resources from beyond their ownhomelands through trade and intermarriage with other groups. 57,58

a primer on biodiversity1 . 3 . 2 i m pac ts o f b i o d i v e r s i t y d e g r a d at i o n o n f i r s t pe o p l e sErosion of biodiversity in various parts of the province has severely impacted First Peoples and their traditionalfood systems. Declines and losses of traditional resources, from salmon and abalone to berries and root vegetables,are of great concern. Major changes to traditional food systems have occurred partly as a result of environmentaldeterioration, and this in turn has resulted in health problems and cultural loss in many communities. FirstPeoples’ lifeways have been directly and consistently impacted by declining populations of game, salmon andother fish, loss of forest cover and loss of access to their traditional land base. It is difficult to assess the extentof their loss in quantitative terms. Only a handful of the 400 to 500 species that were used directly have beenassessed as being of provincial conservation concern. Nevertheless, according to the testimony of many elderswho have witnessed tremendous change in B.C. landscapes over their lifetimes, most of these species are notas productive or as common as they once were. 591.4 Biodiversity and Geological HistoryGeologic history and landscape age play key roles in shaping the biodiversity of a region. In general, old, stablelandscapes support more species than young ones because there has been more time for variation to evolve.As well, geologically old regions often have had numerous geographic connections with sources of new lifeforms from other regions. Landscapes with complex geological histories also tend to have more habitats becausethe land surface is diverse.Exceptional events such as glaciation and harsh climates reduce biodiversity and eliminate ecosystems,yet also create isolated pockets of life in which new evolutionary directions are explored. 60 British Columbiahas experienced widespread glaciation and harsh climates in the past 15,000 years, a short duration ingeologic time. 61,62These fossil plants from the Eocene Epoch (about 50 million years ago) – elm (Ulmus spp.), ginkgo (Ginkgo spp.), dawnredwood (Metasequoia spp.) and sassafras (Sassafras spp.) – represent a wide-ranging flora that extended around thenorthern hemisphere in all continents. These species grew as part of warm-temperate to temperate forests of evergreen,deciduous and coniferous species under a climate many degrees Celsius warmer than today. Remnants of that biomenow occur mainly in the southeastern United States and in Southeast Asia. Elements such as dawn redwood, thoughonce extremely widespread, especially in B.C., persist today in only a few small populations. Ginkgo, once common,has never been collected in the wild, but survived in an Asian monastery garden. photos: ken o’neill.

a primer on biodiversityVegetation zones were displaced southward and to lower elevations (by 400–500 m). In the northwestern UnitedStates, mixed conifer forest alternated in time and space with open ecosystems, dominated by sagebrush(Artemisia spp.) and pines (Pinus spp.) in the interior. 69In B.C., extensive subalpine spruce (Picea spp.) and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) forests andparkland prevailed between about 48,000 and 30,000 years ago. 70,71 Wetlands seem to have occurred widely andrivers and lakes may have had relatively high sediment loads.Cold, dry glacial conditions developed across North America, from the north to the mid continent, about30,000 years ago and intensified to about 20,000 years ago. Steppe ecosystems, including elements of the widespreadmegafauna, such as woolly mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius), seem to have prevailed. 72,73 Currenthigh-elevation alpine species, such as Sitka valerian (Valeriana sitchensis) and American bistort (Polygonumbistortoides), 74 grew at sea level. 75 Large glaciers occupied major valleys and fed unstable stream and river systemsthat transported masses of sediment at their leading edges. A brief respite from these glacial conditionsoccurred 17,000 to 18,000 years ago when subalpine-like forest returned (at least in southwestern B.C.), beforethe next intense glaciation began about 15,000 year ago. 76 During that short interval, salmonids were found inunglaciated areas such as the Thompson Valley. 771.4.3 the glacial maximum: 17,000 to 14,000 years agoThe traditional view is that almost all of B.C. was ice-covered during this last glaciation and that B.C.’s terrestrialbiodiversity originated with the subsequent migration of species from the south, east and north. From thisperspective, B.C.’s biodiversity is a regional variation on evolutionary themes largely developed elsewhere. Toa considerable extent this is true. However, recent research, especially DNA studies, suggest that unglaciatedzones, or refugia, in B.C. were larger than previously thought and that elements of the province’s biodiversityhave a long pre-glacial history. 78The most widely recognized B.C. refugia are high-elevation sites and some adjacent slopes on Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands and the Brooks Peninsula on Vancouver Island. 79,80 In these areas, alpine and probablyhigh-elevation, cool oceanic ecosystems persisted, resulting in a unique set of plant species and subspecificlineages endemic to the region.DNA studies of mountain sorrel (Oxyria digyna), a globally widespread alpine plant, also suggest therewere ice-free zones for alpine species in northern B.C., possibly with connections to Beringia. 81 These studiesalso confirm the presence of refugia on the north coast. Although it is not known to what extent low-elevationWoolly mammoths (Mammuthusprimigenius) roamed widely in B.C.and adjacent regions in the latePleistocene Epoch, but went extinctwith the warming climate about 10,000years ago.photo: andrew niemann,royal british columbia museum.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiasites were included in the refugia, the studies indicate a potentially high level of genetic diversity and globallyunique biodiversity in the region.Despite the existence of refugia, a key feature of the last glacial interval is that B.C. had no extensive coniferforests as we know them today, though scattered coniferous trees (e.g., subalpine fir [Abies lasiocarpa] at highelevations in the south and lodgepole pine [Pinus contorta var. latifolia] along the coast) may have persisted. 82,83,84The province’s modern forest ecosystems developed during the past 14,000 years, as ice-age climates ended.In the nearshore marine environment, sea levels fluctuated widely for several thousand years and the presentdaycoastal marine zone was exposed to a depth of more than 100 m. Many now-isolated land masses, suchas Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands, were connected to the mainland, facilitating migrations. 851.4.4 end of the ice age: 14,000 to 10,000 years agoLandscape instability continued for at least 4,000 years as the glacial regime ended between 14,000 and 10,000years ago. During this interval of widespread climatic and ecological adjustment, extensive migrations tookplace throughout the region and forest ecosystems began to re-form. 86Three broad migration patterns were superimposed over the unique alpine and coastal ecosystems that hadsurvived glaciation in B.C. In the north, elements of the Beringian steppe-tundra landscape spread southward.From the south, migration occurred on two fronts: one along the coastal zone, largely involving coastal temperaterainforest species; and one east of the Coast-Cascades mountain axis, involving Great Basin cold steppeand dry forest species. In addition, continental boreal and conifer woodland species came from the southeastalong the waning Laurentide ice sheet. 87In some respects, the ecosystems of this transition time might have looked familiar, though out of place tomodern observers. For example, for several thousand years, open, dry, cold lodgepole pine forests extendedalong the B.C. coast to Alaska, forming a distinctive biome. 88 In the interior, cold sagebrush and grasslandecosystems likely predominated. 89 Tundra-like ecosystems spread across the north of the province. Moist, coolmixed-coniferous forests featuring mountain hemlock developed for about a thousand years (12,000 to 11,000years ago), from the pine biome along the coast down to present-day sea level. 90 These ecosystems reflected thecooler-than-present climates of the day.In one major respect, however, life in the late-glacial period differed from what we see today, as it included thenow-extinct megafauna. Mastodons (Mammut americanum), giant bison (Bison antiquus), woolly mammothsand giant ground sloths (Megatherium americanum) roamed parts of B.C., including southern Vancouver Island. 91

a primer on biodiversityThese animals clearly influenced the ecological processes, structure and composition of plant communities. Inaddition, a new species – humans – began to depend upon and influence B.C.’s evolving biological diversity.In the freshwater realm, a degree of stability returned as the land was stabilized by vegetation. Familiar ecosystems,such as cattail (Typha spp.) and bulrush (e.g., Scirpus spp.) marshes and shallow-water communities,developed widely. Lime-rich, marl-depositing ecosystems occurred widely on parts of the south coast and inthe southern interior. The marine zone was, however, much less stable because of sediment input from waningvalley glaciers and the invasion of salt water on a glacially depressed landscape. Diverse cold-water molluscfaunas predominated. 92Between 11,000 and 10,000 years ago, a brief, but profound cooling event (called the Younger Dryas in Europe),brought cold, dry conditions for about 500 years and widely disrupted the landscape. 93 Temperatures declinedover a few decades by as much as 5°C and cold-climate processes such as solifluction (the slow, downslopemovement of moist or saturated, seasonally frozen, surficial material and soil) disturbed the landscape as farsouth as Vancouver Island. 94 There was widespread forest loss and return of cold and unstable ecosystems, creatingalder (Alnus spp.) scrub along the coast. 95 Migration and extinction of the ice-age megafauna took placeglobally. As far as scientists know, none of the megafauna survived the dramatic climatic and ecological changesinto the Holocene Epoch and non-glacial climates in B.C., 96 as hunting by humans hastened the disappearanceof these species. 97Skull of the now-extinct giant bison(Bison antiquus) from the SaanichPeninsula on Vancouver Island, about12,000 years ago.photo: andrew niemann,royal british columbia museum.1.4.5 warm dry early holocene epoch: 10,000 to 7,000 years agoAround the world, rapid warming by as much as 5–8°C ushered in the warm, interglacial climates of the modernHolocene Epoch. This period of roughly 10,000 years can be broadly divided into three climatic intervals, duringwhich B.C.’s pre-European disturbance biodiversity arose: warm, relatively dry (from 10,000 to 7,000 years ago);warm, moist (from 7,000 to 4,000 years ago); and moderate, moist (from 4,000 years ago to the present). 98The warm, dry early Holocene was a time of rapid immigration of species and establishment of newecosystems in many regions under climates warmer than today. On the south coast, Douglas-fir (Pseudotsugamenziesii) spread widely and rapidly to dominate forests and woodlands well into the zone of today’scedar-hemlock forests. 99 In the moist climates of western Vancouver Island and the central and north coast,Sitka spruce combined with western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) to form an ecosystem that has no modernequivalent in B.C. 100

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaWarm, dry grasslands and Garry oak (Quercus garryana) ecosystems, including many of the species associatedwith them today, became established and occupied areas much greater than today. Beyond the grasslandsin the southern interior, dry pine-dominated forests reached well into, if not fully occupying, today’s range ofthe Engelmann Spruce–Subalpine fir biogeoclimatic zone. 101 Species that are now rare in B.C., such as Oregonash (Fraxinus latifolia), were much more widespread, whereas species common today, such as western redcedar,occurred infrequently. 102 Fires burned widely in the southern half of the province, regularly disturbing thelandscape in the interior and even on the coast. 103Extensive tracts of open ecosystems related to modern non-forest communities occurred widely duringthe warm dry early Holocene interval. Many herbaceous and shrubby species of open terrain (e.g., sagebrush)became well established in late glacial times, especially during drier phases. To these were added species thatmigrated from the south following newly available warm to hot, dry valley bottoms and slopes, each accordingto its natural rate of dispersal. In the southern interior, valley-bottom grasslands stretched through a series ofelevation zones upslope into alpine heights, forming a large area suitable for rangeland dwellers. 104,105 Extensivesteppe ecosystems reached as far north as the latitude of Quesnel. Along the south coast, sea levels were at least10 m lower than today and many coastal meadow species that are now uncommon, restricted or rare spreadthroughout the Georgia Basin. 106 Treelines were at higher elevations than today and the alpine region was lessextensive in the south.What little is known about northern ecosystems during the warm, dry interval indicates that boreal-likeforests involving spruces gradually developed and pines migrated into the region. Yet even in northeastern B.C.,grasslands were more widespread than today. 107Freshwater environments were generally warmer and shallower than today, with some smaller water bodiesbeing ephemeral. 108 Water chemistry tended toward neutral or even alkaline and marl-depositing communitiesoccurred widely in the southern interior. Marshes and swamps were dominant types of wetlands.Little is known about conditions in the marine environment during this interval. Whereas the early Holocenewas a time of migration and connection on the south coast, isolation and fragmentation took place on the northcoast. Sea levels rose and separated Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands from the continent, drowning extensivelow-lying coastal ecosystems and eventually resulting in an island area much smaller than exists today. 109

a primer on biodiversity1.4.6 warm moist middle holocene epoch: 7,000 to 4,000 years agoIncreasing moisture and gradual cooling fostered major ecological changes between 7,000 and 4,000 years ago. 110During this transition to modern conditions, western hemlock and Sitka spruce coastal forests persisted, whileamabilis fir (Abies amabilis) and western redcedar became more abundant. Dry south coast regions continuedto support Douglas-fir-dominated ecosystems, except on southeastern Vancouver Island, where there wereextensive tracts of Garry oak woodland and meadow. 111Grasslands were widespread in the southern interior, but pine forests expanded to lower elevations.Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii)–subalpine fir forests began to appear in moist, cool sites, while borealforest continued to develop in the north. 112Topographic basins filled with greater amounts of permanent water. 113 Ephemeral and small ponds expandedinto lakes. Seasonally intermittent streams may have become permanent water courses. The wet shore zoneaccordingly expanded outwards and the volume of deep water grew. The marine shoreline and its ecosystemsnow began to stabilize, but major sea-level adjustments continued. 1141.4.7 moderate and moist late holocene epoch: 4,000 years agoto presentThe latter part of the Holocene Epoch saw cooler temperatures than in the preceding 6,000 years, which, combinedwith relatively abundant moisture, fostered forest and wetland expansion. During this period, the modern patternof ecosystems became well established and glaciers and ice fields expanded widely at high elevations.On the coast, the most important event was the spread of western redcedar and the development of moderncoastal temperate rainforests. 115 The range of dry ecosystems, such as the Garry oak meadow complex, becamevery limited, although regular burning by First Nations may have maintained them over a wider area than theclimate dictated. 116 In the interior, cedar-hemlock forests arose for the first time. 117,118 At high elevations in theinterior, cold, moist Engelmann spruce–subalpine fir forest became well established, largely developing fromearlier, relatively dry pine forests. 119 Similarly, coastal mountain hemlock forests developed fully and spreadmore widely. 120,121 In the central interior, sub-boreal spruce forests spread southward into areas previously toodry to support them. As forests expanded on many fronts, grasslands shrank to their minimum range, wherethey largely remain today. 122Cross-section of a Douglas-fir(Pseudotsuga menziesii) from HealLake, southern Vancouver Island,showing a sudden change in ringthickness, about 4,000 years ago,when the modern climate arose.photo: richard hebda.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaAssociated with the cooling and moistening climate of 4,000 years ago, fire activity declined notably. Nevertheless,fires were used by First Nations throughout much of the province and at all elevations for maintainingresources associated with open and successional communities. 123Increasing moisture on the landscape fostered widespread growth of peatlands. Bogs arose or spread widelyin wet coastal forests and in moist interior areas, providing habitat for the distinct species associated with them.Other wetland and aquatic habitats also expanded. Mid- and high-elevation lakes and streams cooled as glaciersredeveloped and expanded. 124Relative stability on land was paralleled by stability in the marine zone as sea levels reached equilibriumfollowing nearly 10,000 years of postglacial adjustment. 125

2 British Columbia’s Natural LegacyTo describe the beauties of this region will, on some future occasion be a very grateful task to the pen of a skilledpanegyrist. a The serenity of the climate, the innumerable pleasing landscapes, and the abundant fertility thatunassisted nature puts forth [renders] it the most lovely country that can be imagined.– captain george vancouver, 1792. 126Prior to Europeans arriving at the end of the 18th century on the shores of the land we now call BritishColumbia, the population of First Peoples is estimated to have been between 80,000 and 250,000. 127 Cluesto the abundance and diversity that existed here at that time can be found in First Nations stories andlegends and in the journals of early European visitors who regarded the landscapes and wildlife as remarkable.Historical ecosystem mapping shows that Garry oak ecosystems were common along the southeast coast ofVancouver Island and extensive grasslands flourished throughout the Okanagan, Thompson and Nicola valleys.128,129 Robert Brown, the first colonial to cross Vancouver Island on foot, describes the deer being “so thickthat you only require to go behind a bush – sound [a] hunting whistle and take your pick of the fattest and best”and the lakes “merry with leaping trout and salmon.” 130 More than 400 grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) hides weretaken from the Cascade Mountains between 1846 and 1851, b,131 and in 1918, a herd of about 2,000 mountaincaribou was sighted at Isaac Lake in what is now Bowron Lake Provincial Park. c,132 Peak runs of sockeye salmonin the Fraser River in the early 1900s are estimated to have exceeded 50 million fish. 133aA panegyrist is a person who writes laudatory speeches or tributes.bIncludes a portion of the Cascade Mountains in Washington State.cThis exceeds the current estimated provincial population of mountain caribou (see Text box 13, p. 85).

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaWhile 14 species, including the passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius), western pond turtle (Actinemysmarmorata) and viceroy butterfly (Limenitis archippus), have disappeared from the province since Europeancontact (see Table 14, p. 58), almost all of the native species and ecosystems that were present in B.C. in 1776,when Captain Cook stepped ashore on Nootka Island, still occur here today.Like early European explorers, a modern visitor to the province might use the word ‘remarkable’ to describeB.C.’s landscapes and wildlife. There are still vast forests, mountains and great rivers; ungulates and carnivoresthat have disappeared from other places continue to roam the province; and enormous flocks of migratory birdsstill stop to rest and feed on many lakes and estuaries. But over the past two centuries there have been changesin the abundance and distribution of many native species and ecosystems.Section 2 summarizes information on the current state of B.C.’s ecosystem, species and genetic diversity relativeto pre-European contact. Each of these components is examined in relation to the terrestrial and freshwaterrealms, as well as to the portions of those realms that overlap with the marine realm. The overlap of species andecosystems with other jurisdictions is also considered. This section describes recent trends where available,as well as information about key elements of B.C.’s biodiversity that are essential to the functioning of particularecosystems and special elements that are relatively unique in the world.2.1 ApproachThe assessment of biodiversity in British Columbia was based on an examination of conservation status andproportion of global range for ecosystems, species and genes. The current status and threats are reviewed forexamples of key elements and special elements. 134Conservation status indicates the level of risk of extirpation (provincially) or extinction (globally) for an elementof biodiversity (e.g., an ecosystem or a species) and was examined at both the provincial and global level.Proportion of global range is the proportion of the global population (for species, subspecies, ecotypes, etc.)aor range (for ecosystems) of an element of biodiversity within B.C. This is sometimes referred to as ‘globalresponsibility’ or ‘stewardship responsibility.’ 135 The reason for considering the proportion of an element’sglobal range in B.C. is that it indicates the opportunity that exists for the province to influence its global status(i.e., its risk of extinction). For example, the province has the potential to have a major influence on the globalstatus of elements that are found exclusively or predominantly in B.C. (see Section 2.5.2, p. 137).aIn the majority of cases, population data were not available and range was used as a proxy.

itish columbia’s natural legacyAn additional analysis of richness was applied to species and an analysis of rarity was conducted for ecosystems.Species richness is the total number of species in an area. 136 Ecosystem rarity is the proportion of anarea (in this case the entire province) occupied by an ecosystem. 137Due to a lack of information, the assessment of genetic diversity was restricted to those subspecies,populations and varieties that have been identified by the B.C. Conservation Data Centre as being of conservationconcern.2.2 Ecosystem Diversity in British Columbia70%13%7%4%3%2%1%The province of British Columbia stretches from the 48th parallel at its most southerly point on Vancouver Islandto the 60th parallel in the north, and ranges in elevation from sea level along the coast to over 4,000 m at the peaksof the highest mountains – Mount Waddington in the Coast Mountains and Mount Fairweather at the south end ofthe St. Elias Mountains on the Alaska-B.C. border. 138 On the coast, warm, moist air from the Pacific Ocean releasesits moisture as rain or snow as it rises over the mountains, producing the highest rainfall and some of the mostproductive forests in Canada. 139 Much of the province is covered by the Cordilleran mountain system of westernNorth America, with the Coast Mountains to the west and the Cassiar-Omineca, Cariboo, Columbia and Rockymountains to the east. These mountain systems give rise to British Columbia’s great rivers: the Fraser, Thompson,Kootenay, Columbia, Parsnip, Finlay, Peace, Kechika, Liard, Skeena, Nass, Stikine and Taku. Two high inlandplateaus – the Interior and the Stikine – sit at an average of 1,000 m above sea level. On the Interior Plateau and inthe surrounding low-elevation mountains, the continental air mass creates greater extremes of temperature andprecipitation. The province’s driest regions occur in the valleys of the southern interior, in the rain shadow to theeast of the Coast Mountains. The warm Pacific air rises once again as it travels east, creating an interior wet belt tothe west of, and within parts of, the Rockies. The Peace region in the northeast, an extension of the interior plainsof Alberta and one of B.C.’s few lowland areas, is characterized by flat, rolling hills and a cold northern climate.British Columbia’s large size, intricate coastline and complex topography, and the resulting climates havecreated a wide array of diverse ecosystems. Almost three-quarters of the province is covered by forest (Figure 7).Most of the remaining area is covered by glaciers and alpine ecosystems, with grasslands, wetlands, lakes andstreams collectively occupying only about 10% of the province’s total area. Almost 10% of the province is coveredby rock, with the majority (almost 9%) occurring in the alpine. 140Because ecosystems are dynamic over space and time (see Section 1.1, p.5), it can be difficult to characterizean ecosystem as a discrete unit. Ecosystems can be examined at a wide range of scales, from a single rottinglog in a forest to an entire forest type covering thousands of square kilometres. For the purposes of this report,FORESTALPINEWETLANDSGLACIERSFRESHWATERHUMAN DOMINATED*GRASSLANDS* Areas mapped as: urban,agriculture, recreation (e.g., golfcourses) or mining.figure 7: Land cover types in B.C.as percent of total land area.source: Biodiversity BC, 2008.The Biodiversity Atlas of BC. Availableat: www.biodiversitybc.org.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaterrestrial ecosystems were assessed at a broad provincial scale using a well-defined, higher-level ecosystemclassification, the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (BEC) system, 141 and freshwater ecosystems wereassessed at the level of Major Drainage Areas. Although there was a difference in emphasis between the twoanalyses, both terrestrial and freshwater systems were considered in each one.2.2.1 terrestrial ecosystems: biogeoclimatic ecosystemclassification zonesBiogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification zones, commonly referred to as biogeoclimatic zones, are broad geographicareas sharing similar climate and vegetation. The BEC system was developed specifically for B.C. in the1960s and early 1970s and continues to be revised and updated. Because biogeoclimatic zones have been welldelineated, they were chosen as the broad-scale representation of ecosystems for the province. Sixteen biogeoclimaticzones are recognized for B.C. (see Map 2, p. 28). Twelve of the zones are forested, three are alpine andone is dominated by grasses (Text box 4).text box 4. british columbia’ s biogeoclimatic zones 142,143,144The 16 biogeoclimatic zones of B.C. fallinto three categories: forest, alpine andgrassland.photos (top to bottom): jaredhobbs, gail ross, jared hobbs.B.C.’s biogeoclimatic zones are each named afterone or more dominant native plants, often with ageographic modifier (e.g., coastal, interior, alpine)or climatic modifier (e.g., boreal, montane).forested zonesBoreal White and Black Spruce: Covers B.C.’snortheast corner and extends into valleys west ofthe northern Rocky Mountains at low elevations.Consists of a mix of upland forest and muskeg ecosystems,with a wide range of tree species includingwhite spruce (Picea glauca), black spruce (P. mariana),lodgepole pine, trembling aspen (Populustremuloides), black cottonwood (Populus balsamiferassp. trichocarpa) and tamarack (Larix laricina).Coastal Douglas-fir: Limited to low-elevationscovering a small part of southeastern VancouverIsland, several Gulf Islands and a narrow strip ofthe adjacent mainland. Douglas-fir is the dominanttree, frequently accompanied by western redcedar,grand fir (Abies grandis), arbutus (Arbutusmenziesii), Garry oak or red alder (Alnus rubra).Coastal Western Hemlock: Covers most low elevationswest of the Coast Mountains. Western hemlockand western redcedar are both common.Engelmann Spruce–Subalpine Fir: Occupies theuppermost forested elevations in the southernthree-quarters of the interior. Includes continuousforest dominated by Engelmann spruce andsubalpine fir at lower and mid elevations, andsubalpine parkland (characterized by clumps oftrees scattered among areas of heath, meadow andgrassland) at upper elevations.

itish columbia’s natural legacyInterior Cedar–Hemlock: Occurs in two separate parts of B.C. – thesoutheast and the northwest. Dominated by western redcedar andwestern hemlock, but has the highest diversity of tree species of anyzone in the province.Interior Douglas-fir: Occurs at low to mid elevations in the southcentralinterior, including leeward slopes of the Coast Mountainsand the southern Rocky Mountain Trench. Although Douglas-firdominatedforests are most common, this zone features a wide arrayof ecosystems, including extensive grasslands in drier areas.Montane Spruce: Occurs at mid elevations in the southern interior.Features a unique mix of species from both higher and lower zones,including hybrid spruce (Picea engelmannii x glauca; a cross betweenEngelmann and white spruce), subalpine fir, Douglas-fir and lodgepolepine.Mountain Hemlock: Occupies subalpine elevations of the CoastMountains. The most common tree species are mountain hemlock,amabilis fir and yellow-cedar, often with a dense understory ofblueberries (Vaccinium spp.) and other shrubs.Ponderosa Pine: Occurs at low elevations in very dry, southern interiorvalleys. Consists of a mosaic of forest and grassland, but is dominatedby trees. Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) often grows in veryopen, park-like stands with an understory dominated by bluebunchwheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata).Spruce–Willow–Birch: Occupies subalpine elevations in the northernthird of the interior. In forested ecosystems, the main tree species arewhite spruce and subalpine fir. Shrub-dominated ecosystems, characterizedby scrub birch (Betula nana) and various willows (Salix spp.),are also common in this zone.Sub-Boreal Pine–Spruce: Occurs on high plateaus in the central interior.Consists of two principal ecosystems: lodgepole pine forests andwetlands. Besides lodgepole pine, the only common tree species arewhite spruce and trembling aspen.Sub-Boreal Spruce: Occupies the gently rolling terrain of the InteriorPlateau and extends into mountainous areas to the north, west andeast. Features dense coniferous forests dominated by hybrid spruceand subalpine fir.alpine zonesBoreal Altai Fescue Alpine: Occurs in the northern Rocky, Skeena,Omineca and Cassiar mountains in the north and on the lee side ofthe Coast Mountains north of the Chilcotin. In the alpine as a whole,the primary vegetation consists of low-growing, evergreen shrubs.In this zone, the dominant species are dwarf willows, grasses (e.g.,altai fescue [Festuca altaica]), sedges (Carex spp.) and lichens.Coastal Mountain-heather Alpine: Occurs along the windward spineof the Coast Mountains and the mountains of Vancouver Island andHaida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands. Features extensive beds ofwhite mountain-heather (Cassiope mertensiana var. mertensiana)and pink mountain-heather (Phyllodoce empetriformis).Interior Mountain-heather Alpine: Occurs in the southern third ofthe province in the Columbia Mountains, southern Rocky Mountainsand on the lee side of the Coast and Cascade mountains. Dominantvegetation ranges from mountain-heathers in snowier areas tomountain-avens (Dryas spp.) on the driest sites.grassland zoneBunchgrass: Occupies narrow fingers of land at lower elevations alongthe major southern interior valleys. Dry sites are dominated by grasses,such as bluebunch wheatgrass and needle-and-thread grass (Hesperostipacomata), with a scattering of shrubs, such as big sagebrush(Artemisia tridentata), and an extensive cryptogamic crust (see Section2.5.1.2-H, p. 111). Wetlands are also common throughout this zone.

t130°W 120°W110°W60°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e s60°NM A P 2Biogeoclimaticecosystemclassification - zonesLegend55°NB r i t i s hC o l u m b i aFort St. JohnA l b e r t a55°N!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLakeZoneBoreal Altai Fescue AlpineCoastal Mountain-heather AlpineInterior Mountain-heather AlpineSpruce -- Willow -- BirchBoreal White and Black SpruceSub-Boreal Pine -- SpruceSub-Boreal SpruceMountain HemlockEngelmann Spruce -- Subalpine FirMontane SpruceBunchgrassPonderosa PineInterior Douglas-firCoastal Douglas-firInterior Cedar -- HemlockCoastal Western HemlockPrince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of DetailCalgary0 100 200Kilometres50°NP a c i f i cO c e a nKamloopsKelowna50°NData sources:Biogeoclimatic EcosystemClassification (v. 6.0)Map by:Caslys Consulting LtdVancouverIslandVancouverProjection:BC Albers NAD83Produced for:VictoriaU N I T E D S T A T E SJune 17, 2008130°W120°W

itish columbia’s natural legacytable 1. areal extent of biogeoclimatic zones in b.c.Biogeoclimatic Zone area (km 2 ) percentageEngelmann Spruce–Subalpine Fir (ESSF) 170,364 18%Boreal White and Black Spruce (BWBS) 153,367 17%Coastal Western Hemlock (CWH) 102,253 11%Sub-boreal Spruce (SBS) 92,346 10%Spruce–Willow–Birch (SWB) 80,101 9%Boreal Altai Fescue Alpine (BAFA) 76,812 8%Coastal Mountain-heather Alpine (CMA) 52,007 6%Interior Cedar–Hemlock (ICH) 50,915 5%Interior Douglas-fir (IDF) 40,418 4%Mountain Hemlock (MH) 36,572 4%Montane Spruce (MS) 27,795 3%Sub-boreal Pine Spruce (SBPS) 22,359 2%Interior Mountain-heather Alpine (IMA) 17,681 2%Ponderosa Pine (PP) 2,896

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiain the southern interior. The most common zones within B.C. are the Engelmann Spruce–Subalpine Fir, BorealWhite and Black Spruce and Coastal Western Hemlock, all predominantly forested ecosystems.One of the species of conservationconcern in the Interior Douglasfirbiogeoclimatic zone is the gianthelleborine (Epipactis gigantea),pictured here growing near FairmontHot Springs in the Rocky Mountains.Giant helleborines can grow to100 cm tall.photo: virginia skilton.2.2.1.1 conservation status of biogeoclimatic zonesThe conservation status of each of the biogeoclimatic zones was determined using a modification of theNatureServe a methods. Conservation status rankings were based on criteria that included rarity, trends and thelevel of threat from human activity. 145 For this analysis, ecosystems ranked as Critically Imperilled (1), Imperilled(2) and Vulnerable (3) were considered to be of conservation concern in British Columbia (for rank definitions, seeTable 2). Information was compiled at two scales: global (G), indicating the status of a biogeoclimatic zone in itsworldwide range; and provincial or subnational (S), indicating the status of a biogeoclimatic zone within B.C.The threat assessment completed as part of the process included the effects of:1. Residential development (including housing and urban areas, commercial area and tourismrecreation areas);2. Agriculture and aquaculture (non-timber crops, plantations, livestock);3. Energy production and mining (oil and gas, mining and quarrying, renewable energy);4. Transportation and service corridors (roads and railways, utility and service lines, seismic lines,shipping lanes, flight paths);5. Biological resource use (hunting and collecting, logging, fishing, harvesting of aquatic resources);6. Human intrusion and disturbance (recreational and work activities);7. Natural systems modification (fire and fire suppression, dams and water management);8. Invasive and problem species (invasive and/or alien species, problematic native species,introduced genetic material);9. Pollution (household, industrial, agricultural/forestry, garbage and solid waste, airbornepollution);10. Geological events (volcanoes, earthquakes, avalanches); and11. Climate change and severe weather (habitat shifting and alteration, droughts, temperatureextremes, storms, flooding).aNatureServe is an international network that includes the B.C. Conservation Data Centre. For more information,see www.natureserve.org/explorer .

itish columbia’s natural legacytable 2. conservation status ranks for ecosystems in b.c.RANK DEFINITION DESCRIPTION1 critically Imperilled at very high risk of extinction or extirpation.2 imperilled at high risk of extinction due to very restricted range,steep declines, or other factors.3 Vulnerable at moderate risk of extinction or extirpation dueto a restricted range, recent and widespreaddeclines, or other factors.4 Apparently Secure Uncommon but not rare, and usually widespread.Some cause for long-term concern.5 Secure Common or very common, and widespread. Not susceptibleto extirpation or extinction under current conditions.NR Not yet Ranked Rank is not yet assessed.U Unrankable Suitable information is not available for ranking.source: Adapted from Anions, M. 2006. Global and Provincial Status of Species in British Columbia. Biodiversity BC, Victoria, BC. 16pp.Available at: www.biodiversitybc.org.notes: For analyses in this report, range ranks (given when not enough information is available to score a specific rank) are roundedto the higher rank (e.g., S2S3 is rounded to S2; S2S4 is averaged to S3). See Section 2.3.2 (p. 51) for an explanation of conservationstatus rankings.Boldface indicates that ecosystems with these ranks are of conservation concern.Specific information used in the assessments included the overlap of the present and projected biogeoclimaticzone climate envelopes, (see Section 3.3.1.2, p. 186), 146 the proportion of the zone with roads or other linear developmentfeatures present (see Map 1, p. 2) and the proportion of the zone recently logged (see Map 19, p. 197).Four biogeoclimatic zones are of conservation concern in the province: three in the interior (Bunchgrass,Ponderosa Pine and Interior Douglas-fir) and one on the coast (Coastal Douglas-fir) (Table 3). These zonescollectively occupy less than 5% of B.C.’s area (Map 3).

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatable 3. conservation status of biogeoclimatic zones in b.c.Biogeoclimatic Zoneconservation StatusBunchgrass I imperilled (S2)Coastal Douglas-firPonderosa PineInterior Douglas-firCoastal Western HemlockInterior Cedar–HemlockSub-boreal Pine–SpruceBoreal White and Black SpruceSpruce–Willow–BirchSub-boreal SpruceMontane SpruceMountain HemlockEngelmann Spruce–Subalpine FirCoastal Mountain-heather AlpineBoreal Altai Fescue AlpineInterior Mountain-heather Alpineimperilled (S2)imperilled/Vulnerable (S2/S3)Vulnerable (S3)Apparently secure (S4)Apparently secure (S4)Apparently secure (S4)Apparently secure (S4)Apparently secure (S4)Apparently secure (S4)Apparently secure (S4)Apparently secure (S4)Secure (S5)Secure (S5)Secure (S5)Secure (S5)source: Kremsater, L. 2007. Draft S Ranks and Surrogate G Ranks for BEC Zones and Draft S Ranks for Ecoprovinces and MajorDrainage Areas of B.C.: Preliminary Rankings for Informing the Biodiversity Status Report and Action Plan. Biodiversity BC, Victoria, BC.64pp. Available at: www.biodiversitybc.org.notes: Boldface indicates biogeoclimatic zone is of conservation concern.The global conservation status (G rank) for the biogeoclimatic zones was considered relative to the provincial conservation status(S rank) and in all cases was assumed to be similar; therefore, the G and S rankings were the same. Only the S rank is reported.

t130°W 120°W110°W60°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e s60°NM A P 3Biogeoclimatic zonesof conservationconcernB r i t i s hC o l u m b i aLegend!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLakeZoneBunchgrassPonderosa PineInterior Douglas-firCoastal Douglas-firFort St. JohnA l b e r t a55°N55°NPrince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of DetailCalgary0 100 200Kilometres50°NP a c i f i cO c e a nKamloopsKelowna50°NData sources:Biogeoclimatic EcosystemClassification (v. 6.0)Map by:Caslys Consulting LtdVancouverIslandVancouverProjection:BC Albers NAD83Produced for:VictoriaU N I T E D S T A T E SJune 17, 2008130°W120°W

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatable 4. distribution of species of conservation concern in b.c. by biogeoclimatic zone.Biogeoclimatic Zone Total Area (km 2 ) SPECIES OF GLOBAL SPECIES OF ProvincialconSERVATION concernconsErvation CONCERNNumber Density Number Densityof species (# of species/ of species (# of species/1,000 km 2 ) 1,000 km 2 )Coastal Douglas-fir 1,310 24 18.3 170 129.8Bunchgrass 2,048 10 4.9 165 80.6Ponderosa Pine 2,896 10 3.5 114 39.4Interior Douglas-fir 40,418 27 0.7 252 6.2Montane Spruce 27,795 12 0.4 93 3.3Coastal Western Hemlock 102,253 40 0.4 242 2.4Mountain Hemlock 36,572 13 0.4 45 1.2Interior Cedar–Hemlock 50,915 17 0.3 170 3.3Alpine Tundra 146,500 21 0.1 144 1.0Spruce–Willow–Birch 80,101 10 0.1 68 0.8Engelmann Spruce–Subalpine Fir 170,364 21 0.1 138 0.8Sub-boreal Spruce 92,346 10 0.1 89 1.0Sub-boreal Pine–Spruce 22,359 2 0.1 33 1.5Boreal White and Black Spruce 153,367 12 0.1 140 0.9source: Prepared for this report with data from the B.C. Conservation Data Centre.notes: Data were not available for all species of conservation concern. This table is based on information for 783 out of a totalof 1,169 species of conservation concern (mosses were excluded due to lack of information). A species can occur in more thanone biogeoclimatic zone.Boldface indicates biogeoclimatic zone is of conservation concern.The Alpine Tundra zone includes the recently created Interior Mountain-heather Alpine, Coastal Mountain-heather Alpine and BorealAltai Fescue Alpine zones.The four biogeoclimatic zones that are of conservation concern have the highest densities of species ofboth global and provincial conservation concern (Table 4). One hundred and forty-six species of provincialconservation concern have been recorded only in zones of conservation concern (i.e., in one or more of thesezones). It is perhaps not surprising that there are higher numbers, and therefore higher densities, of species ofprovincial conservation concern in these rare zones, but the numbers and densities for species of global conservationconcern show the same pattern, which is consistent with the assessment that these zones are alsoof global conservation concern.

itish columbia’s natural legacyOf the 12 biogeoclimatic zones that are not of conservation concern within the province, five each containmore than 100 species of provincial conservation concern (Coastal Western Hemlock, Interior Cedar–Hemlock,Alpine Tundra, a Engelmann Spruce–Subalpine Fir and Boreal White and Black Spruce) and three each have morethan 20 species of global conservation concern (Coastal Western Hemlock, Alpine Tundra and Engelmann Spruce–Subalpine Fir). As these zones occupy large areas, the densities of species of conservation concern are lower.2.2.1.2 proportion of global range for biogeoclimatic zonesFor each biogeoclimatic zone, the proportion of its global range that occurs in B.C. was determined using mapscovering a number of neighbouring jurisdictions, combined with expert knowledge where the zones werebelieved to extend beyond the limits of available information. b,147 Proportion of global range is described byseven classes ranging from 1 (Endemic; 100% of global range in British Columbia) to 7 (Low and Localized;

t130°W 120°W110°W60°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e s60°NM A P 4Biogeoclimatic zonesfor which B.C. hasthe majority of theglobal rangeB r i t i s hC o l u m b i aLegend!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLakeZoneSub-Boreal Pine -- SpruceSub-Boreal SpruceMountain HemlockMontane SpruceCoastal Douglas-firInterior Cedar -- HemlockFort St. JohnA l b e r t a55°N55°NPrince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of DetailCalgary0 100 200Kilometres50°NP a c i f i cO c e a nKamloopsKelowna50°NData sources:Biogeoclimatic EcosystemClassification (v. 6.0)Map by:Caslys Consulting LtdVancouverIslandVancouverProjection:BC Albers NAD83Produced for:VictoriaU N I T E D S T A T E SJune 17, 2008130°W120°W

itish columbia’s natural legacy2.2.1.3 shared ecosystemsExcept for the two endemic zones, Sub-boreal Spruce and Sub-boreal Pine–Spruce, all of the province’s biogeoclimaticzones are shared with neighbouring jurisdictions (Table 6). For example, the Interior Douglas-fir zoneis distributed across British Columbia, Alberta, Montana, Idaho, Washington and Oregon.table 6. distribution of biogeoclimatic zones across b.c. and neighbouring jurisdictions.Biogeoclimatic ZoneJURISDICTIONB.C. Alaska Yukon Northwest Alberta Montana Idaho Washington OregonTerritoriesSub-boreal Spruce 100%Sub-boreal Pine–Spruce 100%Coastal Douglas-fir 70-80%•Montane Spruce 70-75%• Interior Cedar–Hemlock 58%• • Mountain Hemlock

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaIdaho fescue -bluebunch wheatgrass2001 distributionLost since 1800Vernon!.in B.C. (Table 7). 148 Although not all ecological communities in B.C. have been described, the current list representsa majority of the province’s ecological communities. 149 Ecological community classification is the mostincomplete for alpine ecosystems, but this is a focus of current classification work. 150Of the ecological communities described in B.C., 532 (87%) have had their provincial conservation statusassessed and 340 (56% of the total number described) are of provincial conservation concern. As with classification,the majority of the ecological communities that have not been assessed are in alpine ecosystems. 151table 7. provincial conservation status of ecological communities in b.c.by biogeoclimatic zone.OkanaganLakeKelowna!.Penticton!.Osoyoos!.figure 8: Loss of Idaho fescue–bluebunch wheatgrass ecosystem inthe Okanagan Valley since 1800.source: Prepared for this reportwith data from T. Lea.Biogeoclimatic Zone number of Number of Number of Percent ofcommunities communities Communities of communitiesDescribed Assessed provincial described that areconservation of provincialconcern conservation concernCoastal Douglas-fir 36 36 35 97%Bunchgrass 30 30 28 93%Ponderosa Pine 29 29 27 93%Coastal Western Hemlock 128 128 106 83%Interior Douglas-fir 87 87 71 82%Sub-boreal Spruce 92 83 56 61%Interior Cedar–Hemlock 89 75 46 52%Sub-boreal Pine–Spruce 38 34 19 50%Montane Spruce 66 57 31 47%Boreal White and Black Spruce 52 41 13 25%Engelmann Spruce–Subalpine Fir 149 99 31 21%Mountain Hemlock 43 22 8 19%Spruce–Willow–Birch 21 1 1 5%Coastal Mountain-heather Alpine 23 1 1 4%Interior Mountain-heather Alpine 39 2 1 3%Boreal Altai Fescue Alpine 53 3 1 2%Province 611 532 340 56%source: Prepared for this report with data from the B.C. Conservation Data Centre.notes: Boldface indicates biogeoclimatic zone is of conservation concern. Some ecological communities occur in more than onebiogeoclimatic zone.

itish columbia’s natural legacyAs might be expected, the percentage of ecological communities of conservation concern is relatively highin the four biogeoclimatic zones that are of provincial conservation concern (see Section 2.2.1.1, p. 30). It isnotable that every biogeoclimatic zone has at least one ecological community in this category. The CoastalWestern Hemlock zone stands out as the biogeoclimatic zone with the greatest number of ecological communitiesof concern (106). It also has the highest percentage (83%) of ecological communities of concern amongthe 12 zones that are not of provincial conservation concern.Global conservation status has been assessed for only 113 ecological communities (18% of the total numberdescribed). 152 This is due to the lack of compatible descriptions of ecological communities between jurisdictions,although work is currently underway to address this issue. 153!. PentictonOkanaganLakeAntelope-brush / needleand thread grassLost since 18002001 distributiontext box 5.case study: loss of grassland ecological communitiesIN the okanagan and lower similkameen valleysEcosystem conversion of grasslands has been very extensive in the Ponderosa Pine and Bunchgrassbiogeoclimatic zones. For example, historical mapping shows that 77% of the Idaho fescue (Festucaidahoensis spp. idahoensis) – bluebunch wheatgrass ecosystem and 68% of the antelope-brush (Purshiatridentata) / needle-and-thread grass ecosystem have been lost to agriculture and urban and ruraldevelopment in the Okanagan Valley over the past 100 years (Table 8, Figure 8, Figure 9). 154 Excessivedomestic livestock grazing, off-road recreational vehicles and invasive alien species continue to degrademuch of the remaining grasslands in these areas. 155Grasslands are concentrated in the Ponderosa Pine, Bunchgrass and Interior Douglas-fir zones, whichis one of the reasons these zones are home to a disproportionate number of B.C.’s terrestrial species ofconservation concern (see Table 4, p. 34). Grasslands were rare in B.C. at the time of European contactand have since become rarer because they are found in areas that are attractive for development (e.g.,low-elevation areas in the southern part of the province) and are therefore subjected to a high level ofecosystem conversion, as well as fire suppression which results in forest encroachment.!. Osoyoosfigure 9: Loss of antelopebrush/ needle-and-thread grassecosystem in the Okanagan Valleysince 1800.source: Prepared for this reportwith data from T. Lea.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatable 8. historical loss of grassland ecological communities in the okanagan valleybetween 1800 and 2005.GRAssland ecosystem type year percent of1800 1938 2005ecosystem lost(ha) (ha) (ha)Water birch / roses 14,629 4,557 1,207 92%Idaho fescue–bluebunch wheatgrass 19,253 8,657 4,395 77%Antelope-brush / needle-and-thread grass 9,905 7,325 3,160 68%Black cottonwood / water birch 8,111 5,176 2,864 63%Ponderosa pine–bluebunch 15,149 11,471 7,172 53%wheatgrass gentle slope forestCattail marsh 430 387 257 41%Big sagebrush shrub-steppe 12,233 10,314 8,266 33%source: Lea, T. 2007. Historical (pre-European settlement) ecosystems of the Okanagan and lower Similkameen valleys – applications forspecies at risk. Saving the Pieces – Restoring Species at Risk Symposium, June 14-16, 2007, Victoria, BC.text box 6. garry oak ecosystems of the coastal douglas-fir zone aGarry oak ecosystems are found within the Coastal Douglas-firbiogeoclimatic zone, one of B.C.’s four zones of conservationconcern and the only one of these four for which B.C. has a majorityof the global range. Within Canada, Garry oak ecosystemsoccur only on southeastern Vancouver Island and the southernGulf Islands, and in two isolated sites in Vancouver. This is oneof the ecosystem types of greatest conservation concern in B.C.,primarily due to ecosystem conversion resulting from urbanizationand agriculture. 156,157 About 10% of the original area thatwas Garry oak meadow in the mid 1860s still remains, mostly infragmented remnants that are often dominated by invasive alienspecies such as Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius), Himalayanblackberry (Rubus armeniacus), English ivy (Hedera helix) and avariety of non-native grasses and weeds. 158,159 Less than 5% of theoriginal ecosystem remains in near-natural condition (Figure 10).Garry oak and related ecosystems are home to species of conservationconcern such as the sharp-tailed snake (Contia tenuis)and Macoun’s meadowfoam, a critically endangered plant forwhich the province has a majority of the global range. 160,161 Thepotential range of Garry oak ecosystems could expand with climatechange, 162 but it is uncertain whether the associated nativeplants will be able to compete with the many alien species nowfound on Vancouver Island without extensive and costly humanintervention.aGarry oak ecosystems include a group of ecological communities such as the Garry oak – arbutus ecological community.

itish columbia’s natural legacySaltspringIslandDuncanSidneyVancouverIslandGarry OakHistorical distributionCurrent distributionVictoriaThe extent of Garry oak (Quercus garryana)ecosystems, found in the Coastal Douglasfirbiogeoclimatic zone, has been reducedby almost 90% since the 1860s.photo: alison leslie.figure 10: Past and present distribution of Garry oak ecosystemsof southern Vancouver Island and the Gulf Islands.source: Lea, T. 2006. Historical Garry oak ecosystems of Vancouver Island,British Columbia, pre-European contact to the present. Davidsonia 17(2): 34-5.Available at: www.davidsonia.org/bc_garryoak.Fragmented remnants of Garry oakecosystems are often dominated by invasivealien species, such as Scotch broom(Cytisus scoparius).photo: alan drengson.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia2 . 2 . 2 f r e s h wat e r e c o s y s t e m s : m a j o r d r a i n ag e a r e a sFresh water is an essential ingredient for life on earth. Most fresh water is frozen or underground, locked eitherin polar ice caps and permafrost or in underground aquifers, many with recharge times of thousands of years. 163Rivers, lakes, wetlands, soil moisture and water vapour together hold 0.01% of the planet’s total water supply(including salt water) and just under 0.4% of the world’s fresh water. 164 British Columbia has 25% of Canada’ssupply of flowing fresh water. 165Accessible fresh water in lakes, streams, reservoirs and wetlands provides vital habitat for a disproportionatenumber of B.C.’s species, including a wide variety of plants, fish, mussels, crayfish, snails, reptiles, amphibians,insects, micro-organisms, birds and mammals that live in, on and around water. Approximately 25% of thespecies of vertebrates, invertebrates and vascular plants that have been assessed in B.C. are associated withfreshwater ecosystems (see Section 2.3.2.1, p. 59). In addition to providing water, food, habitat, and physical,chemical and hydrologic processes, freshwater ecosystems are required for life cycle stages of many organisms,such as salmon (for spawning) and dragonflies (for larval development). Freshwater ecosystems also providehumans with many essential services.Freshwater ecosystems are highly variable and dynamic. They interact closely with adjacent riparian areasand nearshore communities, sharing physical habitats and ecological and environmental processes, and arehighly sensitive to the effects of climate change.2.2.2.1 conservation status of major drainage areasTo assess the status of freshwater ecosystems, Major Drainage Areas (MDAs) were examined. 166,167 With theexception of the Coastal Major Drainage Area, each of B.C.’s nine MDAs encompasses the drainage basin of amajor river system in the province (Map 5). The Coastal MDA comprises many small coastal rivers and streamsthat drain directly into the Pacific Ocean.According to an assessment of conservation status (using the same methods used for biogeoclimatic zonesin Section 2.2.1.1, p. 30), 168 four of the nine MDAs are of conservation concern (Table 9). The Columbia Riverdrainage, which is highly impacted by dams, is ranked as imperilled. The Fraser River drainage, which includesthe highly populated Fraser Valley, is ranked as imperilled/vulnerable.

14%british columbia’s natural legacytable 9. provincial conservation status of major drainage areas in b.c.MAJOR DRAINAGE area conservation Status total area (KM 2 ) percent of provinceColumbia imperilled (S2) 102,798 11%Fraser imperilled/Vulnerable (S2S3) 231,459 25%Coastal Vulnerable/Apparently secure (S3S4) 164,115 17%Mackenzie Vulnerable/Apparently secure (S3S4) 278,667 30%Taku Apparently secure/Secure (S4S5) 16,585 2%Stikine Apparently secure/Secure (S4S5) 49,631 5%Yukon Apparently secure/Secure (S4S5) 24,950 3%Skeena Apparently secure/Secure (S4S5) 54,401 6%Nass Secure (S5) 21,5302%source: Kremsater, L. 2007. Draft S Ranks and Surrogate G Ranks for BEC Zones and Draft S Ranks for Ecoprovinces and Major DrainageAreas of B.C.: Preliminary Rankings for Informing the Biodiversity Status Report and Action Plan. Biodiversity BC, Victoria, BC. 64pp.Available at: www.biodiversitybc.org.notes: Boldface indicates the Major Drainage Area is of conservation concern.text box 7. lost streams in the lower fraser valley14%a. All streams15%23%14%23%Wild Endangeredb. All streams compared to streamsWild Endangeredin developed areasALL STREAMSALL STREAMSSTREAMS INDEVELOPED AREASSTREAMS INDEVELOPED AREAS15%14%ThreatenedThreatened48%48%LostLostThe Lower Fraser Valley (LFV) has been considerably altered by human activity over the past 100 years.Large areas of land have been modified for agricultural use, urban and industrial centres or a variety of otherpurposes. This conversion of ecosystems to other uses has caused heavy damage to streams that at one timesupported salmon and other fish. Damage has been caused by destruction of streamside vegetation, waterdiversion, stream channelization and pollution; and many streams have been effectively lost (i.e., they nolonger exist as surface waterways), as a result of being drained, filled, culverted and/or paved over.A 1997 survey of the LFV (from the Strait of Georgia inland to Hope, and from the North Shore mountainssouth to the United States border) found that of the 779 streams classified (excluding the Fraser Rivermainstem and estuary), 86% were either lost, endangered or threatened (Figure 11a). 169 The majority ofthe 14% that remain as wild streams are outside the developed area and have low value for fish becausethey are inaccessible, high-gradient mountain streams. The survey determined that 117 streams, manyof them salmon-bearing, had been lost since the 1860s. All of the lost streams were originally in the areaof the LFV that is now occupied by humans (Figure 11b). The Lower Fraser Valley is the spawning habitatfor 66% of the wild coho salmon in the Fraser River system. 1700% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%figure 11: Status of streams in theLower Fraser Valley in 2007source: Precision Identification BiologicalConsultants. 1998. Wild, Threatened,Endangered and Lost Streams of the LowerFraser Valley: Summary Report 1997. FraserRiver Action Plan, Vancouver, BC. 58pp.Available at: www-heb.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/maps/loststrm/loststreams_e.htm.notes: As the identification of historicstreams that have been lost contains anelement of uncertainty, the number oflost streams is considered a conservativeapproximation. Eight impact criteriawere developed to assess the status ofother streams in the Lower Fraser Valley.A threatened stream meets one impactcriterion; an endangered stream meets morethan one impact criterion; and a wild streamis not significantly impacted by any criteria,but is not necessarily pristine.

t130°W 120°W110°W60°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e s60°NM A P 5Major drainageareasLegend!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLake55°NB r i t i s hC o l u m b i aFort St. JohnA l b e r t a55°NMajor Drainage AreasCoastalColumbiaFraserMackenzieNassSkeenaStikineTakuYukonPrince RupertPrince GeorgeEdmontonQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of DetailCalgary0 100 200Kilometres50°NP a c i f i cO c e a nKamloopsKelowna50°NData sources:Ministry of EnvironmentMap by:Caslys Consulting LtdProjection:BC Albers NAD83VancouverIslandVancouverProduced for:VictoriaU N I T E D S T A T E SJune 17, 2008130°W120°W

itish columbia’s natural legacy2.2.3 ecosystems that overlap the marine realmThe coastal zone, where land and ocean meet, is a diverse and productive environment that some considerto be a separate realm. 171 There is an exchange of nutrients and energy between the realms through processessuch as salmon migration from marine to freshwater ecosystems (see Section 2.5.1.3-F, p. 121) and uplandsediment transport (see Section 2.5.1.4-F, p. 131). With a provincial coastline of approximately 29,000 km, 172the area of overlap between marine, terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems in B.C. contains a rich assemblageof ecosystems of wide-reaching importance to the province’s biodiversity. This section focuses on intertidalecosystems and estuaries.2.2.3.1 i n t e r t i d a lThe intertidal zone represents the area between the mean high tide line and the mean low tide line, or zero tide,where the benthic substrate is regularly exposed through tidal action (Figure 12). Above the intertidal zone isthe supratidal zone – the area below terrestrial trees and shrubs, which contains salt-tolerant grasses and sedgesand is influenced, but not dominated, by marine processes such as wave splash,wind-generated storm surge and storm deposits of large woodydebris. Below the intertidal zone is the subtidal zone, wherethe benthic substrate below the lowest normal tidestorm log lineUPLANDmean higher high wateris permanently covered by water. Subtidalcommunity structure is influencedSUPRATIDALmean lower low water (zero tide)INTERTIDALfigure 12:The intertidal zone.Due to the influences of the landand sea, the intertidal zone contains a richassemblage of biodiversity and is highly productive.illustration: Soren Henrich.SUBTIDAL

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaby a number of physical factors (e.g., depth, substrate, salinity, water temperature, wave action, currents, upwellingsand light) and biological factors (e.g., larval settlement and dispersal characteristics, predation, productivityand prey availability).The intertidal zone is regularly exposed to air, wind, sun, rain and sea water as the tide moves in and out, soanimals and plants that live in this zone have to adapt to an ever-changing environment. Both biotic and abioticprocesses act to maintain the diversity of organisms. For example, in rocky intertidal communities, mussels(Mytilus spp.) tend to exclude all functionally similar organisms that are potential competitors, but ochre seastars (Pisaster ochraceus) prey on the mussels and prevent them from dominating. Wave action has a similareffect, controlling the most competitive species through desiccation or battering by debris. Vertical zonationof organisms occurs in the intertidal based on the tolerance of each species to desiccation, changes in salinityand light, wave exposure, competition and predation. 173The entire B.C. shoreline has been mapped and classified using both physical and biological mapping components(Table 10). 174,175 In a subsequent analysis, estuaries were identified as the most productive habitat, followedby semi-exposed–immobile and current-dominated channel habitats. 176 Instances of high species richnesswere found in all habitat classes except bare beaches and protected shorelines (habitat types 5, 7 and 9), withthe majority of instances in exposed to semi-protected immobile habitats along the west coast of Vancouvertable 10. habitat types used in b.c. biophysical shorezone mapping.HABitat type claSS Habitat Type Substrate category1 Very exposed–immobile Bedrock2 Exposed immobile Bedrock3 Semi-exposed–immobile Bedrock/Boulder4 Semi-protected–immobile Bedrock/Boulder5 Protected & very protected–immobile Bedrock/Boulder6 Semi-protected–partially mobile Boulder/Cobble/Pebble7 Protected & very protected–partially mobile Boulder/Cobble/Pebble8 Estuaries Fines/Organic9 Bare beaches Sand/Pebble/Cobble10 Current-dominated channels Bedrock, Sediment or combinations11 Hanging lagoons, brackish lakes Bedrock, Sediment or combinationssource: Morris, M., D. Howes and P. Wainwright. 2006. Methodology for Defining B.C. Intertidal ShoreZone Habitats and HabitatValues for the B.C. Oil Spill Shoreline Sensitivity Model. B.C. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Victoria, BC. 47pp.

itish columbia’s natural legacyIsland, the north and central mainland coast and on Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands. Shorelines that areimmobile and protected (habitat types 4 and 5) together accounted for about half of the B.C. coast. Estuaries,bare beaches and hanging lagoons were the rarest habitat types, and the majority of these habitats were foundon the central and north coast.Species present in the intertidal are well described compared to pelagic species, because the intertidal zoneis relatively accessible. They include many terrestrial species that forage in the intertidal. For example, thediet of coastal black bears includes invertebrates such as shore crabs (Hemigrapsus spp.), porcelain crabs(Petrolisthes spp.), mussels, barnacles (Balanus spp.), isopods (e.g., Idotea spp.) and sea stars, as well as gunnels(e.g., Pholis spp.). 177The intertidal zone has been important to humans in B.C. for generations, historically providing a largeportion of the diet of coastal First Nations. Because of the relative ease of access, the intertidal is subject toecosystem conversion and degradation through human activities, including exposure to contaminants suchas persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals, oils and hydrocarbons, and excess nutrients (e.g., excess nitrogenrunoff from agriculture or nutrients from sewage resulting in eutrophication). The greatest challenge forthe future, however, may be climate change and the anticipated rise in sea level. Introduced species are also asignificant threat to intertidal ecosystems.2.2.3.2 estuariesAn estuary is generally defined as a partially enclosed body of coastal water, where salt water is measurablydiluted by mixing with river runoff. In British Columbia it is estimated that there are more than 440 estuariesoccupying approximately 75,000 ha along 2.3% of the length of the coast, with most estuaries ranging in sizefrom 1–10 ha. 178,179 Locations of the larger estuaries in B.C. are known and mapped (Figure 13).The key feature of an estuary is that fresh water meets the salt water of the sea, resulting in brackish water.As a result, estuaries are characterized by salinity rather than geography. When river runoff reaches the salt waterthere is not an immediate mixing of the two. Rather, the fresh water floats on or near the surface, forming afreshwater plume, while the salt water, having a higher density due to higher dissolved solids, remains belowthe fresh water, forming a zone sometimes referred to as the saltwater wedge or salt-wedge (Figure 14). Theamount of mixing defines different types of estuaries (see Section 2.5.1.4-G, p. 133).Estuaries comprise a number of identifiable habitat types, such as intertidal flats, marshes/swamps, rivers/lakes, and islands. They present a good example of how ecosystems and ecosystem function are influenced byabiotic components, including seasonal variation in temperature, wave energy, type and rates of sedimentation(turbidity), and timing and volume of freshwater inputs.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiafigure 13: Locations of mapped estuaries in B.C.source: Adapted from Ryder, J.L., J.K. Kenyon, D. Buffett, K. Moore, M. Cehand K. Stipec. 2007. An Integrated Biophysical Assessment of EstuarineHabitats in B.C. to Assist Regional Conservation Planning. CanadianWildlife Service, Pacific and Yukon Region, Delta, BC. Technical ReportSeries No. 476.The most extensive estuaries are found where the coastline is relatively flat and thesediments brought by the river build up slowly over a wide area and a long time. As describedin Section 1.4 (p. 15), estuaries in B.C. are relatively young in geological terms.B.C.’s largest estuary is the Fraser River estuary, with a mapped area of over 21,000 haand a sphere of influence that spans the Strait of Georgia. 180 Its significance is recognizedinternationally, 181,182 but all estuaries make the same kinds of contributions to sustainingbiodiversity, albeit at a smaller scale.Estuaries are nutrient sinks, trapping nutrients from the ocean, land and rivers thatare, in turn, dispersed throughout the estuary by tidal movement, wind and currents.The constant mixing creates a productive environment, used by an estimated 80% ofall coastal wildlife: for foraging by many species of waterfowl and other birds; and asbreeding or rearing grounds by some fish species. 183 Estuaries can also sequester anddetoxify waste. The influence of estuaries extends beyond their immediate surroundings;nutrients generated in estuaries provide food for many pelagic marine species. Estuariesare of critical importance to the survival of Pacific salmon, particularly juveniles,for reasons that include the provision of nutrients (the fresh water as a source and thesaltwater wedge concentrating nutrients) and habitat (diverse habitat types, refugesfrom predators); most significantly, their low salinity is important to anadromous fishas they make the transition between the marine and freshwater realms. 184Because estuaries are productive ecosystems and offer easy access to the sea, humanshave long been drawn to settle and develop infrastructure near them, leading to ecosystemconversion and degradation, environmental contamination (of both water and sediment),disturbance and alien species introductions. 185 Section 2.5.1.4-G (p. 133) provides moreinformation on threats to estuaries.riveroceanfigure 14: The interface between thefreshwater plume and the saltwater wedge.source: Adapted from Fisheries and OceansCanada. 2007. Estuaries: The PhysicalEnvironment. Available at: www.glf.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/os/bysea-enmer/estuaries-estuaires-e.php.illustration: Soren Henrich.freshwater plumesaltwater wedge

itish columbia’s natural legacy2 . 2 . 4 d ata g a p sWithin B.C., the classification and mapping of ecological communities is incomplete. The major gaps arein the alpine biogeoclimatic zones and in small communities such as vernal pools, rock outcrops and avalanchetracks. 186,187There is no province-wide data source to update the structural stage of ecosystems. For example, there aregaps for forest age in some protected areas and Tree Farm Licenses. 188Classification and mapping of freshwater ecosystems is far less advanced than ecosystem mapping in theterrestrial realm. A recent attempt has been made at classifying freshwater systems (drainage units, watersheds,lakes and rivers), but it has not yet been widely adopted. 189Global status assessments have not been completed for the majority of ecological communities. The globalstatus assessment of ecosystems is compromised by differences between ecological classification in B.C. andadjacent Canadian and American jurisdictions, lack of comparisons of these ecological classifications andlimited information on impacts and trends. 190 This lack of information also impacts the ability to determinewhat proportion of the global range of ecological communities occurs in B.C.Information on trends for ecosystems is very incomplete. For example, baseline information on the historicextent of ecosystems is limited to a small number of ecosystems in specific areas. 191Although climate change will cause species distributions to shift, ecosystems will not move. 192 Insteadthey will change in terms of their species composition, as well as their structure and function. As a result, anyecosystem classification scheme will become obsolete over time. 193 This places added importance on the useof units that will not change as the climate changes, such as terrain units, which are based on topography andsoils. However, the provincial coverage of terrain units is incomplete. 1942.3 Diversity of Species in British ColumbiaSpecies interact within ecosystems, performing essential ecological functions necessary for life on earth (seeSection 1.2, p. 10). This section summarizes information on the status of about 3,800 native species, a includingmore than 2,000 vascular plants, 563 vertebrate animals, 423 invertebrates and over 729 non-vascular plants.These are the species we know the most about, but they represent only a fraction of the approximately 50,000species (not including single-celled organisms) that exist in B.C. 195aIncludes mammals, birds, freshwater fish (including anadromous species such as salmon), reptiles and turtles, amphibians, butterfliesand skippers, dragonflies and damselflies, non-marine molluscs, flowering plants (monocots and dicots), ferns and fern allies, mossesand conifers. Only full species with scientifically accepted taxonomic names are included. Alien species are not included, nor are‘accidental’ species (i.e., those that occur in B.C. infrequently and unpredictably, as B.C. is outside their usual range).

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaInformation about most species in British Columbia is limited. Surveys and incidental observations areoften sporadic, inconsistent and/or concentrated along roads and in areas of higher human population. Partsof the province have never been surveyed and a number of taxonomic groups have never been assessed (seeAppendix B, p.232). aThe number of species included in each of the analyses presented in this section varies according to the availabilityof data (Table 11). For the species richness analysis, non-marine molluscs and mosses were excluded dueto concerns that the available data were overly biased by survey effort, and the analysis of birds was limited topasserines (perching birds) due to the lack of data for other types of birds. Also for the species richness analysis,there were some species in other groups for which no recent documented occurrences were available (recordsprior to 1961 were excluded for all groups). Mosses were excluded from the realm overlap analysis due to thelack of expertise to assign them to a realm or realms. Other differences in the number of species considered foreach analysis are generally very minor and are due to varying species lists.2.3.1 richnessB.C.’s large coastal islands arerelatively species-rich.photo: paul morton.Species richness is one common measure of biodiversity, calculated as the number of species in an area ofinterest. For this analysis of species richness, the province was divided into a grid of 1,208 squares on a map. bThe number of species recorded in each grid square was then calculated from computerized location data. 196The species groups assessed were those from the best-studied groups of plants and animals for which adequatecomputerized location data (recorded between 1961 and 2006) were available.Map 6 shows patterns of species richness across the province for 2,640 vertebrates, invertebrates and vascularplants. Species richness varies markedly across the province and is highest in the south of the province and onVancouver Island, which are also areas of highest human population density. The biogeoclimatic zones withthe highest species richness are Ponderosa Pine, Coastal Douglas-fir, Bunchgrass and Interior Douglas-fir, allecosystems of conservation concern (see Section 2.2.1.1, p. 30).The data are biased because surveys and incidental observations most often occur close to roads. For example,high species-richness points occur along the Alaska Highway north of Fort St. John at Pink Mountain,known for its wildflowers and rare Arctic butterflies, and at Liard Hot Springs, a provincial park. Some of the largeareas depicted as having low species richness are the most inaccessible in the province (e.g., north of SpatsiziProvincial Park) and have not been well surveyed. Such is also the case along much of B.C.’s rugged coastline.aConservation status is only assessed for entire taxonomic groups subject to the availability of information; it is not focused on speciesthat are suspected to be of conservation concern.bGrid squares correspond to 1:50,000-scale map sheets and range in size from 1,030 to 780 km 2 (the size decreases moving from south tonorth). For more information, see the National Topographic Service website: http://maps.nrcan.gc.ca/topo_e.php.

itish columbia’s natural legacytable 11. number of species considered for the analyses of species richness, conservationstatus, proportion of global range and realm overlap, by taxonomic group.Taxonomic Group Species Richness Conservation Proportion of global Realm overlapanalysiS STatus analysis range Analysis analysisBirds 187 353 352 349Conifers 25 26 26 26Flowering Plants (Monocots) 525 552 556 549Flowering Plants (Dicots) 1,339 1,404 1,403 1,402Non-marine Molluscs 0 157 157 157Mosses 0 729 760 0Ferns and Fern Allies 103 111 111 111Reptiles and Turtles 12 14 14 13Amphibians 20 20 20 20Mammals 102 109 109 109Freshwater Fish 70 67 67 67Dragonflies and Damselflies 85 86 86 86Butterflies and Skippers 172 180 180 180Total 2,640 3,808 3,841 3,069source: Prepared for this report.Liard Hot Springs, just off the AlaskaHighway in northern B.C.photo: bc parks.Despite these limitations, the observed pattern is consistent with the global pattern of decreasing species richnessat higher latitudes 197 and elevations. 198The patterns of high species richness on the province’s large coastal islands (Vancouver Island and Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands) are notable. As a rule, islands have lower diversity than areas of equal size on the adjacentmainland, with decreasing disparity as island size increases and distance from the mainland decreases. 199 Althoughthis seems to hold true for B.C.’s smaller islands, which have low species richness due to little variation in habitat,the province’s larger islands are species-rich relative to the adjacent mainland, likely because they have a mild, moistclimate, large elevational range, variation in climate and close proximity to the mainland, and because portionsof these islands were refugia during the last glaciation (see Section 2.4.1.3, p. 78).2.3.2 conservation statusConservation status rankings (Table 12) were compiled for 13 of the best-studied groups of native plants andanimals based on information current to 2007. 200 Criteria for these rankings included rarity, population size

t130°W 120°W110°W60°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e s60°NM A P 6Species richness*Legend!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLakeNumber of Species4 - 27B r i t i s h28 - 4546 - 72C o l u m b i a73 - 9798 - 132133 - 166Fort St. JohnA l b e r t a167 - 210211 - 266267 - 36955°N55°N370 - 940Units = Number of species per gridsquare based on observations since1961 (2,640 species total).Prince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of DetailEqual Interval ClassificationCalgary0 100 200Kilometres50°NNumber of SpeciesP a c i f i cO c e a nKamloopsKelowna50°NData sources:Compiled by the University ofBritish ColumbiaMap by:Caslys Consulting Ltd4 - 9899 - 191192 - 285286 - 378379 - 472VancouverIslandVancouverProjection:BC Albers NAD83Produced for:473 - 566567 - 659660 - 753VictoriaU N I T E D S T A T E S754 - 846847 - 940*Based on documented observations (the lack of an observation does not necessarily mean a species is not present).May 28, 2008130°W120°W

itish columbia’s natural legacyand trends, and the level of threat from human activity. For the purposes of this analysis, species falling intothe categories Extirpated (X), Historical (H), Critically Imperilled (1), Imperilled (2) and Vulnerable (3) wereconsidered to be species of conservation concern (also termed ‘at risk’) in British Columbia. Information wascompiled at two scales: global (G), indicating the status of a species in its worldwide range, and subnational/provincial (S), indicating the status of a species within B.C.The conservation status of a species may vary according to the area considered. For example, the sharptailedsnake has a global conservation status of G5, indicating its secure status across its entire range, buta provincial conservation status rank of S1 to convey its limited occurrence and high level of imperilmentin British Columbia. The provincial status ranking of a species can never be lower (i.e., more secure) than itsglobal status ranking.Of the 3,808 native species in British Columbia for which conservation status has been assessed, 91% areglobally secure (G5) or apparently secure (G4), whereas only 54% are provincially secure (S5) or apparentlysecure (S4) (Table 13). In B.C., 233 species (6%) are of global conservation concern and 1,640 species (43%) aretable 12. conservation status ranks for species in b.c.RANK Definition DescriptionX Extinct or Presumed Extirpated Not located despite intensive searches and no expectation of rediscovery.H Historical possibly extinct or extirpated; known only from historical occurrences, but still hope of rediscovery.1 Critically Imperilled at very high risk of extirpation or extinction due to extreme rarity (often 5 or fewer populations),steep declines or other factors, making the species especially susceptible to extirpation or extinction.2 Imperilled at high risk of extirpation or extinction due to very restricted range, few populations (often20 or fewer), steep declines, or other factors.3 Vulnerable at moderate risk of extirpation or extinction due to a restricted range, relatively few populations(often 80 or fewer), recent and widespread declines, or other factors.4 Apparently Secure Uncommon but not rare, and usually widespread in the range. Some cause for long-term concern.5 Secure Common or very common, and widespread and abundant. Not susceptible to extirpation or extinctionunder current conditions.NA Not Assessed Species whose pattern of occurrence in the province is not compatible with the assessment process.NR Not yet Ranked Rank is not yet assessed.U Unrankable Suitable information is not available for ranking.source: Adapted from Anions, M. 2006. Global and Provincial Status of Species in British Columbia. Biodiversity BC, Victoria, BC. 16pp. Available at:www.biodiversitybc.org.notes: For analyses in this report, range ranks (given when not enough information is available to score a specific rank) are rounded to the higher rank(e.g., S2S3 is rounded to S2; S2S4 is averaged to S3).Boldface indicates that species with these ranks are of conservation concern.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaof provincial conservation concern. The proportion of species in B.C. that are of global conservation concernis relatively low; of the 32,487 native species in the U.S. and Canada assessed by NatureServe, 12,700 (39%) areconsidered to be of global conservation concern. 201 The high proportion of species of provincial conservationconcern reflects, in part, the high number whose habitat in B.C. was rare even before European contact and theconcentration of ecosystem conversion in these areas; for example, in some warm, dry, low-elevation areas ofsouthern B.C. (see Section 3.2.1, p. 159).Three percent of the species considered are not assessed (NA), not yet ranked (NR) or are unrankable (U).Species not assessed are those whose pattern of occurrence in the province is not compatible with the assessmentprocess, such as some migratory species that do not breed in B.C. (e.g., short-tailed albatross [Phoebastriaalbatrus]).Within the taxonomic groups assessed, the non-marine molluscs have the highest proportion of speciesof global conservation concern (22%), followed by the mosses (12%), ferns and fern allies (12%) and reptiles andturtles (7%) (Figure 15). The groups with the highest numbers of species of global conservation concern are themosses (88 species), dicots (58 species) and non-marine molluscs (34 species). Map 7 shows the distributionof the 233 species of global conservation concern for which computerized location data were available.table 13. summary of b.c. species assessed for global and provincial conservation status.CONSERVATION STATUS rank gloBal proVINCIALNumber Percentage Number Percentageof Species of Species of Species of SpeciesExtinct or Extirpated (GX, SX) 1

itish columbia’s natural legacyWithin the taxonomic groups assessed, the mosses have the highest proportion of species of provincial conservationconcern (65%), followed by the reptiles and turtles (64%), ferns and fern allies (58%) and dicots (46%)(Figure 16). The groups with the highest numbers of species of conservation concern in the province are the dicots(651 species), mosses (471), monocots (196), birds (70) and ferns and fern allies (64). Map 8 shows the distributionof the 1,640 species of provincial conservation concern for which computerized location data were available.NON-MARINE MOLLUSCS34/157MOSSESFERNS & FERN ALLIESREPTILES & TURTLESAMPHIBIANSFLOWERING PLANTS (DICOTS)MAMMALSFRESHWATER FISHESFLOWERING PLANTS (MONOCOTS)BIRDSBUTTERFLIES & SKIPPERSDRAGONFLIES & DAMSELFLIES1/861/2058/1,4044/1093/6714/55210/3536/1801/1488/72913/111VULNERABLE (G3)IMPERILED (G2)CRITICALLY IMPERILED (G1)figure 15: Species of globalconservation concern as percent oftotal number of plant and animalspecies assessed in B.C.notes: Total number of species assessed= 3,808. For each species group, numbersshown represent the number of speciesassessed as being of global conservationconcern and the total number of species inthe group (e.g., birds: 10 species of globalconservation concern / 353 species in total).CONIFERS0/26EXTINCT OR POSSIBLY EXTINCT (GX,GH)0 5 10 15 20 25PERCENT OF ASSESSED SPECIES BY TAXONOMIC GROUP THAT ARE OF GLOBAL CONSERVATION CONCERN.MOSSES471/729REPTILES & TURTLES9/14FERNS & FERN ALLIESFLOWERING PLANTS (DICOTS)AMPHIBIANSFLOWERING PLANTS (MONOCOTS)FRESHWATER FISHESNON-MARINE MOLLUSCSMAMMALSBUTTERFLIES & SKIPPERSDRAGONFLIES & DAMSELFLIESBIRDSCONIFERS3/2670/35329/10946/18021/8623/6748/157196/552651/1,4049/2064/111VULNERABLE (S3)IMPERILED (S2)CRITICALLY IMPERILED (S1)PRESUMED OR POSSIBLY EXTIRPATED (SX,SH)figure 16: Species of provincialconservation concern as percent oftotal number of plant and animalspecies assessed in B.C.notes: Total number of species assessed= 3,808. For each species group, numbersshown represent the number of speciesassessed as being of provincial conservationconcern and the total number of species inthe group (e.g., birds: 70 species of provincialconservation concern / 353 species in total).0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70PERCENT OF ASSESSED SPECIES BY TAXONOMIC GROUP THAT ARE OF PROVINCIAL CONSERVATION CONCERN.

t130°W 120°W110°W60°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e s60°NM A P 7Species richness:species of globalconservation concern*Legend!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLakeNumber of SpeciesB r i t i s hC o l u m b i aNo observations1234Fort St. JohnA l b e r t a567855°N55°N10 - 1314 - 24Units = Number of species per gridsquare based on observations since1961 (233 species total).Prince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of DetailCalgary0 100 20050°NEqual Interval ClassificationNumber of SpeciesNo observationsP a c i f i cO c e a nKamloopsKelowna50°NKilometresData sources:Compiled by the University ofBritish ColumbiaMap by:Caslys Consulting Ltd1 - 34 - 67 - 89 - 1011 - 13VancouverIslandVancouverProjection:BC Albers NAD83Produced for:14 - 1516 - 1718 - 19VictoriaU N I T E D S T A T E S20 - 2223 - 24*Based on documented observations (the lack of an observation does not necessarily mean a species is not present).May 28, 2008130°W120°W

t130°W 120°W110°WM A P 860°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e s60°NSpecies richness:species of provincialconservation concern*Legend!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLakeNumber of SpeciesB r i t i s hC o l u m b i a1 - 45 - 78 - 1011 - 13Fort St. JohnA l b e r t a14 - 1718 - 2223 - 2930 - 3855°N55°N39 - 5960 - 200Units = Number of species per gridsquare based on observations since1961 (1,640 species total).Prince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of DetailCalgary0 100 20050°NEqual Interval ClassificationNumber of SpeciesP a c i f i cO c e a nKamloopsKelowna50°NKilometresData sources:Compiled by the University ofBritish ColumbiaMap by:Caslys Consulting Ltd1 - 2122 - 4142 - 6162 - 8182 - 101VancouverIslandVancouverProjection:BC Albers NAD83Produced for:102 - 120121 - 140141 - 160161 - 180VictoriaU N I T E D S T A T E S181 - 200*Based on documented observations (the lack of an observation does not necessarily mean a species is not present).May 28, 2008130°W120°W

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatext box 8.extinct and extirpated speciesAn extinct species is one that has disappeared from its global range. An extirpated species is one that isno longer found in a given area (i.e., in B.C., for the purposes of this report) despite intensive searches,and for which there is little hope of rediscovery. Extinct species are gone forever, but an extirpated specieshas the potential to be reintroduced. 202 Fourteen species once found in B.C. have been designated extinctor extirpated (Table 14). An additional 28 species are considered historic, meaning there is no verifiedrecord of their presence in the past 40 years; although they are possibly extinct or extirpated, rediscoveryremains a possibility (see Appendix A, p.231). Extinct and extirpated taxa below the species level (subspecies,populations, varieties) are discussed in Section 2.4.2 (p. 82).table 14. extinct and presumed extirpated species in b.c.TAXONOMIC GROUP Scientific NAme common name conservation statusBirds Centrocercus urophasianus Greater sage grouse ExtirpatedCoccyzus americanus Yellow-billed cuckoo Extirpated (breedingpopulations)Ectopistes migratorius Passenger pigeon ExtinctReptiles and Turtles Actinemys marmorata Western pond turtle ExtirpatedPhrynosoma douglasii Pigmy short-horned lizard ExtirpatedButterflies Limenitis archippus Viceroy ExtirpatedNon-marine Molluscs Cryptomastix devia Puget oregonian ExtirpatedVascular Plants Downingia elegans Common downingia ExtirpatedEpilobium torreyi Brook spike-primrose ExtirpatedLepidium oxycarpum Sharp-pod peppergrass ExtirpatedLupinus oreganos Kincaid’s lupine ExtirpatedNon-vascular Plants Micromitrium tenerum [no common name] ExtirpatedPhyscomitrium immersum [no common name] ExtirpatedPseudephemerum nitidum [no common name] Extirpatedsource: Prepared for this report with data from the B.C. Conservation Data Centre.notes: Kincaid’s lupine (Lupinus oreganus var. kincaidii) is the only variety of Lupinus oreganus represented in B.C. and is thereforelisted at the species level.The western pond turtle has not been recorded since 1966 and there are only two previous specimen records. It may have beenintroduced, but there is no concrete evidence to suggest this. Proximity to Puget Sound populations suggests that a B.C. nativepopulation was a possibility (Cannings, S.G., L.R. Ramsay, D.F. Fraser and M.A. Fraker. 1999. Rare amphibians, reptiles, and mammals ofBritish Columbia. Wildlife Branch and Resources Inventory Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, BC. 198pp.).

itish columbia’s natural legacy2.3.2.1 species of conservation concern in the terrestrial, freshwatera n d m a r i n e r e a l m sFor the analysis of species status within the terrestrial and freshwater realms, as well as those that overlap withthe marine realm, the number of species associated with each realm was determined by classifying speciesaccording to their requirements for terrestrial, freshwater or marine ecosystems for at least one of their liferequisites (food, shelter or reproduction). Species that require both marine and freshwater, or both marine andterrestrial, ecosystems were included in the analysis. Exclusively marine species were not included.The assessment of 3,079 species of vertebrates, invertebrates and vascular plants a showed that 2,612 species(85%) are associated with terrestrial ecosystems, 769 (25%) with freshwater ecosystems and 152 (5%) withmarine ecosystems (Table 15). b Species that require more than one ecosystem type to meet all of their liferequisites are counted in each appropriate realm. For example, Merriam’s shrew (Sorex merriami) relies only onterrestrial ecosystems for all of its life requisites and is classified as terrestrial, whereas the Pacific water shrew(Sorex bendirii) dens on land and forages in or near water and is classified as both terrestrial and freshwater.Because the marbled murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus) nests in old-growth trees in forests, forages forboth marine and freshwater prey, and winters at sea, it is counted in all three realms.table 15. conservation status for b.c. vertebrate, invertebrate and vascular plant species associated withthe terrestrial, freshwater and marine realms.Realm TOTal conSERVATION STATUS RANK (NUmber of Species)ASSOCIATEDPRESUMED poSSIBLY criTically imperilled VULNERABLE SPECIES ofSPECIESeXTINCT or exTINCT or imperilled conservationexTIRPATED exTIRPATEd concern asproportion ofspecies AssessedProvincial Global Provincial Global Provincial Global Provincial Global Provincial Global Provincial Global(SX) (GX) (SH) (GH) (S1) (G1) (S2) (G2) (S3) (G3)Terrestrial 2,612 10 1 18 0 203 6 327 14 459 100 39% 5%Freshwater 769 1 0 10 1 55 5 81 5 97 18 32% 4%Marine 152 0 0 1 0 11 2 17 0 22 11 34% 9%source: Prepared for this report with data from the B.C. Conservation Data Centre.notes: Total number of species assessed = 3,079 (including vertebrates, invertebrates and vascular plants; excluding mosses). Some species are associatedwith more than one realm. ‘Marine’ includes species that require both marine and freshwater, or both marine and terrestrial, ecosystems, but does notinclude exclusively marine species.aMosses were excluded due to lack of information.bSpecies were assigned to the marine, terrestrial and freshwater realms by J. Cooper, B. Costanzo, A. Eriksson, J. Heron, D. Nagorsen, G.Scudder or L. Warman.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaPercent of Species50%40%30%20%10%0%1,017/2,612121/2,612244/76929/76951/152Terrestrial Freshwater MarinePROVINCIAL CONSERVATION CONCERNGLOBAL CONSERVATION CONCERN13/152figure 17: Species of global andprovincial conservation concern in theterrestrial, freshwater and marine realms.notes: Total number of species assessed =3,079 (including vertebrates, invertebratesand vascular plants; excluding mosses). Somespecies are associated with more than onerealm.Of the species assessed, 1,017 (39%) terrestrial species, 244 (32%) freshwater species, and 53 (34%) marineoverlap species are of provincial conservation concern, and 121 (5%) terrestrial species, 29 (4%) freshwater speciesand 14 (9%) marine overlap species are of global conservation concern (Figure 17).text box 9.trends in conservation status of select groupsof species and subspecies 203,204The B.C. Conservation Data Centre annually reviews the conservation ranks for B.C. species and subspecies.The conservation rank for a species can change because of a genuine improvement or deterioration in thestatus of the species or for several other reasons. For example, a species rank may be adjusted because the assessorhas access to improved information or because a previously unknown population has been discovered.To determine the true change in status for the groups of species shown in Figure 18, all available speciesranks were compared between a point in the 1990s and one in the 2000s. All changes in rank thatwere due to changes in knowledge about that species, how it was assessed or how it was classified taxonomicallywere removed.This analysis of four of B.C.’s best-studied groups shows that for mammals, freshwater fish and vascularplants of highest conservation concern, more species and subspecies have experienced a deteriorationin conservation status since the 1990s than have experienced an improvement. The large number ofbreeding birds with improved status is in large part due to new immigrant species (i.e., species that haveentered the province without human assistance). Because of their initial small populations, they wereoriginally ranked as being of high conservation concern, but many of these species have since expandedtheir ranges, resulting in gradual improvement in their conservation status ranks. As a group, breedingbirds also had the largest proportion and largest total number of species whose conservation statusdeteriorated. Due to their mobility, it is possible that birds respond more rapidly – both positively andnegatively – to habitat change and climate change. A majority of species in all four of the groups analyzedshowed no change in conservation status during the period examined.

itish columbia’s natural legacy2.3.3 proportion of global range for species14%The proportion of global range was assessed based on seven classes, ranging from 1 (Endemic; 100% of globalrange or population in British Columbia) to 7 (Low and Localized; 30% ofthe province and by extension must have a large global range). For example, fishers (Martes pennanti) are sufficientlywidespread that no jurisdiction has more than 10% of the global range. 205Most of the assessments for species were based on the proportion of global range occurring in British Co-Percent of Species8%6%4%6/1376/92lumbia using range maps and available presence or absence information. Although ideally the proportion of thepopulation within a jurisdiction would be used, this could only be approximated for three broad groups of species– birds showing strong seasonal aggregations, some marine mammals that congregate on land (e.g., Stellersea lion [Eumetopias jubatus]), and well-monitored game species – as well as for a few species of conservationconcern (e.g., American white pelican [Pelecanus erythrorhynchos], Vancouver Island marmot).table 16. summary of b.c. species by global range class.2%0%Mammals(1992-2007)1/92IMPROVINGDETERIORATINGFreshwaterfish(1992-2005)Breedingbirds(1991-2006)1/2835/283Red-listedVascularPlants(1996-2005)GLOBAL RANGE CLASS numBER OF SPECIES Percent of totalin Range ClassSpecies AssessedEndemic (1) 15

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaThe proportion of global range was assessed for 3,841 native species in 13 taxonomic groups (Table 16).Of these, 99 species (3%) have a majority of their global range in the province. Fifteen species, 10 of which areplants, are endemic (Class 1). Only one B.C. endemic species, Newcombe’s butterweed (Sinosenecio newcombei),is not of conservation concern.The groups with the highest proportion of species that have a majority of their global range in B.C. are theconifers (12%), freshwater fish (7%), non-marine molluscs (5%), birds (3%) and amphibians (5%) (Figure 19).The dicots have the highest number of species with a majority of their global range in B.C. (33).Computerized location data were available for 82 of the 99 species with a majority of their global range inB.C. Species richness for these species is shown in Map 9.Currently, 30 of the 233 B.C. species that are of global conservation concern are also among the 99 species witha majority of their global range in B.C. (Table 17). 206 An additional 11 species with a majority of their global range inB.C. are among the 1,640 of provincial conservation concern, but are not of global conservation concern. It shouldbe noted that not all species in the province have been assessed, including most invertebrate groups.figure 19: Species with a majorityof their global range in B.C. as apercent of the species assessed.notes: Total number of species assessed= 3,841. For each species group, numbersshown represent the number of speciesassessed as having the majority of theirglobal range in B.C. and the total numberof species in the group (e.g., birds:12 species of global conservationconcern / 352 species in total).ConifersFreshwater FishesNon-marine MolluscsMammalsFerns & Fern AlliesAmphibiansMossesBirdsFlowering Plants (Dicots)Butterflies & SkippersFlowering Plants (Monocots)Reptiles & TurtlesDragonflies & Dragonlies1/1802/5560/140/8626/76012/35233/1,4038/1575/1095/1111/205/673/26HIGH (3)VERY HIGH (2)ENDEMIC (1)0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14PERCENT OF SPECIES ASSESSED WITH MAJORITY OF GLOBAL RANGE IN B.C., BY TAXONOMIC GROUP.

t130°W 120°W110°W60°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e s60°NM A P 9Species richness: specieswith a majority of theirglobal range in B.C.*Legend!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLakeNumber of SpeciesB r i t i s hNo observations1 - 2C o l u m b i a3 - 45 - 67 - 8Fort St. JohnA l b e r t a9 - 1011 - 1213 - 1455°N55°N15 - 1617 - 1920 - 35Units = Number of species per gridsquare based on observations since1961 (80 species total).Prince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of DetailCalgary0 100 20050°NEqual Interval ClassificationNumber of SpeciesNo observations1 - 45 - 89 - 1112 - 1516 - 1819 - 2122 - 2526 - 2829 - 3233 - 35P a c i f i cO c e a nVancouverIslandVancouverVictoriaKamloopsKelownaU N I T E D S T A T E S*Based on documented observations (the lack of an observation does not necessarily mean a species is not present).50°NKilometresData sources:Compiled by the University ofBritish ColumbiaMap by:Caslys Consulting LtdProjection:BC Albers NAD83Produced for:May 28, 2008130°W120°W

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaAt the species level, B.C. has a very low level of endemism, considering that 5,000 or more species have beenrecorded elsewhere in global hot spots of plant endemism. 207,208 This is consistent with the province’s recent historyof glaciation. Of the insects, only the dragonflies and butterflies were included in this assessment. Although manyother invertebrate species are currently listed as endemic in British Columbia, 209 they may not be true endemicsand their listing may be due to a lack of collecting and knowledge of their full distribution. Information is also veryincomplete on mosses and lichens endemic to the Pacific Northwest and known to occur in B.C. 210table 17. species of provincial or global conservation concern with a majority of their global range in b.c.SCIENTIFIc name common name conservation status rank proportion ofglobal concern Provincial concern GLOBAL range classBirdsPtychoramphus aleuticus Cassin’s auklet G4 S2S3 (breeding) Very High (2)S4 (non-breeding)Freshwater FishLampetra macrostoma Vancouver (or Cowichan Lake) lamprey G1 S1 Endemic (1)Salvelinus confluentus Bull trout G3 S3 High (3)MammalsMarmota vancouverensis Vancouver Island marmot G1 S1 Endemic (1)Myotis keenii Keen’s myotis G2G3 S1S3 Very High (2)Sorex bendirii Pacific water shrew G4 S1S2 High (3)Non-marine MolluscsFossaria truncatula Attenuate fossaria G3 S3 High (3)Fossaria vancouverensis [no common name] GH SH Very High (2)Hemphillia dromedarius Dromedary jumping slug G3G4 S2 High (3)Physella wrighti Hotwater physa G1 S1 Endemic (1)Planorbella columbiensis Caribou rams-horn G1G2 SH Endemic (1)Pristiloma chersinella Black-footed tightcoil G3G4 S3S4 High (3)Vascular PlantsAsplenium adulterinum Corrupt spleenwort G3 S2S3 Endemic (1)Aster paucicapitatus Olympic mountain aster G3 S3 High (3)Bidens amplissima Vancouver Island beggarticks G3 S3 Very High (2)Enemion savilei Queen Charlotte false rue-anemone G3G4 S3S4 Endemic (1)Erigeron trifidus Three-lobed daisy G2G3 S2 High (3)Geum schofieldii Queen Charlotte avens G2 S2 Endemic (1)Impatiens aurella Orange touch-me-not G4 S2S3 High (3)Isoetes minima Midget quillwort G1G2 S1 High (3)continued on page 65

itish columbia’s natural legacytable 17. continuedSCIENTIFIc name common name conservation status rank proportion ofglobal concern Provincial concern GLOBAL range classVascular PlantsLigusticum caldera Calder’s lovage G3G4 S3S4 Very High (2)Limnanthes macounii Macoun’s meadow-foam G2 S2 Endemic (1)Listera convallarioides Broad-leaved twayblade G5 S3S4 High (3)Saxifraga taylori Taylor’s saxifrage G3G4 S3S4 Endemic (1)Senecio moresbiensis Queen Charlotte butterweed G3 S3 High (3)Sinosenecio newcombei Newcombe’s butterweed* G4 S4 Endemic (1)Talinum sediforme Okanagan fameflower G3 S2S3 High (3)Viola biflora Queen Charlotte twinflower violet G5 S3 High (3)Non-vascular PlantsAndreaea sinuosa [no common name] G2 S1 High (3)Brotherella roellii [no common name] G3 S3 Endemic (1)Bryhnia hultenii [no common name] G4 S1 High (3)Ctenidium schofieldii [no common name] G2G3 S2S3 Endemic (1)Orthotrichum pulchellum [no common name] G4 S3S4 High (3)Pohlia cardotii [no common name] GU S2S3 High (3)Pohlia columbica [no common name] G3G5 S1S3 High (3)Pohlia pacifica [no common name] GU S1S3 Endemic (1)Seligeria careyana [no common name] G1 S1 Endemic (1)Trematodon boasii [no common name] G1 S1 High (3)Trematodon montanus [no common name] G1 S1 High (3)Ulota obtusiuscula [no common name] GU S3S4 High (3)Wijkia carlottae [no common name] G2 S2 Endemic (1)Zygodon gracilis [no common name] G2 S1 High (3)sources: Anions, M. 2006. Global and Provincial Status of Species in British Columbia. Biodiversity BC, Victoria, BC. 16pp.; and Bunnell, F., L. Kremsater and I. Houde.2006. Applying the Concept of Stewardship Responsibility in British Columbia. Biodiversity BC, Victoria, BC. 188pp. Both available at: www.biodiversitybc.org.notes: *Newcombe’s butterweed is the only B.C. endemic species that is not of conservation concern. It is included here to provide a complete list of endemic species.Only one subspecies (ssp. carlottae) of Viola biflora occurs in B.C., therefore it is included at the species level. All non-vascular plants listed in the table are mosses.2.3.3.1 species at the edge of their rangeOf the species that were assessed for the proportion of their global range in B.C., 2,963 (78%) have

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaThe proportion of the global range that occurs in B.C. is increasing for some species. 211 Species range shiftsdue to climate change are generally expected to be northwards, 212, 213,214,215,216,217 and such shifts are facilitated bythe north-south orientation of mountain ranges in B.C. Researchers have also found that mammal species thatare reduced to less than 25% of their historic range tend to become limited to the periphery of their range; 74%of those studied showed this trend, and the most common direction of the collapse was from east to west and fromsouth to north. 218 This suggests there may be a tendency for species ranges to collapse toward B.C.Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus)are marine mammals that haul out onB.C.’s rocky islets.photo: nancy nehring.2.3.4 species overlap: realm and jurisdictionalSpecies and ecosystems transcend lines on maps. Natural processes and human actions in one realm or jurisdictioncan have a profound impact on biodiversity in adjacent realms or jurisdictions. Some species, suchas the eulachon, marbled murrelet and anadromous salmon, spend portions of their life cycles in differentrealms. Others, like the Steller sea lion, may transit between the terrestrial and marine realms on a daily basisand between jurisdictions over the course of their life.2.3.4.1 species that overlap with the marine realmSome species require marine ecosystems in addition to freshwater and/or terrestrial ecosystems in order to liveor complete their life cycle. These species have adapted to take advantage of the different structures of the tworealms (see Section 2.2.3, p. 45). Marine mammals such as harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) haul out on rocky islets.Seabirds often nest near freshwater lakes or on cliffs, or, like the marbled murrelet, in the tops of trees. Somegrasses and sedges are found in brackish tidal marshes, providing habitat for terrestrial and marine species.table 18. terrestrial and freshwater species in b.c. that overlap with the marine realm.TAXONOMIC Number oF number of SpecieS number of Species withGroup oVERLAP Species of conservation conCern majority of global rangeprovincial concern global concern in B.C. (classes 1-3)Birds 77 17 7 2Freshwater Fish 8 3 1 1Mammals 6 2 2 0Vascular Plants 61 29 3 0TOTAL 152 51 13 3source: Prepared for this report.notes: For number of species considered, see Table 11, p. 51. For taxonomic groups listed in Table 11 and not listed in this table, therewere no species that overlap with the marine realm. Vascular plants include flowering plants (monocots and dicots) and conifers.

itish columbia’s natural legacyOf the 152 species of vertebrates, invertebrates and vascular plants identified as marine overlap species (Table18), 51 are of provincial conservation concern and 13 are of global conservation concern. The latter include thepink-footed shearwater (Puffinus creatopus), a seabird that is critically imperilled in its global range; the Stellersea lion, which congregates in rookeries, generally on remote rocky islands, for breeding and pupping (see Section2.5.2.1-B, p. 139); and Alaskan orache (Atriplex alaskensis), an annual herb that grows in saline soils alongcoastlines and is possibly extirpated from B.C. The three marine overlap species of global conservation concernthat have the majority of their global range in B.C. are Barrow’s goldeneye (Bucephala islandica), Cassin’s auklet(Ptychoramphus aleuticus) and sockeye salmon.2 . 3 . 4 . 2 s p e c i e s t h a t o v e r l a p w i t h o t h e r j u r i s d i c t i o n sPlants and animals do not recognize political boundaries. They may migrate, travel throughout their homeranges, swim along river systems or, in some cases, travel with the wind or attached to other organisms thatmove from one place to another. Habitats are often intersected by jurisdictional boundaries, which, like theboundary between Canada and the United States, frequently follow non-ecological lines. Even within BritishColumbia, management responsibility for species and habitats may shift from one entity to another, with overlappingresponsibilities.British Columbia shares its boundaries with seven other jurisdictions: three in Canada – the Yukon, Albertaand the Northwest Territories – and four in the United States – Alaska, Washington, Montana and Idaho. BecauseB.C. has very few endemic species (see Table 16, p. 61), the province shares almost all of its species with one ormore of these other jurisdictions. To complicate matters, some species of butterflies, birds and anadromous fishmigrate between British Columbia and distant jurisdictions or have disjunct seasonal distributions.Using data from NatureServe and WildSpecies a,219 the status of 140 species of vertebrates (amphibians, birds,freshwater fish, mammals, and reptiles and turtles) of conservation concern in B.C. was compared with theirstatus in adjacent jurisdictions (Table 19). This analysis was limited to vertebrate species because they are themost consistently assessed across jurisdictions and have the greatest amount of data to support the assessmentsconducted.Taxonomic groups with the highest numbers of shared species are those that are most mobile, such as birds.The jurisdictions with the highest numbers of shared species are those located south of B.C. This correspondswith the higher levels of species richness in the southern parts of the province.Most species have been assessed in at least one neighbouring jurisdiction, but only 20% of species are notof conservation concern in any jurisdiction other than B.C., although 60% are not of conservation concern in ataWildSpecies data were used to identify conservation status for species in the Northwest Territories that were not found in theNatureServe database.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbialeast one neighbouring jurisdiction. More than 35% of the species are of conservation concern in all neighbouringjurisdictions in which they are present and have been assessed. Each jurisdiction has some species that arepresent, but have not been assessed.Of particular interest are the recorded occurrences of species that are of conservation concern in B.C., yetsecure in other jurisdictions. For example, the sage thrasher (Oreoscoptes montanus) is critically imperilled inB.C. and secure in Idaho. This may be the result of a common species from an adjacent jurisdiction expandingits range into B.C., where it establishes small, discrete populations that are of greater conservation concern thanthe core population. 220 Other possible explanations include species being historically and naturally rare in B.C.,or species being impacted by threats in B.C. that are not as prevalent in adjacent jurisdictions.Several species that are presumed or possibly extirpated (SX, SH) in B.C. are found in Washington, but are alleither critically imperilled, imperilled or possibly extirpated in that jurisdiction. 221 Only two of the species thatare presumed or possibly extirpated in B.C. are found in jurisdictions other than Washington. Both are foundin Montana and Idaho, where they are either of conservation concern or unranked.table 19. number of vertebrate species of provincial conservation concern in b.c. that are shared with adjacent jurisdictions.not of mixed oF endemic Notconservation conservation conservation to B.C. endemicconcern in any status in concern in But notaDJacent adjacent all adjacent assessed inTaxonomic Jurisdiction* jurisdictions* jurisdictions* any adjacentgroupBritish COLUMBIAALBERTAALASKAYUKONTERRITOryNorthwestTERRITORIESMONTANAIDAHOWASHINGTONJurisdictionAmphibians 9 2 0 1(1) 0 4 5 8(1) 4 2 3 0 0Birds 70 45(8) 27(4) 29(6) 37(1) 43(7) 43(6) 59(5) 8 38 24 0 0Freshwater 23 10(1) 4(4) 11(1) 10(1) 9(2) 8(2) 10 9 6 5 1 2FishMammals 29 13(1) 7 7(1) 9(4) 20 18(1) 25(2) 5 8 15 1 0Reptiles 9 3(1) 0 0 0 4 7(1) 9 2 4 3 0 0and TurtlesTotal 140 73 38 48 56 80 81 111 28 58 50 2 2source: Adapted from Ohlson, D. 2007. Overlap: Investigations and Review. Biodiversity BC, Victoria, BC. 55pp.notes: Numbers in parentheses are the number of species occurring in the jurisdiction that have not been assessed.*Does not include jurisdictions where the species are known to occur but have not been assessed.

itish columbia’s natural legacy2.3.4.3 migratory species in b.c.Many B.C. species migrate to areas outside the province during their life cycle. However, their migrations are oftenpoorly understood. Many migrating species are particularly vulnerable to local threats at those times of the yearwhen they are concentrated in large numbers or when many individuals pass through particular areas.The taxonomic group with the largest known number of migratory species is birds. Migrants include shorebirds,waterfowl, land birds and water birds. B.C. is important as both a breeding area and migration area, with306 species that breed in the province, but spend portions of their life elsewhere. 222,223 For example, Hammond’sflycatcher (Empidonax hammondii), MacGillivray’s warbler (Oporornis tolmiei) and the western tanager (Pirangaludoviciana) breed in many areas of B.C., but winter in southern regions, from Baja California to Costa Rica.Other species, such as Wilson’s phalarope (Phalaropus tricolor) and Swainson’s hawk (Buteo swainsoni) traveleven farther, to winter in southern South America.B.C.’s location along the Pacific Flyway, which extends from Alaska to Mexico, makes it important as a wintering,migratory stopover or breeding area for many migratory birds. Significant global or continental populationsof migrating shorebirds in B.C. include the black turnstone (Arenaria melanocephala), dunlin (Calidris alpina),long-billed dowitcher (Limnodromus scolopaceus), rock sandpiper (Calidris ptilocnemis), surfbird (Aphrizavirgata) and western sandpiper (Calidris mauri). 224 The Fraser River delta is a key area of species concentration,with up to 1.2 million sandpipers and 600,000 dunlins migrating through each year (see Section 2.5.2.1-A,p. 137), 225 as is the east coast of Vancouver Island. 226 Currently, approximately 25% of the North American trumpeterswan (Cygnus buccinator) population uses the Pacific Flyway to migrate to and winter on the east coastof Vancouver Island. a,227 Significant populations of geese, including 50% of the Wrangel Island population of thesnow goose (Chen caerulescens), and approximately 2,000 western high-Arctic brant and black brant (Brantabernicla nigricans), use the Pacific Flyway to access key estuaries and mudflats such as those found in BoundaryBay and the Parksville-Qualicum area. 228 Thayer’s gulls (Larus thayeri) also breed in the Arctic and winteralong the Pacific coast. 229The largest wintering population of birds of prey in Canada is found in the Fraser River delta. 230 Various duckspecies winter along the coast, especially north of Prince Rupert, on Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands andnear estuaries in the Fraser River delta and Baynes Sound. The Interior Plateau supports the highest densitiesof breeding waterfowl in B.C. (approximately 420,000 breeding ducks) and serves as an important stopoverpoint for migrating waterfowl. 231 Sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis) use stopover sites in B.C. on the way to theirAlaska breeding grounds, and also breed in several locations in the province. 232aUntil recently, the east coast of Vancouver Island supported 50% of the continental population of the trumpeter swan. The percentagehas gradually declined with the extension of this species’ range into Washington State (A. Breault, Environment Canada, personalcommunication).

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaMigratory butterflies that breed in B.C. and winter in the southwestern U.S. and Mexico include the monarch(Danaus plexippus), painted lady (Vanessa cardui) and west coast lady (V. annabella). 233 Some bats, such as thehoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus), are thought to breed in B.C. and winter outside the province. 234 The green sturgeon(Acipenser medirostris) breeds in rivers in northern California and Oregon, but migrates in small numbers tothe west coast of Vancouver Island and to the Skeena River. 235 Historically, this species was found in the FraserRiver, but there is no evidence that it spawned in B.C. Salmon are also migratory, as they lay eggs and rear withinfreshwater systems and, during the marine phase of their life, many individuals migrate outside B.C. waters tofeed for several years before returning to B.C. streams to spawn.text box 10.western sandpiper: a far-ranging speciesMost of the global population of thewestern sandpiper (Calidris mauri)migrates along B.C.’s coast every year.photo: tom munson.The western sandpiper breeds in western Alaska and eastern Siberia, but the primary migration routefor almost the entire world population of this species incorporates the B.C. coast. 236 In the fall, the birds migratesouth along the Pacific Flyway, pausing at major stopover sites in the Kachemak lowlands and CopperRiver delta in Alaska, the Stikine, Copper and Fraser River deltas in B.C., Gray’s Harbor, Washington and SanFrancisco Bay, California, on their way to overwintering sites in the coastal southeastern U.S., northwesternMexico and Panama Bay, and even as far south as northern Peru. 237 During the northward migration backto Alaska in the spring, western sandpipers can number up to one million on a single day at Canadian andU.S. sites, aggregations that are 10 to 15 times larger than during the fall migration.Western sandpipers use muddy intertidal habitats along their migration route, consuming seven timestheir body weight per day. 238 Migrating sandpipers are dependent on specific stopover sites where biofilm,which accounts for 50% of their daily energy budget, is available on mud flats. 239 This makes them vulnerableto changes in environmental conditions. Furthermore, this species has a relatively low rate of reproduction,making it difficult for populations to recover from impacts.Threats, both localized and widespread, include wetland conversion and degradation, runoff of agriculturalpesticides and industrial pollutants, oil spills and sea-level rise resulting from climate change, whichcould inundate intertidal wetlands or alter wetland ecosystems through saltwater incursion. Some threatsto breeding groups, stopover sites or overwintering sites are outside B.C.’s control. The U.S. Shorebird ConservationPlan considers this to be a species of moderate concern with known or potential threats. 240

itish columbia’s natural legacy2 . 3 . 5 d ata g a p sAppendix B (p.232) summarizes the state of knowledge and information gaps for the major taxa of native terrestrialand freshwater organisms in British Columbia, focusing on the availability of up-to-date species checklists,handbooks or systematic monographs, computerized geo-referenced distributional databases, and taxonomic/systematic expertise at the local (i.e., B.C.) level.For many taxa, up-to-date species checklists are lacking and there are few handbooks or systematic monographsavailable.There are computerized geo-referenced occurrence (point) databases for vertebrates, vascular plants anda few insect groups (e.g., butterflies, dragonflies and damselflies), but these are biased by being concentratedclose to roads. Many parts of B.C. have never been surveyed or have not been surveyed for decades. Speciesdistribution mapping is unavailable for all but a handful of species. These limitations affect the completenessof the species richness analyses in this report.There is little local taxonomic expertise and many existing experts have retired and not been replaced.As elsewhere in the world, an ‘extinction of experience’ is occurring. 241 This is particularly significant for theconservation of invertebrate and non-vascular plant species that have not yet been documented in the provinceor described scientifically; the number of such species is believed to be large.Except for birds, large mammals and certain salmon stocks, there is no ongoing monitoring of distributionor population trends. As a result it will be difficult to detect and respond to these changes in a timely fashion.Conservation status has not been assessed for the majority of B.C. species, with only approximately 3,800having been assessed out of an estimated total of 50,000, 242 not including single-celled organisms. For thosespecies that have been assessed, global status often has not been updated for over a decade. 243 Information onthe global range of most species is very coarse, which limits the ability to accurately estimate the proportionof the global range that occurs in B.C. Some species have been assessed in B.C., but not in neighbouring jurisdictions,making inter-jurisdictional comparisons of species status difficult.2.4 Genetic Diversity in British ColumbiaGenes are the functional units of heredity, and genetic diversity permits species to adapt to changing environmentsand continue to participate in life’s processes (see Section 1.1, p. 5). By limiting movement betweenpopulations and creating varied ecosystems, British Columbia’s complex topography, climate and glacial

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaGenetic data helps biologists identifydistinctive lineages, which may not beapparent from observations of size,shape, appearance or behaviour.photo: bruce mclellan.history have facilitated the evolution of a wide variety of local adaptations. In B.C., many species are made upof numerous geographically separate subspecies or populations, which each have a distinctive genetic makeupand characteristic appearance, environmental tolerances and/or behaviour. 244,245,246,247,248,249 Recently, some ofthese subspecies have been shown to represent true species, that are endemic to the region, 250 and it is certainthat additional variation below the species level exists, particularly in taxonomic groups that have so far receivedlittle attention from science (e.g., bryophytes, invertebrates, lichens). Even in well-studied plant and animalgroups, some species remain undescribed.Many subspecies that were historically isolated in coastal B.C., Beringia or the Rocky Mountains divergedfrom ancestral types as glaciers advanced, then later radiated out from these historic refugia to hybridize withancestral forms that were previously restricted to the south and east (see Section 1.4, p. 15). 251,252,253,254,255 Hybridsuture zones (see Section 2.4.1.4, p. 82) can represent regions of very high genetic diversity and rapid evolution,depending on their degree of subspecies differentiation, the frequency of hybridization and the success of thehybrids produced. 256Because human activities modify natural landscapes and species distributions, humans may also influencethe rate of evolution and the persistence of populations that are uniquely adapted to the B.C. environment.Although more than 60 species inhabiting B.C. have been subjects of genetic analysis, 257 practical limits onresearch and the very large number of unstudied species generally preclude genetic classification below thespecies level. Consequently, biologists use simplifying concepts and measures to establish rules of thumb forconserving genetic diversity and use genetic data (where it exists) along with observations of size, shape, appearanceand behaviour (collectively called phenotype) to identify distinctive lineages. Although our knowledgeof genetic diversity is limited, it is vital to any discussion of biodiversity.what is genetic variation?Genetic variation can be thought of as a species’ tool kit for life, with some genes being more or less usefulin current environments (adaptive genetic variation) and others having no current influence, despite beingpotentially influential in the future or past (neutral genetic variation). Genetically diverse populations – thosewith well-equipped ‘toolboxes’ – are thought to be best able to survive, to pass on adaptive traits to descendentsand to contribute positively to their persistence. This may be particularly true for populations at the peripheryof a species’ range, where organisms are more likely to encounter, and potentially adapt, to novel environmentalchallenges, such as those associated with climate change. 258,259

itish columbia’s natural legacyGenes vary in their frequency of occurrence in populations and their interaction with companion genes.Unique combinations of genes result in genetic diversity. In nature, new genes arise regularly via mutation,with beneficial, deleterious or no detectable effect on the individuals carrying them. At the population level,whether or not mutations persist depends on their effect on individuals and the size and degree of isolation ofpopulations. Conserving genetic diversity at the population level is an overall goal of biodiversity conservationbecause genetic variation affects the adaptability and viability of organisms, populations and species. 260,261 Thisis particularly important in the face of climate change. 262genetic variation, divergence and population sizeLarger populations typically retain more genetic diversity than smaller ones, 263 but diversity also dependson history, population distribution and life history traits of species. The actual number of individuals in apopulation, referred to as the census population size, tends to overestimate genetic diversity because manyfactors act to reduce the variety of genes inherited by successive generations. Thus, geneticists focus on effectivepopulation size (N e): an estimate based on the number of individuals contributing genes to future generationsand the rate at which populations lose genetic variation over time. Factors such as population sex ratio, matingsystem, population bottlenecks, growth rate, inbreeding and population fragmentation can all influence theN e and, in doing so, affect the ability of a population to retain genetic variation. 264Genetic patterns in isolated populations are governed by the forces of mutation, drift and selection. N e influenceshow genetic variation is retained in populations and, potentially, how effectively populations respondto environmental change. Ideally, natural selection removes deleterious genes and favours beneficial ones,leading to changes in gene frequency (i.e., the frequency of a gene in a given population). This process, alsoknown as adaptation, can act rapidly in small, isolated populations, such as those on actual islands or habitatislands, and on populations at the edge of a species’ range. It has undoubtedly contributed to the divergenceof isolated populations inhabiting coastal archipelagos, mountain ranges, drainages and specialized habitats(e.g., karst, bogs) in B.C. For these reasons, populations that have been isolated for many generations oftencontain unique genetic diversity. Genetic diversity can be lost if human activities facilitate dispersal betweengenetically differentiated populations.Small population size also facilitates reductions in genetic diversity and population viability, particularly inspecies that were once widely distributed, but have become isolated due to habitat loss and fragmentation, orwhose numbers have been greatly reduced due to exploitation. 265 B.C. species that have experienced severe populationfragmentation and decline include the Vancouver Island marmot and many species associated with Garry

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaoak ecosystems or inhabiting dammed rivers. Reductions in genetic diversity become more likely in such speciesbecause random effects may eliminate beneficial genes from, or embed deleterious genes in, small populations.Overall, N e is the single most important factor affecting genetic diversity in populations, and is therefore akey parameter in making decisions related to gene conservation. Studies of natural populations suggest thatN e averages about 11% of the census population size. 266 Thus, in a population of 300 individuals, the effectivepopulation size is about 33 individuals. Long-term viability analyses indicate that minimum N eranges from 500to 5,000, 267,268 implying census populations of 5,000 to 50,000 individuals. 269Populations or individual genotypes from one area may be genetically incompatible with local environmentalconditions elsewhere. For example, in B.C., a long history of ‘common garden’ research trials on conifers,in which seeds from different regions are planted together, has shown that genotype can dramatically affectperformance.2.4.1 genetic diversity concepts and b.c. examplesBecause genetic changes occur most rapidly in isolated populations, most studies of genetic variation in B.C.have focused on areas of historic isolation and novel environments, including islands, glacial refugia and areasat the edges of species ranges. Several areas of potential special interest are considered below, with the caveatthat most B.C. taxa were scientifically described decades ago, when underlying evolutionary differences wereless well known than they are currently.2.4.1.1 geographically marginal populationsThere is growing evidence that geographically marginal populations (also known as peripheral populations) areoften genetically different from populations at the core of the species range. 270 Peripheral populations of Sitka spruce,for example, are known repositories for rare alleles (alternative forms of a gene) and locally adapted types. 271 Dueto B.C.’s large size and biophysical variability, many species exist as peripheral or marginal populations within theprovince, potentially representing evolutionarily significant lineages. Species that are at the edge of their range inB.C. may have the core of their range to the north, south or west of the province.Distributional data is available for 3,841 B.C. taxa; of these, 2,963 species (78%) have

itish columbia’s natural legacy[Apodemia mormo], Behr’s hairstreak [Satyrium behrii]) and the Gulf Islands (e.g., propertius duskywing[Erynnis propertius], Edith’s checkerspot [Euphydryas editha taylori]). Peripheral species or marginal populationsin northern B.C. include two butterflies: the eastern pine elfin (Callophrys niphon), which is confinedto the northeast provincially, and the phoebus parnassian (Parnassius phoebus), which is found in Siberia, Alaskaand the western Yukon, as well as the northwestern corner of B.C. 2732 . 4 . 1 . 2 i s l a n d a n d d i s j u n c t p o p u l a t i o n sIn many taxa, island populations are recognized as subspecies due to phenotypic differences and geographicisolation. Similarly, disjunct populations, which are isolated either by a geographical or environmental barrierwithin a former contiguous range or by long-distance dispersal, can be subspecies. 274 Many island and disjunctsubspecies are endemic to B.C. and a number of them are of conservation concern (Table 20).The Kermode or spirit bear is an impressive example of the insular effect on genetically based traits (seeFigure 3, p. 7). The trait known as kermodism is expressed as a white coat displayed by any bear that carriestwo copies of a certain recessive allele. Genetic analyses indicate that most coastal black bears, regardless ofcolour, have descended from populations that were once restricted to glacial refugia and were the source ofthe recessive allele; those populations now mix with continental lineages, which lack this trait. 275 However, thewhite individuals are most common on islands. The high frequency of this trait on coastal islands (perhaps25% of individuals in some populations) is consistent with the idea that water-barriers to dispersal and smallpopulation size have acted to increase its frequency via random genetic drift. 276The taylori subspecies of Edith’scheckerspot (Euphydryas edithataylori) is a geographically marginalsubspecies, found on the Gulf Islands.photo: jennifer heron.table 20. b.c. endemic taxa below the species level that are of provincial conservation concern.SCIENTIFIC name common name proVincialCONSERVATION STATUSBirdsAegolius acadicus brooksi Northern saw-whet owl, brooksi subspecies ImperilledCyanocitta stelleri carlottae Steller’s jay, carlottae subspecies VulnerableGlaucidium gnoma swarthi Northern pygmy-owl, swarthi subspecies VulnerableLagopus leucura saxatilis White-tailed ptarmigan, saxatilis subspecies VulnerablePicoides villosus picoideus Hairy woodpecker, picoideus subspecies VulnerablePinicola enucleator carlottae Pine grosbeak, carlottae subspecies Vulnerable (breeding pop)continued on page 76

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatable 20. continuedSCIENTIFIC name common name proVINCIALconSERVATION STATUSFreshwater FishAcipenser transmontanus pop. 3 White sturgeon (Nechako River population) Critically imperilledAcipenser transmontanus pop. 4 White sturgeon (Lower Fraser River population) ImperilledAcipenser transmontanus pop. 6 White sturgeon (Middle Fraser River population) Critically imperilledCoregonus sp. 1 Dragon Lake limnetic whitefish ExtinctCoregonus sp. 1 Dragon Lake benthic whitefish ExtinctCottus sp. 2 Cultus pygmy sculpin Critically imperilledGasterosteus aculeatus pop. 1 Charlotte unarmoured stickleback ImperilledGasterosteus sp. 1 Giant black stickleback Critically imperilledGasterosteus sp. 12 Hadley Lake limnetic stickleback ExtinctGasterosteus sp. 13 Hadley Lake benthic stickleback ExtinctGasterosteus sp. 16 Vananda Creek limnetic stickleback Critically imperilledGasterosteus sp. 17 Vananda Creek benthic stickleback Critically imperilledGasterosteus sp. 18 Misty Lake “lake” stickleback Critically imperilledGasterosteus sp. 19 Misty Lake “stream” stickleback Critically imperilledGasterosteus sp. 2 Enos Lake limnetic stickleback Critically imperilledGasterosteus sp. 3 Enos Lake benthic stickleback Critically imperilledGasterosteus sp. 4 Paxton Lake limnetic stickleback Critically imperilledGasterosteus sp. 5 Paxton Lake benthic stickleback Critically imperilledLampetra richardsoni pop. 1 Western brook lamprey (Morrison Creek population) Critically imperilledSpirinchus sp. 1Pygmy longfin smeltCritically imperilledThymallus arcticus pop. 1 Arctic grayling (Williston Watershed population) Critically imperilledMammalsGulo gulo vancouverensis Wolverine, vancouverensis subspecies Possibly extinctMicrotus townsendii cowani Townsend’s vole, cowani subspecies Critically imperilledMustela erminea anguinae Ermine, anguinae subspecies VulnerableMustela erminea haidarum Ermine, haidarum subspecies ImperilledNeotamias minimus selkirki Least chipmunk, selkirki subspecies Critically imperilledSorex palustris brooksi American water shrew, brooks subspecies Imperilledcontinued on page 77

itish columbia’s natural legacytable 20. continuedSCIENTIFIC name common name proVINCIALconSERVATION STATUSButterfliesPlebejus saepiolus insulanus Greenish blue, insulanus subspecies Possibly extinctVascular PlantsViola biflora ssp. carlottae Queen Charlotte twinflower violet VulnerableLloydia serotina var. flava Alp lily VulnerableTrillium ovatum var. hibbersonii Dwarf trillium Critically imperilledsource: Prepared for this report with data from the B.C. Conservation Data Centre.Both Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands and Vancouver Island are home to a wide array of subspecies.In northern B.C., Hecate Strait has been a formidable barrier to dispersal, contributing to the distinctiveness ofseveral bird and mammal species on Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands and adding to the historic importanceof these islands as a glacial refugium (see Section 2.4.1.3, p. 78). Dawson caribou (Rangifer tarandus dawsoni)historically inhabited Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands, but this small forest caribou subspecies was lastseen in 1908. 277 Other mammal subspecies unique to the archipelago include the largest subspecies of black bear(Ursus americanus carlottae) and a subspecies of ermine (Mustela erminea haidarum) that was once relativelycommon, but is now thought to be extinct or reduced to very low numbers. Notable birds found on these islandsinclude subspecies of the Steller’s jay (Cyanocitta stelleri carlottae), hairy woodpecker (Picides villosus picoideus),pine grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator carlottae) and northern saw-whet owl (Aegolius acadicus brooksi).Endemic species and subspecies found on Vancouver Island include the critically imperilled VancouverIsland marmot, the Vancouver Island wolverine (Gulo gulo vancouverensis), which has not been seen since 1982,a white-tailed ptarmigan subspecies (Lagopus leucura saxatilis) and a northern pygmy-owl subspecies (Glaucidiumgnoma swarthi). A number of butterfly subspecies and endemic plants are also found on Vancouver Island.Although genetic comparisons of species in this region remain scarce, recent studies of the northwesternand North American deermouse (Peromyscus keenii and P. maniculatus, respectively), both resident in coastalB.C., suggest that glacial history and small effective population sizes have led to substantial genetic differentiationbetween populations. This raises the possibility that additional taxa of B.C. plants and animals remainundescribed, particularly on coastal islands and within many sedentary species of plants, vertebrates, andinvertebrates (Text box 11).

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatext box 11. cryptic species: diversity hiding in plain sightThe advent of genetic analysis has begun to reveal a large number of ‘cryptic’ species. These are caseswhere what was previously considered to be a single species is found to actually be a complex of two, andsometimes more, species that are very similar in appearance.Species do not have to be small to be cryptic. Recently, the African elephant was recognized as twogenetically distinct, non-interbreeding species, one retaining the name African elephant (Loxodonta africana)and the other now known as the African forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis). 278 In B.C., the seasidejuniper (Juniperus maritima) was recently described based on genetic and other information; it was previouslyincluded in the Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum). 279 Another example of this hiddendiversity is the possible division of the winter wren (Troglodytes troglodytes) into two species with a contactzone in northeastern B.C. 280Further genetic analysis is very likely to identify more cryptic species and thereby add to the number ofrecognized species in B.C.The two forms of the winter wren(Troglodytes troglodytes) found in B.C.are difficult to differentiate, except bytheir songs, without genetic analysis.photo: darren irwin.2.4.1.3 glacial refugiaHaida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands and the Brooks Peninsula on Vancouver Island, two of the most prominentareas identified as glacial refugia within B.C., provide homes to a significant component of the province’s geneticbiodiversity. For example, Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands, which encompasses 250 islands, has been termed‘the Galapagos of the North’ due to the archipelago’s high levels of biodiversity and relict species, including numerousendemic species: five vascular plant species, four insects, two liverworts (hepatics) and five mosses. However,the isolation and ecological novelty that gave rise to such diversity also makes these areas vulnerable, and bothareas have been significantly impacted by alien species. Since Sitka black-tailed deer were introduced to HaidaGwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands in the late 1800s, they have dramatically altered the ecology of entire rainforestecosystems, with deleterious impacts on many species (see Section 1.1.2, p. 7). 281 In addition to introducing alienspecies, human activities have the potential to disrupt island populations by reducing historic barriers to dispersalbetween divergent populations, and converting and fragmenting significant habitats. When activities lead todemographic decline or to the dilution or loss of locally adapted traits, extinction risk increases.Much of the species-level diversity evident in B.C. freshwater fish is a product of Pleistocene range fragmentationand genetic divergence, followed by recolonization from refugia. 282 For example, the Salish sucker(Catostomus sp. 4) and Nooksack dace (Rhinichthys sp. 4) may be the only Canadian representatives from the

itish columbia’s natural legacyChehalis refugium, which was centred around southern Puget Sound during the most recent glacial maximum 283(Text box 12), although a recent study of the Olympic shrew (Sorex rohweri) a indicates colonization from thesame refugium. 284 The Salish sucker has no formal taxonomic status, but is identified as an evolutionarilysignificant unit. Similarly, the Nooksack dace has not been given a formal taxonomic rank, since it is not yetclear whether it is a true species or is a subspecies of the widespread longnose dace (Rhinichthys cataractae). 285Both the Nooksack dace and the Salish sucker are of conservation concern. Another example is the pygmywhitefish (Prosopium coulterii). While scattered populations of pygmy whitefish are found across northernNorth America, usually in deep, nutrient-poor lakes, two nutrient-rich B.C. lakes are home to a ‘giant’ form thatis found nowhere else.Although glacial retreat restored connectivity between many populations of plants and animals, it isolatedothers as the land rebounded from under the immense weight of the ice. The rising land mass confined someanadromous fish, such as the Pacific lamprey (Lampetra tridentata) and longfin smelt (Spirinchus thaleichthys),to freshwater locations, resulting in rapid divergence of new forms. In some cases, this process producedspecies endemic to British Columbia. A particularly well-researched example involves the complex geneticsof sticklebacks in six lakes on three islands in the Strait of Georgia. Each lake has given rise to two forms ofsticklebacks: benthics, which are stout and wide-mouthed and forage at lake margins; and limnetics, whichare slender and slim-mouthed and forage in the open waters of the lake. The two forms carry different allelesand rarely hybridized until recent human influences altered these communities. The genetic differences evidentin these species are particularly interesting because they appear to have arisen very recently (since the last iceage) from a common ancestor and in parallel in all three lakes. Because these differences represent adaptivegenetic variation that affects individual survival and reproduction and, therefore, population persistence,the forms are each recognized as endemic taxa. 286 Such patterns of divergence provide a remarkable snapshotof evolution in action.Recent DNA studies of the alpine plant, mountain sorrel, suggest the existence of one or more refugiain the mountains of northern B.C. 287 Other genetic research shows that southern red-backed voles (Myodesgapperi) at higher altitudes are more closely related to central continental populations than to eastern orwestern populations. 288Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands(one of the major glacial refugia in B.C.)has been called ‘the Galapagos of theNorth’ because of its unique biodiversity.photo: jason verschoor.aThere has not been an official publication on the common name. An alternative possibility is Rohwer’s shrew.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatext box 12. fish and glacial refugia 289From the four corners of the province, more than 65 fish species recolonized B.C. after the last glaciation,originating from three major refugia: the Pacific (including the Chehalis and Columbia minor refugia),the Great Plains, and the Beringian (including the Nahanni) (Figure 20) . Twenty-four of these species(36%) came from more than one unglaciated area. Therefore, much of the province’s within-speciesdiversity in fish is due to range fragmentation as a result of glaciation, followed by genetic divergenceand subsequent recolonization from different refugia.The Pacific refugium was the largest contributor to B.C. fish fauna, with fish using two dispersalroutes: salt water and fresh water. Species that dispersed by sea included lampreys (Lampetra spp.),sturgeons (Acipenser spp.), smelts (Spirinchus spp.), trout and salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) and sticklebacks.Those that were restricted to freshwater habitats and required drainage connections includednorthern pikeminnow (Ptychocheilus oregonensis) and suckers (Catostomus spp.). Species that couldtolerate harsher conditions were able to move from the Columbia refugium to northern areas such asthe Nass, Skeena and Peace river drainages, while species unable to tolerate those conditions were ableto colonize only the Fraser River system.One of the minor refugia, the Chehalis, provided a dispersal route from Puget Sound in Washington,allowing two saltwater-intolerant fish, the Salish sucker and Nooksack dace, to disperse into the lowerFraser River valley.With the retreat of the glaciers, fish species migrated through the Columbia system into several largeglacial lakes (including Kamloops, Thompson and Shuswap lakes), allowing species such as the peamouth(Mylocheilus caurinus), longnose dace and northern pikeminnow to disperse farther north. Oncorhynchusfossils found near Savona in Kamloops have been dated at 18,000 years ago, 290 indicating that salmon existedin the province 3,000 to 4,000 years before the glacial maximum. The connection between these lakesand the Columbia River was later severed and the lakes then drained into the Fraser River system, 291 eliminatingthe opportunity for other species from the Columbia River to colonize farther north. In fact, cohosalmon that now occur in the interior reaches of the Fraser River came from the Columbia River basin 292and have sufficient genetic differences to distinguish them from coho salmon in the lower Fraser River. 293Thirteen thousand years ago, a corridor between the Missouri River system and the lower PeaceRiver 294 allowed species from the Great Plains refugium, such as goldeye (Hiodon alosoides) and flathead

itish columbia’s natural legacychub (Platygobio gracilis), to colonizenortheastern B.C. After this period, intermittentconnections with other drainages,BeringianRefugiumsuch as the Fraser River drainage, allowedcolonization by some other Great Plainsspecies (e.g., white sucker [Catostomuscommersonii], lake whitefish [Coregonusclupeaformis] and brassy minnow [Hybognathushankinsoni]). Another temporaryconnection to northeastern B.C. occurredfrom the Mississippi River system throughthe Canadian prairies (Lake Agassiz inSaskatchewan and Manitoba), and fromthe Northwest Territories to the BeaufortSea. Although the Nahanni refugium innortheastern B.C. is not accepted by all researchers,295 there is evidence that it was asource of colonizing lake whitefish 296 andPacificlake trout (Salvelinus namaycush). 297Refugium Great PlainsCompared to the Pacific and GreatRefugiumPlains refugia, the Beringian refugium figure 20: The three major ice-free refugia from whichcontributed a relatively small number of freshwater fish recolonized British Columbia.source: McPhail, J.D. 2007. Freshwater Fishes of British Columbia.species. There were some limited opportunitiesfor species to disperse to the Liard andUniversity of Alberta Press, Edmonton, ab. 620pp.Stikine river systems from the Yukon and portions of Alaska. Species that were able to colonize duringthis short period include the round whitefish (Prosopium cylindraceum) and Arctic grayling (Thymallusarcticus). 298 Beringian refugium species that were able to use marine environments, such as salmon,colonized southward, while salmon from the Pacific refugium moved northward. 299

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaTwo species of tiger swallowtail, thewestern (Papilio rutulus), pictured here,and the Canadian (Papilio canadensis),are only known to hybridize in theOkanagan and Kootenay valleys.photo: neil k. dawe.2.4.1.4 major hybridization zonesHybrids often hold a tenuous place in conservation because, once they are detected, the appropriateness ofthe ‘species’ designation for the two forms involved is often questioned. Although hybridization is a potentiallyserious problem for populations with unique evolutionary histories, many naturally occurring hybrid zones areknown to be stable in ecological timeframes, perhaps contributing novel lineages and species in evolutionarytime. For plants in particular, hybridization is an important process for creating new species 300,301 Hybrid zonesare therefore fascinating laboratories for evolutionary study and potential hot spots of genetic variation andlocal adaptation.Research suggests that in North America there are 13 hybrid suture zones, 302 where divergent taxonomicgroups overlap and some species hybridize as a result of landscape change and the historic expansion andcontraction of species ranges. Although not well studied, B.C. likely has the highest density of these zones inCanada. One major suture zone extends from the southeast corner of the province to the central interior, representingthe channelling effects of mountain ranges on species as they radiated across the landscape duringglobal shifts in climate. 303 Several ‘superspecies’ (complexes of closely related species) are found in this region;many of them rarely hybridize, but some do so extensively. For example, the northern flicker (Colaptes auratus)occurs across North America, but in a band stretching from B.C. to Texas, 95% of the flickers are hybrids betweenthe red-shafted and yellow-shafted subspecies or between the red-shafted subspecies and the closely relatedgilded flicker (Colaptes chrysoides). 304Another species that provides insights into the role of continental divides in divergence and speciation is Swainson’sthrush (Catharus ustulatus), which has two distinct populations, one coastal and one continental, with bothpopulations found in B.C. 305 A similar east-west separation occurs amongst other populations of land birds, suchas Wilson’s warbler (Wilsonia pusilla). 306 The Okanagan and Kootenay valleys are the only place in North Americawhere two species of tiger swallowtails (Papilio spp.) have overlapping ranges and are known to hybridize. 307 Forfreshwater fish, a major hybridization zone exists in the lower Peace River system, which provided a postglacialdispersal corridor where several western populations crossed and hybridized with eastern populations. 3082 . 4 . 2 s tat u s o f b r i t i s h c o lu m b i a ta x a b e low t h e s pe c i e s l ev e lOnly about 60 B.C. taxa have been the subject of peer-reviewed genetic studies and those studies have focusedmainly on evolutionary history, population genetic structure, geography of evolutionary lineages and fine-scaleeffects of forest practices on genetics and hybridization. 309 Eight of the studies (four on fish, two on birds and oneeach on a mammal and an invertebrate) recognized evolutionarily significant units below the species level.

itish columbia’s natural legacyTable 21 summarizes the conservation status of 457 B.C. taxa below species level and shows the number thathave the majority of their global range in B.C. However, it provides only a limited picture of the status of geneticdiversity in the province, as a reliable list of taxa below the species level is not available for most groups and, ofthose that are known, many have not been assessed. The lack of described taxa below the species level does notnecessarily indicate a lack of genetic differentiation at that level. Conservation status rankings are explained inSection 2.3.2 (p. 51) and proportion of global range is explained in Section 2.3.3 (p. 61).Eleven subspecies or populations have been assessed as extinct or extirpated (Table 22), including threebirds, four freshwater fish, two mammals, one reptile and one butterfly.table 21. number of taxa below the species level of global and provincial conservationconcern, as well as those that have a majority of their global range in b.c.Taxonomic number of TAXA of Number of TAXA number of TAXA withGroup gloBAL CONSERVATION of PROVINCIAL Majority of global range,concernconservation conCern distribution or population in b.c.VertebratesAmphibians 0 0 0Birds 0 24 8Freshwater Fish 11 29 25Mammals (excluding cetaceans) 0 20 6Reptiles and Turtles 0 4 0InvertebratesButterflies and Skippers 1 32 8Dragonflies and Damselflies 0 0 0Non-marine Molluscs 0 1 0Coleopterans (beetles) 0 0 0Vascular PlantsFerns and Fern Allies 1 8 0Conifers 0 0 0Monocots 0 43 3Dicots 2 220 16Non-vascular PlantsMosses 0 76 not assessedTOTAL 15 457 66source: Prepared for this report with data from the B.C. Conservation Data Centre.notes: Taxa below the species level include subspecies, populations and varieties, as well as taxa lacking formal scientific species names (e.g.,Gasterosterus sp.1). Some taxa that are of provincial conservation concern (e.g., the mountain caribou ecotype) are not assessed globally.In cases where only one taxon below the species level occurs in B.C., it has been included in the species analysis and not included here.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatable 22. extinct and extirpated taxa below the species level in b.c.TAXONOMIC GROUP SCIENTIFIC name common NAME conSERVATION STATUSBirds Eremophila alpestris strigata Horned lark, strigata subspecies ExtirpatedMelanerpes lewis pop. 1 Lewis’s woodpecker Extinct(Georgia Depression population)Sturnella neglecta pop. 1 Western meadowlark Extirpated(Georgia Depression population)Freshwater Fish Coregonus sp. Dragon Lake limnetic whitefish ExtinctCoregonus sp. Dragon Lake benthic whitefish ExtinctGasterosteus sp. 12 Hadley Lake limnetic stickleback ExtinctGasterosteus sp. 13 Hadley Lake benthic stickleback ExtinctMammals Bos bison bison Plains bison ExtirpatedRangifer tarandus dawsoni Dawson caribou ExtinctReptiles and Turtles Pituophis catenifer catenifer Gopher snake, catenifer subspecies ExtirpatedButterflies Euchloe ausonides insulanus Island large marble Extirpatedsource: Prepared for this report with data from the B.C. Conservation Data Centre.notes: The only plains bison currently found in B.C. are considered aliens because they belong to an introduced population locatedoutside the historic range of this subspecies. Kincaid’s lupine (var. kincaidii) is listed at the species level in Table 14 (p. 58) because it isthe only representative of Lupinus oreganus that occurs in B.C.2.4.3 data gapsRelatively little is known about the status of genetic diversity in B.C., particularly for certain taxonomic groups.While some species of fish and birds have been the subjects of multiple studies, genetic data are rare to nonexistentfor amphibians, invertebrates, bryophytes and vascular plants other than trees. The existing designation ofsubspecies is questionable in some cases and there is disparity in how biologists deal with variation in differenttaxonomic groups (i.e., subspecific taxa are not formally described in all groups). The fact that molecular markersfor given species can often be readily applied to close relatives means that genetic surveys will become morefeasible in future. There are important data gaps in relation to appropriate taxonomic units for subspecies thatare difficult to differentiate (see Text box 11, p.78) and populations of particularly high or low genetic diversity.Identifying uniquely adapted taxa documents genetic diversity and divergence, and may contribute to thepersistence of local populations. Hot spots of genetic distinctiveness 310 and divergent populations may beidentified by observable physical characteristics in some cases, but some taxa are difficult to differentiate andrequire genetic markers for identification. 311

itish columbia’s natural legacytext box 13. mountain caribou in southeastern british columbiaThe woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) is one of four subspecies of caribou currently foundin North America and the only one occurring in British Columbia. a There are three ecotypes of woodlandcaribou: boreal, northern and mountain. Of these, the mountain caribou ecotype is of the greatest conservationconcern, due to its small population size.Mountain caribou populations have probably existed in southern B.C. for more than 10,000 years andlikely advanced and retreated with glacial events. 312 Mountain caribou are found primarily in the Cariboo,Selkirk, Purcell, Monashee and Rocky mountains in the southeastern part of the province (Figure 21).They are threatened by ecosystem degradation, including fragmentation, disturbance, predation (dueto altered predator-prey dynamics resulting from ecosystem degradation) and climate change. 313,314 Theestimated population of mountain caribou has decreased by 17% from 2,300 in 2000, to about 1,900 in2006. 315 These animals constitute almost all of the global population of this ecotype. 316 Since 2000, twoof the 18 herds – the George Mountain and Central Purcells herds – have been extirpated. Extirpationof a herd results in the loss of that population’s genetic contribution to the larger population.In 2007, the provincial government announced theMountain Caribou Recovery Implementation Plan, withthe goal of restoring the mountain caribou population topre-1995 levels of more than 2,500 animals throughouttheir existing range. The plan includes: habitat conservation;managing human recreational activities; managingwolf and cougar populations where they threatencaribou recovery; managing the prey of mountaincaribou predators; augmenting small herds bytransplanting caribou; and adaptive management,including monitoring. 317figure 21: Distribution of the three ecotypes ofwoodland caribou in B.C.source: b.c. Integrated Land Management Bureau.Caribou EcotypeMountainNorthernBorealNearly the entire global populationof the mountain caribou (Rangifertarandus caribou mountain ecotype)is now found in southeastern B.C.photo: rolland usher, mountaincaribou institute of b.c.aA fifth subspecies, the Dawson caribou, is extinct (see Table 22, p. 84).

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaGenetic analyses can provide information about how historic and recent population-size fluctuations haveaffected population viability, migration routes, dispersal barriers and sex ratios. 318 For example, uncertaintyabout the value of dispersal corridors for a particular species might be resolved by genetic analysis to identifywhether historic dispersal patterns have been interrupted by habitat fragmentation and whether re-establishedcorridors are actually used. 319Data gaps for specific taxonomic groups are summarized below.Mammals: Mammals are one of the best-studied groups, but most taxonomic studies rely on physical featuresand have not been confirmed by genetic analysis. Genetic studies using molecular markers for closely relatedspecies (e.g., bats) are lacking. Another gap is identification of subspecies that are difficult to differentiate,especially for taxonomic groups in historic refugia and geographically disjunct populations that exhibit lowdispersal ability despite having a moderate to large effective population size.Birds: There is an established history of genetic research on birds. In B.C., several studies of birds are currentlybeing undertaken to investigate how hybrid suture zones contribute to biodiversity through both speciationand hybridization 320 and how historic refugia and population isolation affect micro-geographic variationin phenotype, genetic diversity and population persistence. 321Freshwater fish: Freshwater fish populations exhibit high genetic differentiation 322 and often differ in phenotypeand genotype across major drainages in B.C. due to historic and recent isolation. 323 For example, there aremore than 400 genetically distinct populations among five species of Pacific salmon in B.C. 324 Because of a longhistory of commercial, recreational and scientific interest, this group is among the best studied with respect totaxonomic and genetic diversity. However, genetic studies that use recent taxonomic reviews are lacking.Amphibians: This group may incorporate higher levels of genetic differentiation in B.C. than are currently recognized,since meta-analysis (a method of analysis that combines the results of a number of studies to investigateunderlying processes) shows that amphibian populations tend to be more differentiated than bird populations 325and since some amphibians potentially have isolation histories similar to those of fish. Genetic research thatconsiders geographic distribution and the potential for adaptive divergence based on life history is lacking.Reptiles and turtles: Information about divergence in geographically isolated populations is lacking. Manydetailed studies of genetic differentiation in adaptive traits related to predation and colouration have focusedon the garter snakes (Thamnophis spp.), including species common in B.C. and on coastal islands.

itish columbia’s natural legacyInvertebrates: Genetic studies of invertebrates elsewhere in the world often find strong differentiation withinspecies based on geographic distribution and food-plant specialization. This suggests that there may be geneticvariants in B.C. that have not been described. One study of ground beetles (Nebria charlotte and N. haida) onHaida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands indicates genetic variability within that population. 326 No peer-reviewedgenetic studies of dragonflies, damselflies or non-marine molluscs have been done in B.C.Vascular plants: The degree to which differences between populations are due to different environmentalconditions (e.g., soil nutrients) or genetic differences stemming from adaptation to historically isolated sitesis not well understood.A long history of empirical studies has demonstrated pronounced adaptive divergence among coniferpopulations in B.C. More recently, this has been also demonstrated for some Garry oak ecosystem plants,including sea blush (Plectritis congesta), broad-leaved stonecrop (Sedum spathulifolium) 327 and blue-eyed Mary(Collinsia spp.). 328Non-vascular plants: No peer-reviewed genetic studies of these taxa in B.C. have been published.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatext box 14. the hidden majority 329figure 22: The hidden majorityplays a weighty role in the functioningof ecosystems.source: F. Bunnell and I. Houde,University of British Columbia.illustration: I. Houde.Many elements of biological diversity are overlooked because they areeither too small to see easily or are processes rather than single plantsor animals. For example, many invertebrates are hidden in soil orunder the bark of trees or are microscopic. An estimated two millionsoil invertebrates inhabit every square metre of ground in the PacificNorthwest. 330 About 30 to 40 species of oribatid mites, totalling 40,000 to50,000 individuals, live on the surface of a single stump, feeding on 25or so species of fungi. 331,332,333 There are at least 94 species of terrestrialsnails and slugs in B.C. 334Invertebrates make up most of the ‘hidden majority’ of species,but they are only part of B.C.’s little-noticed diversity (Figure 22).Forty to 75 species of mosses, liverworts and lichens can grow onthe trees in a forest plot the size of a football field (approximately0.5 ha), 335,336,337,338,339,340 with a mass of up to 2.6 tonnes per hectarein coastal old-growth forests. 341 An additional 20 to 50 speciesof crustose lichens 342 and many more bryophytes live on therocks and soil.Even though they are not easily identified by most people, thesesmall organisms perform critical functions such as nutrient cycling.For example, mosses absorb up to 10 times their weight in water andhelp regulate water flow (see Section 2.5.1.3-B, p. 115). The role playedby many species in ecosystem functioning is unknown, and theinadvertent loss of critical species is a very real danger.

itish columbia’s natural legacy2.5 Selected Key and Special Elements of Biodiversity in British ColumbiaGenes, species, ecosystems and the processes that link them are the major components of biodiversity, butnot all are equal when it comes to conserving other elements of biodiversity. Section 2.5.1 examines keyelements – pieces of the biodiversity puzzle that are essential and/or have a disproportionate influence onecosystem function. Many of these key elements are not tidily encompassed by the three levels of organization(genes, species and ecosystems). Section 2.5.2 (p.137) looks at special elements – elements of biodiversity thatare uncommon and often globally significant.2.5.1 key elementsThe following pages describe a small subset of the multitude of components, structures and functions of biodiversitythat help sustain life on earth. These key elements are known to play fundamental or disproportionatelylarge roles in the functioning of ecosystems. For each element, its status in B.C. is described, if known.Table 23 lists the key elements chosen to illustrate some of the functions, structures and components thatare essential for maintaining healthy ecosystems and the services derived from them. These were chosenat a series of workshops in 2007, using a framework to identify essential ecosystem characteristics. 343 Eachcomposite piece is engaged in functions and creates structure. The more that communities of species remainintact, the more likely it is that ecological processes will be maintained. Scientific knowledge is generallyinsufficient to evaluate the apparent importance of the processes or the species involved (except in the caseof a few well-documented keystone species). With some exceptions, the value of many elements of biodiversityis unknown until they fail.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatable 23. selected key elements of biodiversity in b.c.REALM KEY ELEMENT STATUS THREATSCOMPONENT (C), STRUCTURE (S)OR FUNCTION (F)Cross-realm Connectivity (F, S) Declining.Ecosystem conversion and degradation, particularly road building inthe terrestrial realm, and dams and culverts in the freshwater realm.Riparian areas (C) Declining. Ecosystem (streambank) conversion, livestock activities.Terrestrial Decomposition and nutrient Unknown. Climate change, acidification.cycling (F)Pollination (F)Large mammal predatorUnknown.Relatively unimpaired.Ecosystem conversion and degradation, environmentalcontamination from pesticides.Fragmentation, loss of roadless areas, direct mortality.prey dynamics (F)Succession/Disturbance (F) Severely altered Forestry, fire suppression, dams, climate change.successional patternsin some areas.Southern red-backed voles (C) Not of conservation concern Loss of mature and old forest.at the species level. Twosubspecies of conservationconcern.Wildlife trees (S) Declining. Loss of old forests.Broadleaf trees (C) Unknown but suspected Forestry practices that result in conifer monocultures.to be declining. All 12cottonwood communitiesare of conservation concern.Soil (S)Coarse woody debris (CWD) (S) Volumes of CWD in managedforests stable but size ofpieces is declining.Varying levels of degradation. Forestry, grazing, conversion of forest or grasslands to agriculture,urbanization.Forestry, firewood collecting.Freshwater Wetlands (C) Declining. Ecosystem conversion (draining and filling), pollution.Sphagnum (C) Unknown but suspected Ecosystem conversion, peat miningto be declining.Lake-level patterns (F) Natural variation declining. Water extractions and diversions, climate change.continued on page 91

itish columbia’s natural legacytable 23 continuedREALM KEY ELEMENT STATUS THREATSCOMPONENT (C), STRUCTURE (S)OR FUNCTION (F)Freshwater Headwater streams (F) Level of degradation ofheadwaters unknown.Groundwater (F) Locally of concern. Water diversion and withdrawl, urban paving, alteration of drainagepatterns, foresty, mountain pine beetles, climate change.Anadromous salmonids Many stocks in decline. Fishing, habitat loss, environmental contamination, alien species,and nutrient cycling (C)climate change.Willows (C) 44% of species are of Alien species (i.e., the poplar and willow borer).conservation concern.Beavers (C) Secure but habitat impacted. Trapping, habitat alteration in lowland areas.Waterfowl herbivory Unknown. Loss of wetlands.of aquatic plants (F)Marine Macroalgae (C) Local shifts in abundance. Climate change.Overlap California mussels (C) Stable with local declines Recreational harvesting.and shifts in abundance.Sea otters (C) Of conservation concern Oil spills, low genetic variability, entanglement in fishing nets,in B.C., but population and poaching.distribution increasing.Crustaceans (C) Stable with local declines Ocean acidification.and shifts in abundanceDisruption of colluvial streams, channelization, loss of large woodydebris, loss of connectivity, sedimentation from road building.Seagrass meadows (S) Declining. Dredging, log handling, sedimentation, shoreline structures,pollutants, alien species, boat traffic.Upland sediments Loss of large woody debris Ecosystem conversion and degradation, climate change.and large woody debris size and volume; sedimentin the intertidal (S)deposition impacted by damsand riparian activities.Estuaries (C, F) Declining. Ecosystem conversion and degradation, water diversion, marinesediment.note: Elements in this table are just a small sample of the key elements of biodiversity in B.C. They are used for illustrative purposes.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia2.5.1.1 cross-realm elementsa. connectivityWhat is it? Connectivity is the degree to which ecosystem structure facilitates or impedes the movement of organismsbetween resource patches. 344 What constitutes connectivity is scale-dependent and varies for each speciesdepending on its habitat requirements, sensitivity to disturbance and vulnerability to human-caused mortality. 345A spotted owl (Strix occidentalis) may avoid flying across large clearcuts, 346 while a grizzly bear may avoid crossinga highway with a high volume of traffic. 347 A smaller organism such as a butterfly, which may fly no more than afew hundred metres in its lifetime, can be dramatically affected by urban or agricultural development. 348 In streamsystems, connectivity occurs upstream and downstream (see Section 2.5.1.3-D, p. 118), between groundwaterand surface water (see Section 2.5.1.3-E, p. 119), and between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.Why is it important? Connectivity allows individual organisms to move in response to changing conditions, suchas seasonal cycles, a forest fire or climate change. It also permits linkages between individuals in geographicallyseparated populations. Connected populations are much less vulnerable to being extirpated as a resultof chance or random events, because they can be ‘rescued’ or recolonized by immigration from other populations.349 In addition, large, connected populations are more influenced at a genetic level by natural selection,while small, fragmented populations are vulnerable to the random, often damaging effects of genetic drift andinbreeding. 350 Freshwater species that are confined to water cannot escape the deleterious effects of lost connectivity.Poorly designed stream crossings can disrupt connectivity by preventing fish passage upstream ordownstream. This can prevent the dispersal of some aquatic invertebrates, such as freshwater mussels, a whoselarvae travel throughout stream systems on the fins or gills of fish. 351 Freshwater mussels perform importantecological functions such as water filtration.Status/threats in B.C. For many species in both the terrestrial and freshwater realms, ecosystem conversionand degradation are resulting in the loss of connectivity (also referred to as habitat fragmentation). Speciesthat rely on the core areas of old-growth forests are less able to move through landscapes where large areashave been recently logged. Sensitive species such as grizzly bears, wolverines (Gulo gulo) and bull trout(Salvelinus confluentus) avoid areas with high levels of human use. 352 Off-road use of four-wheel drives,ATVs and snowmobiles can also contribute to the loss of connectivity for sensitive species such as elk(Cervus canadensis) 353 and mountain caribou 354 (see Section 3.3.8, p. 205).aThere are six species of freshwater mussels in B.C. The rarest is the Rocky Mountain ridged mussel (Gonidea angulata), found only inthe Okanagan and Kootenay rivers.

itish columbia’s natural legacyAn estimated 66,000 stream crossings were built in B.C. between 2000 and 2005, with an average increaseof 13,369 stream crossings per year. 355,356 A 2006 assessment of 178 culverts in the Carp and MacGregor riverwatersheds found that 88% of the culverts were a potential barrier to fish passage. 357 Figure 23 shows the amountof potential fish habitat that is lost upstream of a culvert that fails to allow fish passage.barrierGord Mackinnonstreams with connectivity loststreams with connectivitymaintainedfigure 23: Potentialloss of fish habitat owing tostream crossings that blockfish passage.illustration: Soren Henrich.roadGord Gord MackinnonMacKinnonTory Stevensbarriernot a barrier

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaData gaps: Rigorous assessments to identify linkages have not been conducted for most of the province andmuch of the work that has been done has focused on large carnivores. 358,359,360,361 There is also the issue (whichis not unique to B.C.) of determining exactly what constitutes linkage for particular species.b. riparian areasLowland riparian areas of the OkanaganValley provide important nestinghabitat for Lewis’s woodpeckers(Melanerpes lewis).photo: tom munson.What are they? Riparian refers to the transition zone between an aquatic and a terrestrial system that is influencedby either surface or subsurface water. A riparian area may be located beside a lake or estuary or an ephemeral,intermittent or perennial stream or creek. Riparian areas are dynamic ecosystems that may be subject to temporary,frequent or seasonal flooding. They support plant communities that tolerate moister conditions thanthose found in upland areas. They are typically linear, but can extend over large landscapes and are found inall areas of the province.Hydro-riparian ecosystems extend beyond the riparian zone to encompass both the water and the adjacentland in one integrated ecosystem that includes above- and below-ground processes. 362,363,364Why are they important? Riparian area functions include the influence of land on adjacent water, the influenceof water on adjacent land, and connectivity. 365 Land influences adjacent water as vegetation moderates temperatureand water input, filters sediment, provides structure and nutrients and stabilizes banks. In addition,bedrock and soil determine water chemistry and channel form. Water influences adjacent land by eroding banks,depositing sediments that create soil, modifying microclimates and influencing vegetation and productivity.In well-drained soils, flooding creates mosaics of diverse and productive communities. Riparian and hydroriparianecosystems link landscapes, providing corridors for animal and plant movement, sediment transportand water transport. In hydro-riparian ecosystems, the connectivity includes underground connections (seeSection 2.5.1.3-E, p. 119). The phreatic (groundwater) zone and the hyporheic zone (the saturated sedimentzone between groundwater and surface waters) provide water purification and transport, as well as habitat andnutrients for plants and animals.Riparian wetlands play an important role in storage and filtering of water, the maintenance of water qualityand the reduction of sediment levels, nutrients and toxic chemicals in outflow water.Riparian areas support a variety of vegetation cover types, from trees and shrubs to emergent and herbaceousplants. Because of this high plant diversity, they provide foraging, nesting and/or breeding habitat for an abundanceof terrestrial and freshwater life (Figure 24). 366,367,368 The vegetation in riparian areas directly influencesand provides important fish habitat. 369 It builds and stabilizes stream banks and channels, provides cool water

itish columbia’s natural legacywindsuncoverwildlifecorridorshadeaquatic insectsinsect fallleaf litterlarge woodydebrisfigure 24: Relationships betweenriparian areas and terrestrial andfreshwater species.source: Adapted from B.C. Ministryof Water, Land and Air Protection. 2006.Riparian Areas Regulation ImplementationGuidebook. Biodiversity Branch, Victoria,BC. 87pp. Available at: www.env.gov.bc.ca/habitat/fish_protection_act/riparian/documents/ImplementationGuidebook.pdf.illustration: Soren Henrich.fishsalamander

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaWater birch / roses2001 distributionLost since 1800Vernon!.Kelowna!.OkanaganLakePenticton!.Osoyoos!.figure 25: Loss of water birch /roses riparian shrub wetland in theOkanagan Valley since 1800.source: Prepared for this report with datafrom T. Lea.through shade 370 and provides shelter for fish. The leaves and insects that fall into the water are a source of foodfor fish. 371,372 The hyporheic zone in hydro-riparian areas provides habitat for a variety of insects and microfauna,which are in turn prey for larger species. It is a source of nutrients and water for plants and is where much of thewater purification occurs, reducing sediment levels, nutrients and toxic chemicals in outflow water. Accountingfor only a small portion of British Columbia’s land base, riparian areas are often more productive than the adjoiningupland. Hydro-riparian ecosystems are important as hot spots of biodiversity. 373Although riparian areas generally support disproportionately high numbers of species relative to the areathey occupy on the land base, their presence is even more critical in dry ecosystems such as grasslands. Riparianwetlands adjacent to grasslands support a variety of species of conservation concern. They contain high-qualityhabitat that provides for many of the diverse needs of species, including water, food and cover. In areas wheregrasslands dominate, lowland riparian areas may be the only source of large trees and snags for several kilometres,providing habitat for species that would otherwise not be present. For example, although Lewis’s woodpeckers(Melanerpes lewis) are adapted to recent fire-created ecosystems, in B.C. the highest nesting density of this speciesof conservation concern is in lowland riparian areas in the Okanagan Valley – a higher density than in coniferousforests in the same area. 374,375,376 The macfarlanei subspecies of the western screech owl (Megascops kennicottiimacfarlanei) is very closely associated with riparian habitats below 950 m and this dependence is at least partlyrelated to the presence of cottonwoods of sufficient size to provide nest cavities. 377Status/threats in B.C. Riparian systems are affected by topography, surficial materials and the duration and magnitudeof flood events. These factors influence their response to disturbances. Intensive recreational activities alongthe edges of wetlands can reduce plant cover, compact soil and disturb nesting birds. However, riparian wetlandsare known to be resilient in response to disturbance. 378 Tree mortality caused by mountain pine beetles also affectsriparian areas (see Text box 16, p. 105).Riparian areas and adjacent wetlands are rare in grassland landscapes. They are extremely vulnerableto vegetation removal, filling or draining, and overuse by livestock. 379,380 Riparian areas in dry ecosystems areoften lost through conversion of stream banks and riparian wetlands to fields, lawns and pavement owingto urbanization and agriculture (see Text box 5, p. 39).In the Okanagan region, 63% of the black cottonwood / water birch (Betula occidentalis) riparian shrub wetlandecological community and 92% of the water birch / roses (Rosa spp.) riparian shrub wetland ecological communityhave been lost (Figure 25), along with 41% of the cattail marsh ecological community (see Table 8, p. 40). 381

itish columbia’s natural legacyData gaps: Found in narrow strips along watercourses and water bodies, riparian areas are dynamic ecosystemsinfluenced by topography, surficial materials and stream flow, which are challenging to map and monitor, particularlyat a broad scale. Data gaps include knowledge about disturbance and recovery regimes and the cumulativeeffects of disturbance regimes over space and time. 382 Research on sediment production, terrain stability andchannel stability is being undertaken in relation to watershed sensitivity in riparian areas. 383 There are also gapsin the current knowledge about riparian soils, the role of trees in maintaining system integrity and system-scaleproperties of resilience. 3842.5.1.2 terrestrial elementsa. decomposition and nutrient cyclingWhat is it? Decomposition is the process of breaking down the tissue of once-living organisms into their componentparts. The breakdown of these building blocks is an important part of nutrient cycling. Brown rot fungi,which comprise one group within the suite of wood-decomposing fungi, were present 300 million years ago,when ancestors of conifers began to appear. 385 They likely evolved along with conifers and influenced the evolutionof coniferous forests, including the defence systems of trees that wall off the fungus, creating potentialhabitat for cavity-using vertebrates (see Section 2.5.1.2-F, p. 108). A more complex interaction involves fungicreating suitable substrates for bryophytes and lichens, which encourages the presence of various invertebratesand microbes, all leading to the gradual decomposition of wood.Bracket fungi are the fruiting bodies ofone of many types of tree-decay fungi.photo: arkadiusz stachowski.Why is it important? Without fungi breaking down dead plant and animal matter, carbon and other moleculesessential to life would be locked into organic molecules too large for plants to absorb. Fungi break down largeorganic molecules into inorganic constituents, such as carbon and nitrogen, which are small enough for thefungi to absorb; they do this by sending parts of their body (hyphae) directly into their food, secreting chemicalsthat help to break it down into simpler molecules, then absorbing the food directly into their cells. There is verylittle that fungi cannot or will not digest. Bacteria and arthropods help fungi break down organic compounds,but fungi are the engine. Organic compounds can be very complex, so it takes a suite of fungi and their enzymesystems to decompose wood, and other suites to decompose fur, feather, insects and dung. An example of nutrientcycling in the freshwater realm is described in Section 2.5.1.3-F (p. 121).

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatext box 15. mycorrhizae: a tree’ s best friendTruncocolumella citrinaectomycorrhizal system on a Douglasfir(Pseudotsuga menziesii) root.photo: reneta outerbridge © 2007her majesty the queen in right ofcanada, natural resources canada,canadian forest service.Fungi on plant roots form complex, mutually beneficial associations called mycorrhizae. They aid theroots of almost all vascular plants in several ways. For example, they increase the surface area of the rootsdramatically. One centimetre of root has about 3 m of hyphae, effectively increasing the root’s length by300 times. This increases the surface area for absorption of water. One cubic centimetre of soil may contain1 km of mycorrhizal fungal hyphae, 386 with a fungal surface area of 300 cm 2 interfacing with the soil.Through this increased surface area, the fungus actively and selectively absorbs minerals that the plantneeds and transfers them to the plant, while excluding minerals that the plant does not need. Mycorrhizalfungi also secrete growth factors that stimulate root growth and branching, as well as antibiotics thatprotect the root from pathogenic bacteria and fungi. Nutrients and water in the soil are limited, and eachroot is surrounded by competitive bacteria, fungi and animals (nematodes), making mycorrhizal fungiextremely important to the health, growth and function of roots. In return for their services, they receivecarbohydrates from the host plant.Mycorrhizal fungi can be ectomycorrhizal, forming a sheath around the root tip of the host plantand growing on the outer surface of the roots, or endomycorrhizal, growing inside the roots. Most fungion conifers are ectomycorrhizal; western redcedar and bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum) have endomycorrhizalfungi. Recent research has shown that in clearcut openings, ectomycorrhizal abundance anddiversity decreases with distance from a stand edge and is higher next to old-growth stands. 387Status/threats in B.C. Decomposition proceeds almost unnoticed in the natural world at all times. However, thisprocess is so fundamental that we will almost certainly notice if a significant change occurs. Climate changeis causing temperature increases and changes in moisture availability, which will affect the rate of decomposition.388 This in turn will affect the raw materials necessary for nutrient cycling. Acidification is another factoraffecting organisms involved in decomposition. 389The poisonous Amanita muscaria ismycorrhizal on the roots of many treespecies.photo: corey bunnell.Data gaps: There is little information on decomposition and nutrient cycling in B.C. ecosystems. Many organismsand pathways involved in decomposition and nutrient cycling are poorly understood.

itish columbia’s natural legacyb. pollinationWhat is it? Pollination is the transfer of pollen between plants by biological organisms or by abiotic factors suchas wind. 390Why is it important? Flowering and seed-producing plants rely on pollination to reproduce. In natural andsemi-natural habitats, 65–90% of plants rely on animals for pollination; the others rely on wind, water or splashingraindrops. Pollinating animals are rewarded, usually with food, often nectar. Vertebrates (mainly birds andbats) do some pollinating, but the majority of pollinators are insects: beetles, bees, wasps, flies, butterflies andmoths. Insects pollinate more than three-quarters of all staple food crops; one of every three bites of food wetake is a result of successful plant pollination by animals. 391 While many larger trees (e.g., conifers, aspens andcottonwoods [Populus spp.], birches [Betula spp.] and alders are wind-pollinated, most plant species rely on themore precise delivery of pollen by animals. Close to the forest floor, wind is less prominent and animals are amore reliable means of pollination. The loss of pollinators, and in turn, the plant species they pollinate, wouldhave cascading ecological effects. 392,393 Insect pollinators are involved in food production for wildlife, and theirlarval stage is often an important prey item. 394Insects pollinate the majority of allflowering and seed-producing plants,including more than three-quarters ofour staple food crops.photo: laure neish.Status/threats in B.C. We do not know the extent to which pollinators are of conservation concern in B.C. Astudy of the effects of landscape changes on bees in Garry oak ecosystems is currently underway. 395,396 In otherparts of the world (e.g., Hawaii, eastern Canada, southern U.S.) there are examples of individual pollinatorsand their host plants being severely affected. In the United States, major declines in both managed and wildpopulations of pollinators have been reported. 397 A steady decline in insects has been associated with the overalldecline in biodiversity as a result of ecosystem degradation. 398 European honeybees (Apis mellifera), whichtypically have been introduced and managed as crop pollinators, are declining in abundance due to a varietyof diseases and the impact of other alien species (e.g., the honey bee mite [Varroa jacobsoni]). 399 Native beecommunities can provide full pollination services where farms are located close to high value habitat. However,in areas where insecticides, herbicides and inorganic fertilizers are employed, where natural borders aroundagricultural fields are ploughed or where flood irrigation is used, agricultural intensification can reduce thediversity and abundance of native bees. 400 These practices reduce floral diversity and habitat. Climate change,disease and parasites have also had negative impacts on pollinators. 401 Ecosystems that are dependent on insectpollinators, such as alpine or subalpine meadows, are in more danger of decline than those that are primarilywind-pollinated such as grasslands.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaData gaps: We know little about native pollinators in B.C., whether or not their abundance and diversity aredeclining, and whether they are being displaced by the less-effective European honeybee, as they have beenelsewhere.c. large mammal predator-prey dynamicsWhat are they? Predator-prey systems involve interactions between predators and their prey and occur at allscales, from interactions between invertebrates such as mites to those involving large mammals. Large predatorsdo much to sustain the integrity, richness and productivity of terrestrial ecosystems. 402,403 Unlike the predator-preysystems of small organisms, those of large species are reasonably well documented. B.C. is exceptional amongnorthern temperate regions in retaining these intact a or relatively intact b systems, which have been lost in manyother jurisdictions owing to significant population declines of large carnivores and ungulates (see also Section2.5.2.2-B, p. 144). One important example of a predator-prey system in B.C. involves the grey wolf (Canis lupus)and ungulates such as deer, moose (Alces americanus) and elk.Why are they important? Top carnivores often shape the structure and function of ecosystems by influencing thenumber, distribution and behaviour of their prey, including large herbivores, as well as the number, distributionand behaviour of smaller, generalist predators. 404 Large herbivores shape the structure and species compositionof plant communities, mainly as a result of foraging. 405 Ungulate herbivory regulates the populations of their foodplants and in turn, the stand-level structure of ecosystems. The grey wolf is one well-studied example of a toppredator that has the potential to regulate prey communities of ungulates. 406,407 Because wolves have the abilityto increase rapidly, their populations can have significant impacts on the rest of the ecological community.Changes in predator populations can shift prey population densities, prey community diversity and thedistribution and abundance of ungulate forage vegetation. For example, the extirpation of wolves from YellowstoneNational Park in the U.S. around 1925 (together with restrictions on the hunting of ungulates) is thoughtto have resulted in landscape simplification, such as the loss of riparian habitat caused by over-browsing bydeer, elk and moose, and the loss of trembling aspen from the forest canopy. The reintroduction of wolves tothe Yellowstone ecosystem has caused a cascade of effects, including the recovery of aspen due to a reductionin browsing by elk. 408,409 In the Yellowstone ecosystem, high moose densities resulting from the extirpationaAn intact predator-prey system is one in which all of the native species are present, and with no alien species that plays a role as eitherpredator or prey relative to the others.bA relatively intact predator-prey system is one that is missing only one species, and with no alien species that plays a role as eitherpredator or prey relative to the others, and where the loss of the species has not substantially altered the importance of predator-preyinteractions to the populations of the remaining species.

itish columbia’s natural legacyof both wolves and grizzly bears decreased bird species richness and nesting density through the reduction410, 411in riparian plants such as willows.In areas of B.C. where large carnivore densities are reduced by either disturbance or direct human-causedmortality, ungulate herbivory often exceeds sustainable levels and has deleterious effects on ecosystems and onother species. In the Rocky Mountain Trench, intensive ungulate herbivory in the relative absence of predatorshas contributed to overgrazing, which in turn has created opportunities for the spread of invasive alien species. 412Black-tailed deer, introduced to Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands, where wolves are not found, have hadmajor impacts on other species and resulted in the simplification of the forest ecosystem. 413,414 Similarly, fallowdeer (Dama dama) on Sidney Island near Vancouver Island have significantly affected the structure of the forest,creating a visible ‘browse line’ below which there is little evidence of palatable plant species. An overabundanceof ungulates can also affect nutrient cycling, net primary production and fire regimes. 415,416,417Status/threats in B.C. Predator-prey systems cover most of B.C. and have only been lost entirely from areas ofecosystem conversion (see Section 3, p. 155). However, these systems have been directly impacted by: disturbanceand fragmentation associated with motorized access, 418 including off-road vehicles; killing of large carnivores as aresult of, or with the intention of preventing, livestock-related conflicts with humans; predator control intendedto increase ungulate populations; and/or hunting and trapping of large carnivores and ungulates. Predator-preysystems have also been indirectly impacted by the increase in young forests resulting from forest harvesting,which has increased moose and deer densities in some areas and, by extension, wolf densities. 419Data gaps: Interactions between some large mammal predators and prey species have been relatively well studied,but the dynamics of predator-prey systems are not as well understood. We know little about the indirect ways thathuman activities may influence these systems by creating advantages and disadvantages for individual species. Forexample, we do not fully understand the complex relationships between mountain caribou – a species of conservationconcern – and other large mammals, but there is some evidence to suggest that landscape-level changes inforest structure (see Section 3.3.3, p. 194) are resulting in higher moose populations, which lead in turn to higherwolf populations and higher predation rates on mountain caribou (see Text box 13, p. 85). 420,421,422

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiad. succession/disturbanceWhat is it? Succession is a series of dynamic changes in ecosystem structure, function, and species compositionover time, as a result of which one group of organisms succeeds another through stages leading to a potentialnatural community or climax stage. 423 This natural process occurs constantly in the environment. Organismshave an optimal environmental range for growth and development. As they become established on a site, theyproduce changes in soil conditions, micro-climatic conditions and physical space. 424 As conditions change,other species whose requirements are more suited for the new conditions will flourish. Each successional stageis dominated by a different combination of organisms. While the seral stages of vegetation can be broken intoconvenient units, the process is actually a continuum. A series of disturbances will result in an ecosystem that isgenerally composed of numerous patches of various sizes at different stages of successional development. 425A disturbance, whether natural or human-generated, can reset the successional process. Disturbance mechanismssuch as fire, insect infestation, wind storms, landslides, flooding and logging are agents or enablers of successionand can interact together to influence succession. For instance, fire may make vegetation more susceptible todisease, while infestations of insects such as mountain pine beetle may increase fuel loads, making the area moresusceptible to higher-intensity fires, resulting in significant changes to the existing successional regime.Disturbance affects communities at various spatial and temporal scales. Disturbance agents and the frequencyof disturbance can be recognized in the history of some ecosystems. Frequent fires in B.C.’s interior have resultedin open grassland savannahs with scattered large, fire-resistant trees. Lack of fire in moist-climate ecosystemshas created a very different forest, with thousand-year-old trees growing next to young saplings. In these forests,the primary disturbance event is an old tree falling and creating a patch of sun. On floodplains, frequent floodingcreates a constantly shifting mosaic of sediment islands and young trees and shrubs. Some species survive thedisturbance and others quickly colonize the disturbed area.FireFire is a key disturbance agent, controlling forest and grassland ecosystem composition, structure and function.426,427,428,429 The way fire acts in an environment, referred to as the fire regime, has a major effect on the successionalpatterns of ecosystems. 430,431,432,433 Where fire is suppressed, even in semi-desert ecosystems in BritishColumbia, conifers can invade grasslands. 434Fire regime is characterized by fire size, type, intensity and frequency, with each factor playing a role in ecosystemresponse to the disturbance event. 435, 436 Figure 26 shows the variability of fire-return intervals in British Columbia.Four general natural disturbance types (NDTs) have been identified in relation to intensity and frequency of

itish columbia’s natural legacyfires: rare or infrequent stand-initiating or crown fires (NDTs1 and 2); frequent stand-initiating fires (NDT 3); and frequentsurface fires (NDT 4). The fifth category on the map (NDT 5)shows non-forested areas that do not rely on fire to maintainthat condition. At a more site-specific level, studies haveshown considerable variability within these broad zones. 437Some wet coastal forests have been completely replacedthrough small gap-creating events during their thousands ofyears of existence in the absence of fire. 438The characteristics of a fire depend on many factors,including vegetation, fuels, weather and topography. Forinstance, grasses and conifer needles on the forest floorare important vectors for fire spread, while larger fuelsand duff contribute to longer, more intense fire. Areas ofhigh precipitation are less likely than arid areas to burn,and wind can direct the spread and duration of fire events.Steep, south-facing slopes and ridgelines are more proneto fire than shallow slopes or valley bottoms. 439,440Tree stand age also plays a role in fire regime, since astand’s fuel load, including the number of dead and downtrees, generally increases with stand age. There are also importantseasonal effects on fire type and vegetative responseto fire. 441Fire regimes can determine the age structure of tree specieswithin stands, which will, in turn, determine the typesof plants and animals a community can support. 442 Althoughsome ecosystems, such as alpine ecosystems, have evolvedlargely in the absence of fire, others require fire to survive intheir present form. Grassland and dry forest types have historicallyexperienced frequent stand-maintaining fires. 443 Wetterfigure 26: Distribution of natural disturbance types in B.C.source: B.C. Ministry of Forests and Range.NaturalDisturbance TypeNDT1 - Rare stand-initiatingeventsNDT2 - Infrequent stand-initiatingeventsNDT3 - Frequent stand-initiatingeventsNDT4 - Frequent stand-maintainingfiresNDT5 - Alpine Tundra andSubalpine Parkland

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaecosystems experience infrequent, stand-replacing fires. 444 Some individual organisms also depend on fire tofulfill a requirement within their life cycle. 445 Depending on severity, fire can increase soil nutrient availabilityor sterilize the soil and destroy the successional seed stock. 446InsectsInsects can have a significant impact on succession. Various species of bark beetles a collectively destroy morestanding timber in western coniferous forests than all other insects combined. Pines, spruces, firs (Abies spp.)and hemlocks (Tsuga spp.) suffer most of the attack, in the order named. 447Adult bark beetles bore through the bark of conifers, making a tunnel between the bark and wood, in which tolay eggs. As the cambium-mining larvae grow, they create tunnels on the inner surface of the bark. Bark beetlesare present in virtually all mature forests. However, under conditions favourable to the insects, major outbreakscan develop. Outbreaks that continue for many years can destroy trees over extensive areas. The most aggressivebark beetles are the pine beetles (Dendroctonus spp.) 448 (See Text box 16, p. 105).The longhorned beetles b include some bark-boring species that can kill live trees or that may breed in thebark of felled, fire-killed or wind-thrown trees.Why is it important? Disturbances such as fire and insect attack have a major effect on successional patternsand the structure and composition of ecosystems. When patterns of disturbance change because of either directhuman activities or climate change, the resultant ecosystems may not function as expected.Status/threats in B.C. Forestry practices, including fire suppression and salvage logging, have altered successionalpatterns. 449,450,451 As a result of all these changes, forests are becoming less diverse, and thereforeless resilient, and grasslands are declining. 452,453,454,455 Climate change will further modify disturbance regimes(e.g., by increasing insect outbreaks) and cause large, sudden changes in vegetation. 456aFamily Curculionidae, subfamily Scolytinae.bFamily Cerambycidae.

itish columbia’s natural legacytext box 16.the mountain pine beetle epidemic in b.c.The mountain pine beetle is a natural part of B.C.’s interior pine forest ecosystems, laying its eggs underthe bark of mature pine trees. When the eggs hatch, the pine beetle larvae feed on the inner bark, cuttingoff the tree’s nutrient supply. 457 The beetle also introduces a blue stain fungus into the sapwood, whichprevents the tree from repelling the attacking beetles with pitch flow. A mountain pine beetle infestationcan kill a host tree within a few weeks. 458B.C. is currently experiencing the largest mountain pine beetle infestation ever recorded in the province.The outbreak is due to two factors: the large amount of mature pine – the beetle’s preferred host – present inB.C.’s interior forests as a result of past fire suppression and silvicultural practices; and the lack of sufficientlylong periods of winter temperatures cold enough to kill overwintering beetles and keep the population incheck. 459,460 Drought during the past several years has also made the trees less able to resist attack. 461As of 2006, 19% of B.C.’s forest had been affected by mountain pine beetle, with an additional 32% expectedto be affected by 2018 (Figure 27). The resulting changes in forest structure have a number of ramifications.Pine obligates, such as the western pine elfin (Callophrys eryphon) and the pine subspecies of thered crossbill (Loxia curvirostra stricklandi) may suffer from the dramatic loss of pine in the province. 462 Lossof mature forest canopy reduces habitat quality and quantity for many bird and mammal species, and wintercover for ungulates, although the increase in standing and fallen dead trees will initially provide habitat forwoodpeckers and cavity-nesting birds, 463 and new understory vegetation may benefit some species, suchas grouse, deer and bears. Reduction in transpiration as a result of extensive tree death is expected to significantlychange forest hydrology. 464 The resulting increased runoff will have short-term effects on streamsystems, including erosion. The effects of increased logging levels aimed at salvaging beetle-killed trees mayalso be significant. 465,466,467,468 The risk of fire in beetle-killed forests is increasing. The effects of climate changehave already expanded the amount of habitat suitable for mountain pine beetle by 75% in the past threedecades, and the beetle has now moved into Alberta. This trend is expected to continue (Map 10). 46948%19%32%AREA OF FOREST NOTAFFECTED BY MPB, 48%PROJECTED ADDITIONALAREA OF FOREST AFFECTEDBY MPB IN 2018, 32%FOREST AFFECTED BY MPBIN 2006, 19%figure 27: Forests in B.C. affectedby mountain pine beetle (MPB), withprojections to 2018.source: Forest area is based on BaselineThematic Mapping (btm), Integrated LandManagement Branch, from mid 1990sinventory data. Mountain pine beetledata are based on the Ministry of Forestsand Range 1999 to 2006 Provincial AerialOverview of Forest Health (www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/health/overview/overview.htm)and output from the bcmpb ProjectionModel (version 4) (www.for.gov.bc.ca/hre/bcmpb).

t130°W 120°W110°W60°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e s60°NM A P 1 0Area of forestsmore than 10%impacted bymountain pine beetleLegendB r i t i s hC o l u m b i a!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLakeYear200720031999Fort St. JohnA l b e r t a55°N55°NPrince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of DetailCalgary0 100 200Kilometres50°NP a c i f i cO c e a nKamloopsKelowna50°NData sources:Ministry of Forests and RangeMap by:Caslys Consulting LtdVancouverIslandVancouverProjection:BC Albers NAD83Produced for:VictoriaU N I T E D S T A T E SApril 14, 2008130°W120°W

itish columbia’s natural legacyData gaps: Regional disturbance regimes have been characterized for only 45% of the 91 biogeoclimatic subzonesin the province. 470 Most research has been focused on fire, with limited work on insects, wind or other disturbanceagents. The lack of quantitative data is most likely related to the province’s great diversity of ecosystems, whichcreates a much more complex system than is characterized by the four forested natural disturbance types describedfor B.C. This system is based on disturbance intervals and does not consider disturbance severity. 471Because insects that cause infestations in forests have large economic impacts they have been studied morethan other insects. However, with increasing temperatures, particularly in the winter, the range of many species ischanging. Monitoring these range changes will be important for predicting large-scale disturbances in the future.e. southern red-backed volesWhat are they? The southern red-backed vole is an herbivorous rodent distributed throughout much of B.C.Why are they important? Southern red-backed voles play a number of functional roles in older forest communities,with influences on both their predators and their prey. 472,473 They are prey for many species, includingmedium-sized mammals, forest hawks and owls. They facilitate nutrient cycling, including the decompositionof coarse woody debris, by dispersing a significant volume and diversity of fungal species (in one study morethan 23 genera of fungi), 474 many of which are mycorrhizal (see Text box 15, p.98). They aerate the soil by diggingtunnels and they can influence local tree mortality by foraging on the roots of saplings and small trees, resultingin an increased mix of tree species in a stand and thus enhancing the number of niches available for otherspecies. This can potentially contribute to the overall ‘old-growth’ quality of a stand. 475 This species is knownto be associated with stands that have higher densities of large pieces of coarse woody debris and of ‘truffles’(edible underground fungi). 476Status/threats in B.C. Although the southern red-backed vole is not a species of conservation concern in theprovince, the subspecies occidentalis is critically imperilled and the subspecies galei is vulnerable. Southernred-backed voles are primarily associated with old-growth and mature forests, 477 which are being reduced indistribution in many areas of B.C. Populations of these voles decline significantly with clearcutting. 478 This speciesmay be affected as old-growth forest is replaced by young seral forest and, over the long term, as the sizeand abundance of coarse woody debris declines across the landscape. 479Data gaps: We do not know to what extent this species’ functions are replicated by other small mammals inyounger seral stages, or how southern red-backed vole population cycles affect the dependence of any particularcommunity on this species’ functions. The loss of coarse woody debris across the landscape will intensify asmore older stands become part of managed forests with short harvesting rotations. The ability of forest stands

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiato maintain populations of the southern red-backed vole and associated species under those conditions is notknown. No provincial population status information exists for this species.f. wildlife treesWhat are they? Wildlife trees are standing dead or living trees with special characteristics that provide nesting,denning, feeding, roosting or perching sites for wildlife species. The characteristics of wildlife trees include largetrunks (sometimes hollow), large branches, deformed or broken tops, internal decay and sloughing bark. 480 Theinteractions between fungi attempting to decompose living trees and the trees’ defences produce different decaypatterns, as the tree attempts to seal off the pathogenic fungi. Wildlife trees usually develop over a long timeand the most important are usually large, old, damaged, diseased or decaying trees.Some tree decay fungi create rotpockets surrounded by a sound outershell, ideal for woodpeckers andother cavity users.photo: istock.Why are they important? Many vertebrates profit from the pockets of rot inside a living tree resulting from thework of fungi. Wildlife trees provide habitat for at least 90 species in B.C. 481 Some bird and mammal species relyon wildlife trees. Large platforms created by branches are used as nesting sites for large birds. Dead tops areused as hunting perches and nest sites. Trees with softened trunks are used by primary cavity nesters (those thatbuild their own nesting cavity) and the abandoned holes are used by many other mammals and birds (secondarycavity nesters). This close community relationship between wildlife trees and primary and secondary cavitynesters has been described as a nest web. 482 Some birds nest and bats roost under loose bark. Insects attractedto these trees feed a variety of birds. Black bears den in hollow trunks. Wildlife trees are especially valuable ingrasslands, riparian areas and wetlands and along shorelines.Status/threats in B.C. Wildlife trees are becoming increasingly scarce as old forests are harvested for forestproducts or cleared for agriculture and other types of land development. Forest harvesting rotation periods of 40to 120 years do not allow enough time for wildlife trees or their diverse invertebrate communities to develop. 483Wildlife trees are sometimes classified as ‘danger’ trees and cut down for worker safety and are also often takenduring salvage or firewood logging. 484Data gaps: Relatively little is known about the biology and ecology of many wildlife tree-dependent species,including the American three-toed woodpecker (Picoides dorsalis), black-backed woodpecker (P. arcticus), whiteheadedwoodpecker (P. albolarvatus), Lewis’s woodpecker, Williamson’s sapsucker (Sphyrapicus thyroideus),flammulated owl (Otus flammeolus), western screech owl (Megascops kennicottii), northern hawk owl (Surniaulula), northern pygmy-owl (Glaucidium gnoma) and northern saw-whet owl (Aegolius acadicus). Associationsbetween wildlife trees and both lichens and invertebrates are very poorly documented. These gaps make it

itish columbia’s natural legacydifficult to determine the effects of the loss of wildlife trees from ecosystems and to monitor the effectivenessof wildlife tree retention practices.g. broadleaf treesWhat are they? A broadleaf tree is one with relatively wide, flat leaves (as opposed to the needle-like leaves ofconifers); in B.C., most broadleaf trees are deciduous, shedding their leaves in autumn. There are at least 17species of broadleaf trees in B.C. and many more shrubs with similar characteristics. Some of the more commonones are red alder, trembling aspen, paper birch (Betula papyrifera), bigleaf maple and the province’s onlycottonwood – a subspecies of balsam poplar known as black cottonwood. Broadleaf trees are distributed ingroups or singly throughout the forested zones of B.C. and, depending on the species, may be associated withriparian ecosystems.Why are they important? Despite covering less area in B.C. than conifers, broadleaf trees are used for breedinghabitat by more species, including a wider range of birds and mammals. They also provide important foraginghabitat for many birds and mammals, and therefore presumably for a wide diversity of invertebrate species.Trembling aspen and paper birch, as well as other trees, shrubs and herbs, are associated with soil microbesand ectomycorrhizae, which colonize the roots of plants and form a network of fungal hyphae linking thebroadleaf trees with neighbouring conifers in mixed forests (see Text box 15, p. 98). When deciduous speciesare present, carbon transfer and nitrogen fixation in conifers increases, suggesting that the broadleaf speciesare an essential component for maintaining longer-term ecosystem productivity. 485,486Broadleaf trees prevent the spread of the root disease Armillaria ostoyae among conifers 487 and reduce attackby weevils and spruce budworm. These species also directly increase productivity of soil by dropping largevolumes of leaf and branch litter onto the forest floor every year.Among the notable broadleaf tree communities in B.C. are black cottonwood ecosystems. Cottonwoods areimportant wildlife trees (see Section 2.5.1.2-F, p. 108) because they are prone to limb breakage, creating largenatural cavities, and because many woodpeckers nest in them and are later followed by secondary cavity nesters.Cottonwood ecosystems are often, though not always, located adjacent to water bodies. They provide habitat fora wide diversity of animals, including species requiring large nesting trees close to water (e.g., great blue heron[Ardea herodias], bald eagle [Haliaeetus leucocephalus]), as well as black bears and many cavity-nesting ducks andowls. The large size and relatively short lifespan of cottonwoods means that they likely contribute significantly toriparian functioning, with leaf fall providing important organic matter, and inputs of large instream woody debrisincreasing habitat for fish spawning (and other aquatic breeding species) through pool development.Broadleaf trees, such as tremblingaspen (Populus tremuloides) providevaluable breeding and foraginghabitat for many birds, mammalsand invertebrates.photo: jared hobbs.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaBlack cottonwood /water birch2001 distributionLost since 1800Vernon!.Ecologically, floodplain cottonwood ecosystems tend to include a diversity of ecological communities thatare uncommon in B.C., including some of conservation concern. These ecosystems contribute to the structuralintegrity of stream bank and lakeshore habitats. In many locations, cottonwood ecosystems exist within theflooding zone of streams, rivers and lakes. This species (along with trembling aspen) is thought to act as a nutrientpump in forested ecosystems, whereby nutrients transported by these species into the canopy are releasedand made available to support other species, such as certain lichens that are found in greater numbers in areaswhere nutrients are made available by this ‘drip zone’ effect. 488Kelowna!.OkanaganLakePenticton!.Osoyoos!.figure 28: Loss of blackcottonwood / water birch riparianshrub ecosystem in the Okanagansince 1800.source: Prepared for this reportwith data from T. Lea.Status/threats in B.C. In some areas, certain forest management practices (e.g., extensive brushing and chemicalremoval of deciduous species, fire suppression across the broader landscape) have resulted in there being toofew young broadleaf trees, both within and outside the managed forest landscape, to replace existing maturebroadleaf trees that are close to their natural lifespan of 100 to 150 years. 489In the short term, the loss of a mature component of broadleaf species will result in significant reduction ofhabitat for a diversity of species, including woodpeckers and associated secondary cavity nesters. In the longerterm, loss of these trees from regenerating forests, both managed and natural, may have significant productivityimpacts due to reduced nitrogen fixation from the loss of mycorrhizal fungi. 490Across the province, many cottonwood ecosystems are of conservation concern. 491, 492 The B.C. ConservationData Centre lists 12 ecological communities of conservation concern that include black cottonwood. 493 Historiclosses of cottonwood ecosystems have been significant in some areas. For example, in the Okanagan, 63% of theblack cottonwood / water birch riparian shrub forest has been lost since 1800 (Figure 28). 494 Losses are due toa number of factors. Damming of rivers has flooded areas historically dominated by cottonwood ecosystems.Single trees and whole ecosystems are also affected by rural or recreational development and agriculture. Inaddition, regeneration of the species, and therefore the ecosystem, has been reduced in many areas because ofreduced water levels and reduced flooding potential around many lakes (e.g., around the West Arm of KootenayLake), 495 since black cottonwoods primarily regenerate after flooding. Climate change also has the potential toinfluence the distribution of the species through the expected significant increase in frequency of low waterflows and reduction in peak flows.Data gaps: Inventory of broadleaf trees, which have typically been considered non-commercial, is limited. The lastinventory in the province was undertaken in the early 1990s, although a new inventory is underway. Black cottonwoodis mapped on forest cover maps, but the distribution of the broader riparian ecosystem is not systematicallymonitored in B.C. No systematic mapping is available for cottonwood ecosystems located on private land, whichmay be significant. Current forest inventory sometimes omits small occurrences of broadleaf trees.

itish columbia’s natural legacyh. soilWhat is it? Soil is the naturally occurring, unconsolidated mineral or organic material at the surface of the earththat is capable of supporting plant growth. 496 Different soil types across B.C. are the result of the five factors ofsoil formation: parent material, climate, organisms, topography and time. Variations in soil properties, suchas texture, thickness and mineralogy, are inherited from the parent material; other properties, such as organiccontent, depth of the weathering zone, and the development of horizons (layers), are the result of soil-formingprocesses. The four major soil-forming processes – additions, losses, translocations and transformations 497 –are primarily influenced by temperature, precipitation and organisms. Soils are classified by their properties,many of which reflect how the soils are formed. The type and variety of soils found across the landscape bothinfluence, and are influenced by, biodiversity.Why is it important? Soil represents the dynamic interface between the living organisms, air, water and rock. Itsupports plant growth and is fundamental to terrestrial ecosystems, including wetlands. Soil consists of mineralmaterial originating from the parent material and organic matter formed by the decomposition of organisms andtheir by-products. Organic matter provides nutrients to plants, enhances the ability of the soil to hold water andenhances soil structure. It also provides aeration and drainage, promotes long-term site productivity and storescarbon. 498 Soil is created by, and provides habitat for, highly complex bacterial and fungal communities, whichare instrumental in decomposition and nutrient cycling (see Text box 15, p. 98), as well as diverse communities ofinvertebrates (e.g., nematodes, roundworms and arthropods), which act as detritivores and provide a food sourcefor ground-foraging vertebrates such as shrews (Sorex spp.). Soil also influences larger animals, whose uses of soilinclude burrowing, nesting, travelling, cooling and obtaining minerals from mineral licks.Soil is critical to future ecological response to climate change. Enduring landscape features such as parentmaterial and topography will remain essentially the same as climate, biota and disturbance regimes change. Soilschange over a longer time scale than individual plants and animals and retain characteristics and clues to pastecology and disturbance (e.g., floods, charcoal from forest fires, excavation, landslides, volcanic deposits andpollen). Different soil types may also act to buffer or amplify climatic, anthropogenic and ecological changes.Soil layers are formed as a resultof several factors and can be adeterminant of the vegetation on a site.Drawn lines depict three soil layersabove bedrock.photo: bob maxwell.Status/threats in B.C. From a global perspective, soils in B.C. are generally believed to be in good condition, asimpacts tend to be localized. The human activities that have had the largest impacts on soil are urban development,mining, forestry, grazing, creation of reservoirs and oil and gas development. Rural development andagriculture convert ecosystems, and the soil that remains tends to have much reduced value to biodiversity.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaForestry is one of the most widespread human activities affecting soil in B.C. The primary impacts from forestryare compaction through the construction and use of roads and landings, loss of soil material due to destabilizationand hydrological processes, the resulting increased sedimentation in streams, and the reduction of organicmatter inputs. Most organic material taken to a landing or mill is material that eventually would have becomepart of the soil. Grazing can also result in soil compaction and/or erosion, especially in riparian areas. Oil andgas development results in compaction through the construction and use of roads, well sites, pipelines andother facilities, as well as environmental contamination of soils in localized areas. Oil and gas drilling wasteincludes petroleum hydrocarbons. 499Also impacted by livestock trampling is a unique and rare type of soil cover known as the cryptogamic crust(also known as the microbial, microfloral, microphytic or cryobiotic crust) – a thin layer of lichens, mosses,liverworts, algae, fungi and bacteria that is found in undisturbed semi-arid ecosystems. It can be found oneither soil or non-soil surfaces. The cryptogamic crust layer is important to water retention in the arid parts ofthe province. 500 The cryptogamic crust in grassland communities in low-elevation areas of B.C. has mostly disappearedas a result of ecosystem conversion. In the isolated pockets where the cryptogamic crust still occursand livestock have access, they can trample the crust and break it up. 501Data gaps: Because soil organisms are often microscopic or out of sight, there is widespread lack of informationabout them (See Text box 14, p.88). Some of the most obvious gaps are: knowledge of basic biodiversity foundin soils, including inventories for single-celled organisms, fungi and microfauna; lack of taxonomic expertise tocarry out these inventories; knowledge of specific functions of soil organisms, including how they are involvedin maintaining specific physical and chemical conditions and how they contribute to ecosystem resilience andstability; knowledge of how climate change will affect the redistribution of soil organisms and the resulting impactson soil processes; and knowledge of impacts of large-scale human disturbances (e.g., forest harvesting,fertilization, urban and rural development) on soil biodiversity and related functions.Soils inventory mapping covers less than 50% of the province. For provincial-level modelling, 100% coveragewould be desirable. Provincial soils data were collected between the 1930s and the early 1990s. Soils data arenot easily accessible and are in a variety of formats.Shallow soils on rocky terrain are associated with distinctive ecosystems and are widespread within B.C.These soils have not been well studied or described.

itish columbia’s natural legacyi. coarse woody debris / large woody debrisWhat is it? Coarse woody debris (CWD) is large pieces of wood, generally greater than 10 cm in diameter, onor near the forest floor, and includes sound or rotting logs, stumps and large branches that have fallen or beencut (standing dead trees are discussed in Section 2.5.1.2-F, p. 108). 502 In aquatic environments, this material iscalled large woody debris (LWD) or large organic debris.Why is it important? Coarse woody debris is important in both forest and aquatic ecosystems for several reasons.503,504 CWD contributes to stand-level diversity in old-growth and mature forests, providing habitat forfeeding, reproduction and shelter for many organisms including invertebrates, small mammals and amphibians.It provides nutrients and habitat for various bacteria and fungi (see also Section 2.5.1.2-A, p. 97), as well assaprophytic plants, a lichens and mosses that are important for decomposition and nutrient and water cycling.It also acts as a refugium for displaced species where it persists during and after disturbances, can buffer microclimatesfor the establishment of seedlings, and it stores carbon.In aquatic and riparian ecosystems, LWD shapes and stabilizes streambanks and prevents erosion. 505 Whenit falls into streams, it disperses stream energy and enhances fish habitat by creating pools, gradual steps, gravelbars and riffles. Large woody debris releases nutrients and increases the retention of organic debris from uplandsources, which is then decomposed by stream organisms.Status/threats in B.C. In the aquatic environment, the absence of LWD has a negative effect on the stabilityof stream structure and on the species that use it as habitat. Removal of wood from large rivers can result inaltered channel structure and have long-term effects. 506 Long and large-diameter pieces of CWD take longer todecay than smaller pieces and therefore add structure over a longer time period. They are rarer in harvestedsites compared to natural areas. 507,508Data gaps: There are still many unanswered questions about the role of CWD in forested ecosystems and theability of these functions to be maintained in systems with diminished piece size. In freshwater systems, particularlylarge rivers, there is a lack of information on the life cycle of LWD and its effect on fish habitat. 5092.5.1.3 freshwater elementsa. wetlandsWhat are they? Freshwater wetlands are areas where fresh water is at or near the surface for most of the year.They include bogs, fens, swamps and marshes. Temporary wetlands provide habitat for a number of extremelyrare taxa. 510aPlants that grow on, and derive their nourishment from, dead or decaying organic matter.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaWetlands host a disproportionatelyhigh number of species for their size.photo: bruce harrison.Why are they important? Wetlands provide habitat for many species and fulfill a broad range of ecological functions.The largest wetland complexes in B.C., such as the Columbia Valley wetlands (see Section 2.5.2.3-A, p.145), are internationally significant. The province’s more numerous small wetlands make major contributions tobiodiversity; 511 they cumulatively create wetland complexes (which are important features in many landscapes)and may be interconnected. 512 Temporary wetlands (seasonally flooded wetlands that have both a wet and adry regime, which vary in timing, frequency and duration) are important for amphibians 513 and invertebrates, 514as well as for zooplankton and plant species. 515Wetlands buffer environmental extremes by absorbing and filtering sediments, pollutants and excess nutrients,recharging groundwater, maintaining stream flows, controlling runoff, storing flood waters, reducing erosionand stabilizing shorelines. They also help regulate atmospheric gases and climate cycles. In brief, wetlandsabsorb water quickly and release it slowly, with its quality improved.The contribution of wetlands to biodiversity and to ecological functions maintaining both terrestrial andfreshwater systems is disproportionate to their size. Wetlands are areas of high species richness. A large proportionof B.C.’s terrestrial vertebrate species rely on wetlands to meet some of their needs or use wetlandhabitat at some point in their life cycle, and more than 30% of the province’s species of conservation concernare wetland-dependent. 516Status/threats in B.C. Wetlands are estimated to comprise about 7% of the province’s area, but are decreasingrapidly. Because they tend to occur in low-lying areas suitable for agriculture and settlement, wetlands areamong the most heavily impacted ecosystems worldwide. They are subject to many impacts that reduce theirsuitability as habitat, including removal of water, siltation, pollution, water diversion, ecosystem conversion tourban and agricultural uses, and general human disturbance.The Okanagan River is almost completely channellized, contributing to the loss of about 85% of the originalwetlands in the south Okanagan. 517 Many of the wetlands in the lower Fraser Valley have also disappeared, withthe diking and drainage of 85% of the wetlands in the Fraser River delta 518 (see Text box 7, p. 43) and the completeeradication of the once-rich Sumas Lake wetlands. Between 1989 and 1999, approximately 20% of the wetlandsin the Fraser Valley between Hope and Vancouver were impacted by urbanization or agriculture, 519 includingpeatland drainage in the Fraser River delta. On the east coast of Vancouver Island, there was a loss of approximately32% of salt and estuarine marshes between the early 1900s and 1988, 520 and a loss of 2% of freshwaterwetlands between early 1990s and 2002. 521 Agricultural reclamation of wetlands in the Cariboo-Chilcotin hascontributed to ecosystem conversion and degradation in that region. 522

itish columbia’s natural legacyClimate change could jeopardize shallow wetlands and their contributions in the B.C. interior, and risingsea levels could inundate coastal wetlands. 523,524Data gaps: Although the wetland and riparian ecosystem classification of British Columbia is well developed, 525not all of the province has been surveyed. Smaller wetlands are not well surveyed or inventoried. Temporarywetlands are not included in any surveys.b. sphagnumWhat is it? Sphagnum mosses (commonly known as peat mosses) are bryophytes that inhabit and distinguishwetland ecosystems characterized by their acidic environment and an accumulation of organic matter (peat).In B.C., significant Sphagnum ecosystems are found in the boreal forests of the northeast and along the coast. 526Burns Bog is a well known Sphagnum-dominated bog found in southwestern British Columbia (see Section2.5.2.3-A, p. 145). 527,528Why is it important? The morphological, chemical and physical properties of Sphagnum species contribute to thedevelopment of the wet, nutrient-poor, acidic environments in which they flourish. 529 By raising the peat surface,acidifying its environment and absorbing 10 to 20 times its dry weight in moisture, Sphagnum has a disproportionateimpact on its surrounding environment and plays a significant role in wetland succession. 530 Sphagnumis required to fix the acidity of the bog ecosystem to allow the succession of other wetland species. 531Acidic and nutrient-poor environments created by peat mosses are unique ecosystems in which onlya few specialized species are able to thrive. These ecosystems contain rare species such as the subarctic darner(Aeshna subarctica) and Pacific water shrew. 532,533 Environments created by Sphagnum also provide habitat forwaterfowl.Peat bogs created by Sphagnum are of international significance for their role in mitigating the effects ofclimate change by trapping greenhouse gases such as CO 2and methane, which otherwise would be releasedduring decomposition processes. 534 Sphagnum environments control run-off, act as catchment areas and providerepositories for natural and anthropological history preserved in organic layers.Status/threats in B.C. Ecosystem conversion, predominantly through peat mining, is the main threat to coastalSphagnum. Sites are generally small and therefore susceptible to disturbance. Clearing the top layers, such as foragriculture, releases methane, contributing to climate change. Flooding destroys the habitat. Adjacent agriculturaldevelopment also has the potential to introduce chemicals, altering the environment and species succession.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaDrainage allows other species to become established, and once bogs have been drained, natural regeneration ofSphagnum is difficult. Harvest is a threat to Sphagnum located near urban environments. Although these plantscan cope with seasonal and daily surface temperature fluctuations and periodic drought, Sphagnum species aresusceptible to long-term changes due to climate change. Repeated burning is not favourable to their survival.Oil and gas development is a threat to Sphagnum ecosystems in northeastern B.C. 535Data Gaps: There are significant gaps in knowledge of life history strategies, including dispersal, of Sphagnumspecies. 536 Although they are found in locations with regular fire occurrence, the influence of fire on these plantsis poorly understood. 537 There is no systematic inventory of Sphagnum.c. lake-level patternsWhat are they? Many lakes are characterized by predictable temporal water-level patterns. 538 The regular patternof lake levels is affected by several aspects of climate (e.g., precipitation, temperature, humidity) and byphysical setting (e.g., geology, basin shape, basin size). Natural lake-level patterns vary considerably amonggeographic regions of the province. Many natural lakes in B.C. have water licenses allowing drawdown and othershave been modified by the addition of weirs to manage lake levels. These changes create water bodies thatare part natural lake and part reservoir. This key element includes these modified lakes, but does not includethe entirely artificial water bodies created by dams.Why are they important? Emergent and submerged aquatic macrophytes (large aquatic plants) are the dominantstructural component of shoreline habitats. They provide food and shelter for a wide variety of invertebrate, fishand wildlife species. Vegetation responds to strong gradients between the terrestrial and aquatic interface andunder most natural conditions there is strong zonation of vegetation along this gradient from forest and shrubthicket to wet meadow to marsh to aquatic. 539 The wet meadow and marsh zones are found solely within the areaaffected by fluctuating water levels.Fluctuating water levels are considered the most important factor determining vegetation patterns on lakeshores,although other factors, such as wave exposure, soil or sediment type, and species interactions are alsoinfluential. Under most natural conditions, water level fluctuations occur due to seasonal changes in precipitationand surface/groundwater inflows, as well as discharge and evaporation. Climate will influence precipitationand temperature (evaporation), while the physical setting will influence surface and subsurface flows.As a lake’s water level drops, wetted areas are exposed and the zone where light levels are sufficient for plantgrowth (the photic zone) shifts deeper in the lake basin. 540 The frequency, duration and magnitude of drops in

itish columbia’s natural legacythe lake level determine the effect on vegetation and some animal species. For example, lake sockeye salmonneed stable lake levels for successful reproduction. 541,542Status/threats in B.C. Humans affect lake levels through dams, water diversions and extractions, and land usechanges. We do not know the extent of these impacts and they may increase in response to climate change.Climate change is already having noticeable effects on streamflow patterns in some areas of B.C., which willlikely affect lake levels.Altered lake levels affect the quantity and quality of shoreline and riparian habitats, and the abundance anddistribution of aquatic and riparian organisms. 543 As water level fluctuations increase in magnitude, there is oftena decrease in the extent of the shoreline zone as high-elevation areas are inundated insufficiently to support emergentspecies and too frequently to support upland vegetation. Low-elevation areas are unproductive because thephotic zone does not extend to these areas for enough time to allow establishment of submerged macrophytes.Lake drawdowns of 5–7 m can completely remove macrophytes from the shoreline zone. 544,545,546,547 Relativelyminor shifts in average annual water levels (plus or minus 10 cm) or in water level fluctuations canproduce substantial changes in the vegetation community, and species changes are common even after a singledrawdown. a,548,549 Stabilized water levels are also capable of significant effects on the diversity of macrophytesin the shoreline zone. 550It has also been suggested that drawdowns in lakes can cause algal blooms (visible aggregations of algaein or on the surface layer of a water body) when nutrients are released from exposed shoreline areas, causinga subsequent limited uptake of nutrients in shoreline habitats. 551,552 Shoreline zone invertebrate populationscan be severely reduced by drawdown and many studies have shown correlations between fish abundance anddiversity and altered lake-level patterns. 553,554,555Data gaps: The effect of water level and drawdown on macrophyte distribution and abundance has been fairlywell studied, though results have been variable due to differences among studies in lake geology and physicalcharacteristics, species affected and differences in drawdown scenarios. 556d. headwater streamsWhat are they? Headwater streams are found at the top end of stream systems. They are often steep streamsdominated by bedrock sills and influenced by landslides that deliver boulders and other sediment to the channel.Headwater streams can represent half of the total length of a river system. 557Steep headwater streams providehabitat for many aquatic invertebratesand some specialized amphibians.photo: tory stevens.aThe magnitude of fluctuations is one of the primary differences between reservoirs and natural lakes, and causes extirpation of shorelinevegetation from most hydropower reservoirs.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaWhy are they important? These small streams are critical for input of water and sediments, for nutrient dynamicsand for the addition of most of the coarse particulate organic matter a in stream systems. Most (70–90%) ofthe coarse organic particulates are transported downstream, 558 where they provide a food source for streaminvertebrates that in turn feed larger organisms. Headwater streams are strongly linked to adjacent slopes.Landslides account for most of the sediment in headwater channels. 559While steep headwater streams tend to be fishless, they provide habitat for many aquatic invertebrates, andlow-gradient headwater streams are among the most productive environments in a river system because of theretention of organic material. For solely aquatic species (e.g., fish), headwaters can be geographically isolatedfrom one watershed to the next. This means that they are also genetically isolated, which accounts for the geneticvariability within these species between headwater systems. 560Status/threats in B.C. Although headwater streams make up more than half the length of a stream system, theyare often so small that they are not mapped or considered in resource management, which puts them at greaterrisk than other streams. 561 This is particularly true if they are not fish-bearing.Much of the structure and many of the processes within streams, including headwater streams, are determinedby relationships with adjacent ecosystems, particularly the riparian zone. The status of adjacent ripariansystems affects:• microclimate (light, temperature and humidity);• nutrient input from hill slopes (riparian zones modify amount, form and timing of nutrient exportfrom watersheds);• contribution of large woody debris (see Section 2.5.1.2-I, p. 113);• contribution of organic matter (much of the food base for stream ecosystems comes from adjacentterrestrial sources); and• retention of inputs to LWD jams and smaller organic debris accumulations.Data gaps: The importance of headwater streams to downstream ecosystems is not well known. There is nomeasure of the amount of headwater area that has been degraded by roads, timber harvesting, mineral explorationand mining in B.C.aCoarse particulate organic matter is particles of organic matter (leaves, wood, etc.) that are >1mm in size.

itish columbia’s natural legacye .g r o u n dwat e rWhat is it? Surface waters in the form of rivers, lakes and wetlands are the most readily apparent component ofthe hydrologic cycle, but in most areas of B.C. there is a strong interaction between surface flows and groundwater(see also Section 2.5.1.1-B, p. 94). This interaction is apparent when surface flows in perennial streams continuelong after precipitation or snowmelt runoff events. Groundwater is recharged by infiltration from precipitationand surface flow and, depending on the depth of the water table and subsurface geology, groundwater may besubsequently released as surface flow. 562,563 The release of groundwater to surface water provides most of thebase flow for many streams through periods of no precipitation, or during winter when precipitation is lockedup as snow or ice.Why is it important? A minimum flow is important to organisms such as fish, not only as a constant medium inwhich to live, but also because of the ameliorating effects on extreme temperatures by groundwater inputs. 564,565In winter, groundwater releases are typically warmer than ambient surface water and may prevent freezing conditionsin spawning and rearing areas. 566,567 In summer, groundwater is often cooler than the ambient temperature,which can help keep stream temperatures within the thermal tolerance limits of cold-water fish species. 568Many fish congregate near groundwater sources at different times of year. For example, bull trout sometimesuse groundwater upwelling sites for spawning, and incubation at these sites is considerably more successfulthan in adjacent non-upwelling sites. 569 Similar results have been reported for spawning salmon in lakes,streams and reservoirs. 570, 571,572,573 Migrating adult chinook salmon sometimes take advantage of coolgroundwater upwelling sites at times when many nearby stream locations are beyond their physiologicalthermal limits. 574,575The hyporheic zone is thought to be a critical refuge for surface-dwelling invertebrates, and most insect familiesand other groups that live in surface waters have also been collected from the hyporheic zone. 576,577 Nutrientsreleased to surface waters from the hyporheic zone influence surface water quality and productivity, to the pointof creating productivity hot spots in some instances. 578,579Changes to groundwater resources have varying impacts on biodiversity, depending on the physical andecological setting. Some species in the diverse hyporheic community, such as bull trout, depend directly ongroundwater resources. 580 Other species and communities are less dependent, but large and measurable adverseconsequences are nevertheless likely. For the many species of fish that use groundwater upwelling areasas spawning habitat or holding habitats during migrations, loss of these features could reduce incubationBull trout (Salvelinus confluentus)sometimes use cool groundwaterupwelling sites for spawning andincubation.photo: jeff strauss.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiasuccess and raise physiological stress levels; both could potentially decrease the abundance of adult and juvenilefish and lead to replacement by more thermally tolerant species. Lower water tables can have profoundeffects on riparian and floodplain vegetation, with cascading effects on local biodiversity and physical effects,such as lower streambank stability.Status/threats in B.C. Overall, groundwater resources are of considerable concern in a number of locales inB.C., particularly in the southern portion of the province where agricultural, municipal and industrial demandsfor groundwater are highest. Approximately 25% of B.C. residents obtain drinking water from groundwatersources. 581 Thirty-five aquifers were designated as ‘heavily used’ in 2001, up from 17 in 1996. 582 Monitoring dataindicate that groundwater levels are declining in areas where groundwater withdrawal and urban developmentare most intensive. 583Groundwater and surface water can be influenced directly by a number of factors, including climate, land use,water use and industrial activities. How each of these act within a particular watershed is rarely straightforward,but there are many examples linking human activities to changes in quality and quantity of groundwater andsurface water, and interactions between the two water sources. These include the following:• When groundwater is removed for human use there can be direct, measurable influences onstream flow. 584,585• Changes to water table levels can significantly influence riparian vegetation. 586• Surface changes, such as river regulation, sediment inputs or eutrophication, have a direct impacton water table levels by altering infiltration and exfiltration rates. 587• Release of contaminants into surface waters can infiltrate and alter groundwater quality. 588• Groundwater recharge rates are closely linked to temperature and precipitation, which are expectedto change due to climate change. 589,590• Impervious surfaces, such as pavement, can have a large influence on runoff and groundwaterrecharge, with effects on minimum and peak stream flows. 591,592• In agricultural settings, changes in land cover, drainage and irrigation can have severe impacts onstream flows. 593,594,595Data gaps: There are large uncertainties about where groundwater is, how it moves, locations and rates ofgroundwater–surface water exchange, aquifer recharge rates, and impacts of land use, water use and climatechange. In B.C., work is underway on hydrologic modelling and measurement of some high-value aquifers, andstream and lake ecologists are starting to incorporate knowledge of groundwater dynamics into their studies.

itish columbia’s natural legacyf. anadromous salmonids and nutrient cyclingWhat is it? Fish that breed in fresh water and spend at least part of their adult life in a marine environment (i.e.,anadromous fish) play a significant role in nutrient cycling bringing marine nutrients to terrestrial and freshwaterecosystems. Anadromous salmonids found in B.C. are chinook, chum, coho, pink and sockeye salmon,and steelhead. Some other species are partially anadromous and are not included in this discussion.Anadromous populations are found throughout the Fraser River system and almost all coastal systems. Historically,anadromous salmon reached Columbia Lake in the headwaters of the Columbia River, but they havebeen extirpated from the upper Columbia River due to impassable dams in the U.S. Anadromous populationsare absent from the Kootenay River system due to natural barriers. They are also absent from the Peace Riverdrainage, which drains east into the Mackenzie River system.Why is it important? The majority of freshwater systems in B.C. are oligotrophic (i.e., nutrient-poor). This meansthat the inherent productivity of these water bodies is low and the abundance and biomass of fish that can besupported is also low. Anadromous salmonids act as a nutrient pump, bringing nutrients from the ocean to nutrientpoorinterior waters. They hatch in freshwater streams (and occasionally in lakeshore areas) and migrate to theocean after a variable amount of time in freshwater. After growing and accumulating most of their body tissue inthe ocean, they return to their natal streams and lakes to reproduce and then die. Anadromous salmon may returnin large numbers, and this returning biomass brings marine-derived nutrients into freshwater ecosystems andsupports many terrestrial and freshwater species. They are a limiting food resource for a wide variety of vertebratesand invertebrates, including both predators and scavengers. 596Many adults are caught and consumed en route to or on the spawning grounds, eggs are eaten by birds and fish,and the carcasses of spawned-out salmon provide a substantial input of nutrients to many freshwater and terrestrialsystems (Figure 29). 597,598 When the young hatch the following spring and summer, they are the prey base for manymore species. Stream- and lake-rearing juveniles are often the dominant component of the fish community.There is some evidence of positive feedback between present and future salmon runs due to the profoundnutrient inputs provided by returning adults. 599,600 The nutrients from the adults increase macroalgae productionin estuaries, boosting the productivity of crustaceans, which become prey for salmon smolts. Lower returns leadto lower nutrient levels in lakes and rivers, which reduces the carrying capacity of these water bodies and thus theability to support fish. Lower abundance or loss of this element would lead to lower abundance of many terrestrial

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaBears Bears AbundantBears Bears ScarceRiparian Zone: Zone:■ bears ■ bears feed feed on salmon salmon in the in the forest forest■ fast-growing ■ conifers conifers nourished by byplentiful plentiful marine marine nutrients from frompartially-eaten salmon salmon carcasses and andbear bear feces fecesStreams Rivers Rivers and and Lakes: Lakes:■ forest ■ forest yields yields large large woody woody debris debris■ woody ■ woody debris debris provides provides shelter shelter for fry for fry■ productive ■ rearing rearing habitat habitat for smolts for smolts■ smolt ■ smolt production is high is high■ abundant ■ adult adult salmon salmon return return to good to goodspawning habitat habitatRiparian Zone: Zone:■ small ■ small scavengers feed feed on few on few salmon salmoncarcasses■ few ■ few marine marine nutrients■ slow-growing ■ conifers conifersStreams Rivers Rivers and and Lakes: Lakes:■ less ■ less large large woody woody debris debris■ less ■ less shelter shelter for fry for fry■ less-productive ■ rearing rearing habitat habitat for forsalmon salmon smolts smolts■ smolt ■ smolt production is low is low■ few ■ few adult adult salmon salmon return return to spawn to spawnSalmon AbundantSalmon Scarcefigure 29: The relationship between salmon returns, bears, riparian forests and future salmon productivity.illustration: Soren Henrich

itish columbia’s natural legacyand freshwater species and lower overall productivity in many freshwater bodies. Conversely, there is evidencethat smolts returning to the ocean can represent a potential loss of nutrients from the freshwater system to themarine. 601,602Status/threats in B.C. The approximate number of populations for each species is: chinook salmon (780),chum salmon (1,450), coho salmon (2,400), pink salmon (2,100), sockeye salmon (900) and steelhead (850). 603In the mid 1990s, 5,487 British Columbia and Yukon anadromous salmonid populations were assessed; 19.6%of these were of conservation concern (i.e., high conservation concern, moderate conservation concern orspecial concern) or extirpated. 604 Although the rest of the assessed populations were not below a threshold forconservation concern, many are likely below historic abundance levels. Many of the populations of conservationconcern are small. Most of the populations that were not assessed are also small and are therefore likely tobe of conservation concern. Many of the ecosystems with smaller populations may be becoming progressivelyoligotrophic due to declining inputs of marine-derived nutrient inputs. 605In the late 1990s, the sockeye salmon runs in the Owikeno Lake system of the central coast collapsed, withreturns reaching a 50-year low in 1999. 606 That fall there was a dramatic increase in the number of conflictsbetween humans and grizzly bears at the nearby community of Rivers Inlet. Ten grizzly bears were destroyedand three more were translocated. 607 Monitoring from 1998 to 2002 documented a decline in grizzly bear useof salmon streams in the area and indicated that switching to alternative food sources such as berries is not aviable option for most bears when salmon abundance is low. These results suggest that the population declinedin response to the dramatic reduction in this critical food source. 608Because of their complex life histories, anadromous salmonids are vulnerable to changes in biophysical processesor disturbance regimes that occur throughout the watersheds they inhabit. During the freshwater part oftheir life cycle, they are affected by harvesting, land and water use, pollution, alien species and climate change.Impacts such as riparian ecosystem conversion or degradation, alteration of drainage patterns and pollution areadditive and may produce a large incremental effect if combined with other activities. 609 Sources of ecosystemdegradation include construction of dams and stream crossings, water impoundment, land clearing (related tourban development, agriculture or logging), mining and gravel removal. Increased runoff increases nutrient levels,erosion, and sedimentation in streams. Removal of riparian vegetation raises water temperature. 610Climate change is expected to have severe impacts on freshwater fish distributions in B.C. through effectson precipitation, 611 streamflow 612 and water temperatures, 613 and range changes in native and non-native

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaspecies. 614,615,616,617,618 Pacific salmon are highly vulnerable to the effects of changes in freshwater flows and temperature.Low water flows in the late summer can block access to spawning grounds, while winter flooding canwash eggs out of the gravel. Rising water temperatures in the Fraser River are expected to delay sockeye salmonmigration and reduce enroute survival. Thirty-two areas, centered in southwestern B.C. and the southern andcentral interior, have been identified as being uniquely vulnerable because they have water temperatures orlow/high freshwater flows that currently affect salmon survival. 619Within the marine realm, B.C. salmon are affected by a number of impacts and threats, including harvesting,aquaculture and climate change. Harvest rates vary over time and among populations, but can exceed 50% fortargeted populations. 620 Harvest rates can be unsustainably high for populations of conservation concern that areharvested incidentally. 621,622,623 Known and suspected impacts of marine aquaculture operations on wild salmoninclude competition from, and interbreeding with, escaped farm fish, and the spread of diseases or parasitessuch as salmon lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis). 624 Climate change is expected to influence several environmentalvariables that may affect salmon during the marine portion of their life cycle; of these, sea surface temperatureis likely to be the most significant. 625Data gaps: The ecology of anadromous salmonids is well known and commercially harvested populations arewell studied. However, there is limited information on smaller populations. The effects of land and fisheriesresource management practices on salmonids and nutrient cycling are not well understood. 626 There are alsouncertainties regarding the nature and strength of interactions with other species and with ecosystems.g. willowsWhat are they? Willows are deciduous trees and shrubs in the genus Salix that grow in moist habitats fromthe high Arctic to the tropics. 627 B.C.’s more than 48 native willow species range in height from tall trees to low,carpet-forming shrubs, and grow in habitats ranging from upland forest and alpine tundra to the full spectrumof wetland types.Why are they important? Willows are common within riparian areas and swamps. They provide structure,reduce water flows, stabilize stream banks and are a food source for species such as American beavers (Castorcanadensis), moose, snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) and grouse (e.g., willow ptarmigan [Lagopus lagopus]). 628The specialized root system of willows allows them to thrive in conditions that are potentially limiting to otherwoody plants, such as the high water table in swamps. Willows grow prolifically in a variety of nutrient-poorecosystems and have the ability to grow from broken branches.

itish columbia’s natural legacyStatus/threats in B.C. Nine species and one subspecies are of conservation concern. All of the province’s nativewillows are at the geographic margins of their ranges in B.C., with the core of their ranges to the north, east orsouth, so some species could be expected to be rare in the province. However, some may be more commonthan is recorded, since willows are difficult to identify and some occur in remote places. Glabrous dwarf willow(S. reticulata ssp. glabellicarpa) is only found in B.C. and Alaska, and is of global conservation concern. 629An introduced weevil, the poplar and willow borer (Cryptorhynchus lapathi), has spread widely in the past30 years and has been killing willows at low elevations and latitudes. 630 It is spreading north along highways andlogging roads and is expected to extend its range north and to higher elevations with climate change. In B.C.,this species primarily attacks young willow stems, which are often killed by larval feeding. 631Data gaps: The spatial distribution of willow species is not documented. The tendency of willows to hybridizecreates complications in tracking species.h. beaversWhat are they? The American beaver, North America’s largest rodent, is a keystone species that plays a largenumber of functional roles in freshwater ecosystems and riparian forests. Because of their profound influenceon the physical structure of the ecosystems they inhabit, beavers are sometimes called ecological engineers.Why are they important? The beaver is the only non-human species that impounds water by constructing damsthat flood or maintain flooding in significant areas. By cutting down large numbers of trees and shrubs, beaverschange the course of succession and vastly influence ecosystems and species. 632, 633 Impoundment by beaverscan create wetlands and wet meadows, and, in the process, create habitat for other species. The subsequentflooding and killing of standing trees provides habitat for many cavity-nesting species and foragers. Over thelong term, wetlands silt up to form highly productive meadows and riparian habitat. The process of dammingreduces channel scouring and erosion, changes sediment loading and flow regimes downstream, rechargesgroundwater levels, regulates water flow and can create cold springs, resulting in better conditions for coldwaterfish species such as trout. Beaver dams may also form warm-water pools. 634The removal or addition of beavers in a particular area will often profoundly change local habitat types. Removingbeavers generally results in the loss of beaver dams in the short term (unless they have been established forsignificant periods and are maintained by stream processes) and subsequent loss of standing water, removal ofhabitat for associated freshwater and terrestrial species, and significant changes in downstream hydrology. 635 Thisprocess will influence habitat availability for other animals, including terrestrial birds, mammals and amphibiansand many aquatic species. 636American beavers (Castor canadensis)are sometimes called ecologicalengineers because their presence in anecosystem has such a dramatic effecton the physical environment.photo: jeffrey hochstrasser.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaStatus/threats in B.C. In B.C., the estimated beaver population is 400,000 to 600,000 and this species is not ofconservation concern. 637 However, the habitats of the beaver – wetlands and free-flowing rivers – have beenextensively impacted throughout lower elevations, particularly in the province’s southern regions. Hydroelectricimpoundment, rural and agricultural development, and forestry activities have affected historic habitat, andlocal populations have likely been impacted in these areas. 638 Localized changes to beaver populations due totrapping have been observed, and habitat changes have resulted in local extirpation. 639Beavers are not native to Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands and their introduction to these islands hascaused significant habitat degradation, to the extent that water flow has been reversed across parts of GrahamIsland.Data gaps: There are no significant data gaps. However, the potential impacts of small-scale hydro projectson beavers and their associated habitats are unknown.i. waterfowl herbivory of aquatic plantsWhat is it? In aquatic habitats, waterfowl forage on plants that are emergent (leaves above the water surface),submergent (below the surface) and floating.Why is it important? Since waterfowl herbivory changes the competitive hierarchy of plant communities withina wetland, it affects species abundance and the composition of plant communities. 640,641 A reciprocal relationshipalso exists, as the abundance and distribution of plants provides an important food source for waterfowland, therefore, their abundance and species composition. In particular, waterfowl herbivory can be a regulatingfactor in submerged aquatic plant populations in shallow sheltered areas. 642Herbivory was only recently identified as an important factor affecting the community structure of macrophytes.643 Traditionally, the breakdown of aquatic plants into detritus was assumed to be the most importantmechanism for bringing this plant material into the food web. It is now thought that waterfowl grazing playsmajor role. 644Status/threats in B.C. There is uncertainty about the relationship between waterfowl herbivory and the lossof freshwater ecosystems. The main threats are the loss of wetlands and the potential local overpopulation ofsome waterfowl species.Data gaps: There is a lack of information about the magnitude of the effect of waterfowl herbivory on aquatic plants,and about spatial and temporal differences in these plants and waterfowl species in different parts of B.C.

itish columbia’s natural legacy2.5.1.4 marine overlap elementsa. macroalgaeWhat are they? Macroalgae are commonly known as seaweeds and include numerous species, such as those thatconstitute kelp beds or ‘forests’ (e.g., Nereocystis luetkeana, commonly known as bull kelp or bladder kelp). Kelp forestsare usually found in a 100-m-wide band along the shore and are components of the intertidal zone in B.C.Why are they important? Macroalgae provide habitat, particularly nursery areas for juvenile fish and invertebrates,and are the major primary producer in the shallow ocean margins. 645 Organisms graze on them directly,they break apart and become detritus, and eventually become part of the ocean environment as dissolvedcomponents. They are also an important source of nutrients when they wash up on beaches. 646 Kelp forestsare large, three-dimensional structures that provide habitat and a significant source of food to marine ecosystemsfrom the detritus of the abundant drift algae associated with kelp forests, thus supporting a large varietyof invertebrates and fish. 647,648,649,650,651 Kelp forests dampen wave heights and tidal currents, and can influencedispersal, settlement rates and recruitment of benthic invertebrates and rockfish. 652Status/threats in B.C. Macroalgae populations in B.C. are generally stable, but some changes in local distributionand abundance have been observed. 653 The recovery of sea otter (Enhydra lutris) populations and climatechange will influence macroalgae populations. 654Data gaps: Mapping of macroalgae on the B.C. coast is incomplete.b. california musselsWhat are they? The California mussel (Mytilus californianus) is a large bivalve mollusc that forms extensiveaggregations attached to bedrock on exposed intertidal shores (and is also subtidal at high-current sites). TheCalifornia mussel is found from Alaska to Baja California.Why are they important? This mussel, particularly when it forms extensive mussel beds, is critical to intertidalecosystems as a primary consumer, prey for a number of species and provider of habitat for a large communityof species. More than 300 other species inhabit the interstices of established California mussel beds. 655Status/threats in B.C. For the most part, California mussel populations in B.C. are stable and near historic levels.Across their range, mussels have declined in both number and size in association with proximity to humansettlement, due to recreational harvesting. Declines of extensive beds of large mussels have been documentedWell-established California mussel(Mytilus californianus) beds providehabitat for many other species,which inhabit the spaces between themussels.photo: phil bailey.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaon the west coast of Vancouver Island, with a shift toward scattered patches of small individuals and an associateddecline of predators and community abundance. 656 As California mussels generally recruit to establishedbeds, recovery from disturbance is slow. 657 Ocean acidification is a threat to California mussels (Text box 17).Climate change may already be affecting populations in some areas outside B.C. 658Data gaps: Mapping of California mussels on the B.C. coast is incomplete.c. sea ottersWhat are they? Sea otters are marine members of the weasel family that use the intertidal zone when it is inundated.Sea otters live in cold oceanic water, but have no body fat. They survive through a combination of a veryhigh metabolic rate and highly insulative fur. Their metabolic rate is such that they consume between 23 and33% of their body weight per day. 659 Sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus spp.), where available, make up much of theirdiet, particularly where sea otters have been recently reintroduced and the sea urchin population is high.Why are they important? Sea otters are a prime example of a keystone species. 660 Where sea otters occur, seaurchin populations are small and confined to cracks in the substrate or under boulders. 661 From these protectedlocations, sea urchins switch their feeding strategy from actively grazing kelp to passively feeding on the abundantdrift algae associated with kelp forests. 662 In the absence of sea otters, sea urchins suppress kelp forestswith cascading ecological effects.Status/threats in B.C. The sea otter is a species of conservation concern in B.C. Once abundant along much ofthe B.C. coast, sea otters were extirpated from B.C. by the early 1900s. Relocations from Alaska between 1968and 1972 successfully established colonies in Checleset Bay (now protected as an ecological reserve) and HakaiLuxvbalis Conservancy Area. 663 The sea otter has since repopulated 25–33% of its historic range in B.C., but isnot yet considered secure, as populations are small (less than 3,500). 664Sea otters are threatened by oil spills, disease and parasites, low genetic variability, marine biotoxins, contaminants,entanglement in fishing gear, collisions with vessels, poaching and human disturbance. 665 Of these,oil spills are the most significant risk.Data gaps: There has not been a complete population count in B.C. since 1995. Little is known about the interchangebetween individuals in different populations and about habitat use. It would be helpful to clarify theimportance of threats other than oil, such as disease, predation and entanglement in fishing gear.

itish columbia’s natural legacytext box 17. ocean acidificationIncreased CO 2in the atmosphere is having impacts beyond climate change. The ocean acts as a sink forCO 2, but this affects the acidity of seawater. 666 If global emissions continue to follow current trends, theaverage acidity could rise to a level higher than it has been for hundreds of thousands of years, representinga rate of change 100 times greater than at any time during this period. It could take tens of thousandsof years to return to conditions similar to pre-industrial times.Increasing seawater acidity gradually depletes the concentration of carbonate ions, which many seacreatures use to build shells and other types of exoskeletons. Recent research predicts that large parts ofthe ocean may lack this essential nutrient within a few decades and that by 2050 there could be too fewcarbonate ions in surface waters for shell formation. 667 This trend is expected to continue and the effectwill be most pronounced at higher latitudes. 668The effects on intertidal areas could be profound. Echinoderms (e.g., sea stars and sea urchins) havecalcite structures containing magnesium, which dissolves very readily under more acidic conditions. 669These organisms often function as keystone species, grazing on algae and kelp. Mussels, oysters,copepods and crabs, which are all elements of intertidal ecosystems, are also affected.d. crustaceansWhat are they? Crustaceans are a large group within the phylum Arthropoda (animals with external skeletons) andare second only to insects in their diversity of species. 670 Barnacles, shrimps, crabs, amphipods (beach hoppers)and isopods (aquatic sow bugs) are among the types of crustaceans found in the intertidal zone. These animalsare generally small to very small, with five or more pairs of legs. They can live within or on beaches or, as is thecase for barnacles, attached to rocks in the intertidal zone. Crustacean life cycles vary, but most include a freeswimminglarval stage that at times dominates the nearshore zooplankton community.Why are they important? Intertidal crustaceans play two critical roles in coastal ecosystems. 671 They recycleorganic matter washed up on beaches and they provide a large, diverse prey base, which supports complex foodwebs that in turn promote ecosystem stability and resiliency. 672Intertidal crustaceans are decomposers, primary consumers or predators, and sometimes all three. Crustaceans,in general, occupy lower trophic levels. Species at lower trophic levels develop large populations, which

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaBarnacles (Balanus spp.) recycleorganic matter and are a food sourcefor other organisms in some intertidalecosystems.photo: rae murphy.ultimately support higher-level predators that are economically important to B.C. Amphipods and isopods aredetritivores that recycle dead plant and animal material. An isopod commonly called the gribble is one of the fewanimals that can consume wood. Barnacles strain the planktonic ‘soup’ that flows over and past them, consuminga great variety of microscopic and slightly larger food items. Crabs are both decomposers and predators.Without functioning crustacean populations in the intertidal zone, the role of organic recycling becomesdominated by microscopic organisms. This becomes a cascading situation leading to anoxic (low oxygen) conditions,production of hydrogen sulphides, further degradation of environmental conditions and, as a result,the inability of the environment to support complex marine communities. 673,674Species at higher trophic levels that depend on crustacean productivity include salmon and shorebirds. Salmonsmolts depend on a variety of crustacean prey, many of which are larvae of intertidal species. The timing of smoltmigration coincides with major spawning and planktonic larval stages of crustaceans. Estuaries provide prey forgrey whales (Eschrichtius robustus), including blue mud shrimp (Upogebia pugettensis), ghost shrimp (Callianassacaliforniensis) and larval intertidal crabs. 675 Migrating shorebirds depend on feeding grounds along the coast ofB.C., where they pause to feed on biofilm 676 and a wide variety of crustaceans living on and in beaches. 677Status/threats in B.C. Generally, B.C. crustacean populations are stable, although declines in the diversity ofspecies have been noted in some locations. 678 Ocean acidification is a threat to all crustaceans (Text box 17).Data gaps: There is no formal inventory for non-commercial species of crustaceans.e. seagrass meadowsWhat are they? Seagrasses are flowering plants that have adapted to the marine environment. 679 Seagrasseshave similar structure to terrestrial grasses: rhizomal roots, long narrow leaves with obvious internal (vascular)structure and flowering stems. There are only a few species of closely related marine grasses in the genera Zostera(seagrasses, also known as eel-grasses) and Phyllospadix (surf-grasses). Along shorelines, where conditions aresuitable, abundant growth of marine grasses forms ecosystems called seagrass meadows.Why are they important? Seagrass meadows play an important role in primary production, carbon sequestration(processes that remove carbon from the atmosphere), habitat structure, shoreline stabilization and waterquality maintenance. 680 The productivity of a number of other important species is directly linked to healthyseagrass meadows. Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi), salmon and brant (Branta bernicla) are among the B.C.species that depend on seagrass meadows.

itish columbia’s natural legacyStatus/threats in B.C. Seagrass meadows have been highly impacted by human activities. There are no accurateestimates of the pre-industrial range of seagrass meadows in B.C., 681 but Puget Sound, Washington, has lost anestimated 33% of its seagrass meadows since they were first inventoried. 682 Extensive seagrass meadows develop inthe same areas that humans find useful: estuaries and sandy shorelines with low wave action. Threats to seagrassmeadows include log handling, vessel traffic, dredging, upland erosion and construction activities, shoreline structures,increased water temperature, pollutants, excessive nutrients, herbicides and invasive alien species. 683Data gaps: There are few science-based inventories of B.C. seagrass meadows. We do not know the ecologicalsignificance of specific populations and, in many cases, the reasons for declines are unknown.f. upland sediments and large woody debris in the intertidalWhat is it? Estuaries, tidal flats, salt marshes, sand dune complexes, beaches and sand spits receive sedimentsand large woody debris (LWD) from upstream areas, either directly from streams and rivers or indirectly viathe ocean. 684 Floods, storms and tides often later relocate these elements, contributing to the constantly changingnature of these ecosystems. In general, estuaries and coastal wetlands are net depositional environmentsfor sediments. 685Sediments found in estuarine ecosystems are typically composed of animal and plant matter, as well as inorganicmaterial such as mud or sand. Sources of large woody debris include woody vegetation from upstreamriparian areas and drift logs that have broken free from log booms.Seagrasses grow along B.C. shorelineswhere conditions are suitable.photo: amanda cotton.Why is it important? Estuarine ecosystems, both vegetated and unvegetated, are critical transition zones thatlink terrestrial, freshwater and marine habitats and perform many essential ecological functions, includingnutrient cycling. Sediment-associated organisms – including bacteria, fungi, single-celled animals and sedimentdwellinginvertebrates (e.g., nematodes, copepods, annelids, molluscs and peracarid crustaceans) and vascularplants – are integral to these functions. Sediment-associated plants also contribute to structural complexity inestuarine ecosystems, providing important habitat for a wide variety of species. 686Large woody debris plays numerous ecological roles in estuarine ecosystems. These include providing habitatand food for wood-degrading organisms such as wood-boring isopods (e.g., Limnoria lignorum) and shipworms(e.g., Bankia setacea), inputs into detrital food webs, shelter for fish from high current velocities and predators,egg attachment sites for fish such as Pacific herring, perches or nest sites for birds such as bald eagles, great blueherons, gulls (Larus spp.) and purple martins (Progne subis), haulout sites for harbour seals and colonizationsites for woody vegetation. In estuarine marshes, LWD can have opposing influences on successional processes:

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiastable pieces of wood act as nurse logs for trees and shrubs, while mobile pieces can keep the forest edge fromadvancing by battering against trees and the upper marsh shoreline. 687,688Large woody debris in the intertidalzone.photo: joel blit.Status/threats in B.C. The main threats to estuarine ecosystems in relation to upland sediments and LWD areecosystem conversion and degradation. Agriculture, urban development and the construction of port facilitiesand roads have all impacted estuarine ecosystems in parts of B.C., particularly around southern Vancouver Islandand along the lower mainland coast. 689 Human activities in inland areas have also affected these ecosystems.Since the mid 1800s there has been a dramatic reduction in the volume and size of LWD in coastal ecosystemsin the Pacific Northwest states; 690,691 this trend likely also applies to B.C. The amount of LWD in estuarine ecosystems,especially large and long pieces of wood, has declined as riparian forests have been logged and asdams in some river systems have interrupted the downstream movement of LWD. Removal of logs and stumpsto maintain channel navigability, diking, marsh filling and channelization have decreased the retention of LWDin estuarine ecosystems. 692Predicted impacts of climate change on estuarine ecosystems include erosion and/or sedimentation, coastalflooding and permanent inundation of low-gradient, intertidal areas. Unvegetated tidal flats are vulnerable toincreased submergence and more extensive and rapid erosion. However, increased upland erosion and floodingassociated with increased winter precipitation and more frequent winter storm and surge events, plus increased riverflow due to glacial melt, may result in sufficient sedimentation to offset coastal erosion and submergence. 693There is evidence that estuarine marshes can adapt to sea-level rise provided there is sufficient sedimentationand internal biomass production and room for the entire wetland to move to higher ground or farther inland.If barriers to wetland migration are not removed, it is highly likely that climate change will result in significantshrinkage and eventual disappearance of salt marshes along the extensively diked Squamish, Nanaimo andFraser rivers. 694Data gaps: There have been few scientific studies done to confirm or further characterize hypothesized ecologicalfunctions of estuarine LWD; this lack is in marked contrast to the extensive research on LWD in riverine and terrestrialecosystems. 695 There are also important gaps in knowledge of estuarine sediment-associated organismsand their functions. For example, we do not know whether rates of organic matter decomposition and nutrientrecycling in estuaries depends on the diversity of species of microbes. We know more about the links betweenbiodiversity and function for larger plants and animals, but many questions remain unanswered. 696

g. estuariesWhat are they? An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water where sea water is measurably diluted by mixingwith river runoff (see Section 2.2.3.2, p. 47). 697 Estuaries can be classified as salt wedge (large river runoffwith little mixing between the fresh water above and salt water below), partially mixed (greater tidal action andlower river runoff causing mixing, e.g., inlets, sounds) or well mixed (strong tidal action with low river runoff,resulting in water that is nearly homogeneous; typical of small bays near turbulent areas). Estuarine ecosystemshave similar characteristics to wetland ecosystems, but also have daily fluctuations in the water table andvariations in salinity. 698Estuaries are affected by several physical processes that are largely independent of human activities (e.g.,tides, wind, rain, sunlight, evaporation, differences in water density). Human activities can affect estuaries byinfluencing the volume of water released by a river (e.g., through dams or water diversions), modifying the estuaryopening through dredging, changing the runoff from surrounding land (e.g., by creating impervious areas)or releasing environmental contaminants. 699An estuary system can be subdivided into three areas: tidal river; zone of mixed fresh and salt water; andnearshore zone. 700 As a result, an estuary includes the lower reaches of a river and the surrounding terrestrialland that is inundated infrequently (i.e., only at the highest tides), the intertidal zone (which is subject to dailytidal inundation) and the zone below the lowest tide (which is always covered by water).B.C.’s two largest estuaries, those of the Fraser River and the Skeena River, have the second and fourth largestannual mean freshwater inflow from rivers, relative to all estuaries along the west coast of North America. 701Why are they important? Both organic and inorganic nutrients from rivers collect in estuaries to create biologicallyactive areas where large populations of mammals, birds and marine organisms congregate, 702 with primaryproduction rivalling tropical rainforests. 703 Estuaries are transition areas that provide connectivity for manyaquatic migrating species, such as salmon, as they travel between the ocean and the upstream river. Estuariesfulfill ecological roles such as filtering water, decomposing organic matter and providing feeding habitat. 704,705Within estuaries, habitats such as seagrass meadows and wetlands are recognized as ‘nurseries’ (i.e., rearingareas), particularly for fish and invertebrates. 706Estuaries overlap with a number of other key elements in B.C., including riparian areas, stream systems,anadromous salmonids, waterfowl herbivory and crustaceans. Depending on geography, they may also containmacroalgae, seagrass meadows and willows. In B.C., hundreds of thousands of wintering waterfowl depend onestuaries. 707 The Fraser River estuary supports the highest concentration of wintering birds (shorebirds, waterbritishcolumbia’s natural legacy

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiafowl and raptors) in Canada. 708 Sometimes more than a million birds can be found in the Fraser River estuaryon a single day and 20 million salmon pass through annually during a period of a few weeks. 709Status/threats in B.C. In the Georgia Basin, approximately 23% of the nearshore has been urbanized. 710 Thehuman population adjacent to the Fraser River estuary is similar in scale to that of other estuary sites along thewest coast of North America, such as San Francisco Bay and Puget Sound. Key threats to west coast estuariesinclude ecosystem conversion and degradation, diverted fresh water flows, marine sediment contamination andalien species introductions. 711 As a result, loss of estuarine habitat is substantial in the Fraser River delta (70%) 712and on the east coast of Vancouver Island (32%), 713 with much of this area converted to fertile agricultural landthrough diking. Estuarine ecosystems are also threatened by sea-level rise resulting from climate change. Particularlyvulnerable are those adjacent to dikes, which will prevent them from migrating to higher elevations.With approximately 2.3% of B.C.’s rugged coastline classified as estuary, these ecosystems are consideredrare. 714 Estuaries in B.C. have been mapped at various regional scales (in 1984, 715,716 1993 717 and 2000 718 ), as wellas at a provincial scale (in 1985 719 and 2007 720 ). The 2007 estuary mapping defined intertidal polygons for over440 estuaries in B.C., calculated the total intertidal area (75,000 ha) and ranked them for biological importanceto water birds. In 1999, a large-scale mapping framework for describing the physical and biological character ofestuaries was prepared for B.C. 721Data gaps: Intertidal areas of estuaries at the mouths of fourth-order rivers have not been mapped at a scaleof 1:50,000 and the 1999 mapping framework for estuaries has not been applied to all B.C. estuaries. The conditionof estuaries at regional and provincial scales is unknown. Knowledge of wildlife use of many estuariesis incomplete and knowledge of cumulative impacts on estuarine functions is limited.2.5.2 special elementsB.C. has several elements of biodiversity that are of global significance either because they are importanthabitat for seasonal concentrations of species or because they are uncommon or even unique globally (Table24). 722 These elements are among the things that make B.C. special. They relate to geography, geology and therelatively undisturbed character of large areas of the province. Like many of the key elements described inSection 2.5.1, the special elements are subject to numerous threats that can potentially decrease the resilienceof B.C.’s biodiversity. This list of special features is not intended to be all-inclusive, but rather to highlightsome uncommon B.C. species, communities and ecosystems of ecological significance.

itish columbia’s natural legacytable 24. selected special elements of biodiversity in b.c.REALM SPECIAL ELEMENT Description Status THREATSSeasonalConcentrationsof SpeciesImportant birdareasB.C. has globally significantseasonal concentrations of birds.Most sites are notprotectedConcentrations of species are vulnerable to catastrophicevents. Other threats: loss of intertidal habitat from ecosystemconversion, sea level rise, pollution and direct disturbance.Steller sealion rookeries/hauloutsRookeries are rocky islands usedfor breeding. Haulouts are nonbreedingareas.Species is of conservationconcern in B.C. Twoof three rookeries areprotected.Steller sea lions are vulnerable to catastrophic events atrookeries and haulouts, and threatened by shooting andentanglement in fishing gear.Major salmonspawning sitesMajor salmon populations haveescapements above a speciesspecificlevel defined in the text.Nearly 20% of B.C. andYukon populations wereof conservation concernin the 1990s. Trend isincreasing.Most mortality occurs in the marine realm, but freshwaterand terrestrial threats include changing hydrology,sedimentation, artificial stream barriers, loss of estuaries andwarming water.SpecialCommunitiesOld-growthtemperaterainforestsIntact largemammal predatorpreysystemsTemperate rainforests aretypically associated with coastalmountain ranges. Also occur ininterior B.C.Predator-prey systems in whichall of the native large carnivoresand ungulates are present.Much of the low-lying,highly productive areashave been logged and/or converted to highhuman density areas oragriculture, or flooded byhydroelectric dams.28% of B.C. has intactsystems.Remaining low-elevation forests are often highly fragmentedby roads and forest harvesting.Loss of large mammals is due to direct mortality andecosystem conversion and degradation.SpecificFeaturesLarge wetlands(Freshwater)Large wetlands are centres ofboth freshwater and terrestrialbiodiversity. One example,Burns Bog, hosts organismsabsent or rare elsewhere and isthe largest raised bog in coastalNorth and South America.Partially protected.Large wetlands are threatened by pollution from agriculturaland urban activities; motorized recreation; ecosystemconversion; and artificially managed water levels.continued on page 136

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatable 24. continuedREALM SPECIAL ELEMENT Description Status THREATSSpecificFeaturesKarstKarst is a unique landscape createdfrom soluble bedrock, particularly inareas of high rainfall. Karst supportsrare species and communities, but iseasily damaged.More than one-quarter ofthe B.C. land area potentiallyunderlain by karst has beenmodified through timberharvest and road building. Lessthan 20% of the province’s karstis protected.Many are heavily used forrecreation.Road building and forest harvesting activities candirectly damage karst structures. Indirect threatsinclude soil loss and sedimentation.Hot springsHot springs are unique, selfcontainedhabitats created by veryhot water from deep within the earth.Watersheds that have more than 5%of their area covered in glaciers aredefined as glacially influenced.Vulnerable to pollution, disturbance andecosystem conversion.GlaciallyinfluencedwatershedsIncreasing temperatures overthe past century have resultedin loss of glacial volume.Continuing increases in temperature and changesin precipitation will affect glaciers in the future.Many smaller glaciers have already melted.Lower-elevation glaciers are most affected.Serpentine soils are treated as waste landsbecause of their lack of productivity. Theyare threatened by mineral exploration andsometimes by urban development.Serpentine soilsFormed from bedrock with hightoxicity from heavy metals, these soilsprovide harsh growing conditions andtend to support specifically adapted,unique plant communities.Unknown.Saline lakesLakes or ponds with no outlet anda very high salt content. Home toinvertebrate species not found inother water bodies.Some are protected.Saline lakes are often found in dry climateswith agricultural pressures. They are especiallyvulnerable to climate change because mostlack tall vegetation to buffer them against airtemperature change.Biggest threat is the introduction of fish.Fishless lakesLakes that are historically fishless andhave never been stocked and containunique communities that are notaffected by the presence of fish.Fossilized mats formed by microbes,primarily cyanobacteria. Freshwaterexamples are globally rare, with twoexamples known in B.C.Few low-elevation examplesremain and most areunprotected.MicrobialitesOnly one site is protected.Both are in fairly goodcondition.Microbialites are subject to damage byrecreational users of the lakes.note: Elements in this table are just a small sample of the special elements of biodiversity in B.C. They are used for illustrative purposes.

itish columbia’s natural legacy2 . 5 . 2 . 1 s e a s o n a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s p e c i e sa. important bird areasWhat are they? Eighty-four sites in B.C., many of which provide important habitat for concentrations of breeding,wintering and/or migrating birds, are recognized as Important Bird Areas (IBAs). 723 These sites occur primarilyalong the coast, particularly around the lower mainland and Vancouver Island, and secondarily through thecentral interior and along the southern border with the U.S. (Map 11A). Examples of IBAs in B.C. include: theScott Island Group off the northwest tip of Vancouver Island, which hosts 12 seabird species totalling more thantwo million breeding birds; Fraser Lake in central B.C., which is a globally significant site for wintering trumpeterswans; and the Skookumchuck Prairie, a small area of native grassland in the Rocky Mountain Trench that provideshabitat for about 22 pairs of long-billed curlew (Numenius americanus), a species of conservation concern. Oneof the most important areas in B.C. for bird concentrations is the Fraser River estuary, which includes coastalwetlands, mudflats and intertidal marshes and provides habitat for a high diversity and biomass of birds.Why are they important? B.C. provides important habitat for seasonal concentrations of many species of birds forbreeding, wintering, and/or migrating, particularly along the Pacific Flyway (see also Section 2.3.4.3, p. 69). Thesesites are critical to key life stages for large portions of the total continental populations of these species.Status/threats in B.C. Species occurring in localized high densities become vulnerable to outside threats. MostIBAs in B.C. are not protected. Current threats to the most significant IBA, the Fraser River estuary, include lossof intertidal habitat through planned industrial port expansion, intensification of agriculture (e.g., greenhousedevelopment adjacent to the intertidal zone, berry and nursery crops) and pollution from the mouth of theFraser River. Disturbance has grown in recent years (e.g., bird control at nearby Vancouver International Airport,increasing boat traffic, hikers and beach walkers), with potentially detrimental impacts on bird habitat andpopulations. Sea level rise resulting from climate change could reduce intertidal habitat. 724 On some coastalislands, introduced mammals (e.g., mink [Neovison vison] and raccoon [Procyon lotor] on Cox and Lanz Islandsin the Scott Island Group) are having detrimental impacts on ground-nesting seabirds. 725Data gaps: Many of these areas where birds congregate are surrounded by increasing development. We do notknow the thresholds in terms of water quality and shoreline development for trumpeter swan populations thatwinter on Fraser Lake, or how much human disturbance populations on the coast can be subjected to withoutshowing declines in reproductive success. Other unknowns are the impacts of fisheries on seabird colonies andhow climate change will affect food resources.

t130°W 120°W110°W60°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e s60°NM A P 1 1 ASpecial elements:speciesLegend!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLake55°NB r i t i s hC o l u m b i aFort St. JohnA l b e r t a55°NSpecial elementsMajor salmon spawningsites*Steller sea lion hauloutsSteller sea lion rookeries") MicrobialitesImportant bird areasIntact large mammalpredator-prey system (allnative large mammalspresent, no alien largemammals)*** Defined as those with spawningpopulations above a specific level (i.e.,>20,000 pink, >10,000 chum, >5,000 lake-type sockeye, >2,000 coho, >500 chinookand >500 river-type sockeye) in two ormore years.** Large is defined as >20 kg averagebody mass.Prince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of Detail50°NP a c i f i cO c e a n") ")KamloopsKelownaCalgary50°N0 100 200KilometresData sources:Ministry of Environment,Fisheries and Oceans Canada,Canadian Wildlife Service,Conservation Data CentreMap by:Caslys Consulting LtdVancouverIslandVancouverProjection:BC Albers NAD83Produced for:VictoriaU N I T E D S T A T E SJune 12, 2008130°W120°W

itish columbia’s natural legacyb. steller sea lion rookeries and hauloutsWhat are they? The Steller sea lion is the largest species of sea lion and the only one that lives year-round andbreeds in B.C. waters. Steller sea lions prefer exposed rocky shorelines and wave-cut platforms for haulout sitesand breeding areas (rookeries), returning to the same sites year after year. 726 There are three main breeding areasin B.C.: the Scott Islands (including Beresford, Sartine and Triangle islands) off the northwest tip of VancouverIsland, the Kerouard Islands off the southern tip of Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands, and North Dangerrocks off the northern mainland coast (Map 11A). 727Why are they important? Two of B.C.’s rookeries are the largest breeding aggregations in the world.Status/threats in B.C. Both breeding and non-breeding populations of the Steller sea lion are of conservationconcern in B.C. 728 Locations for haulouts and rookeries are mapped. Two of the three rookeries – those on theKerouard Islands and the Scott Islands – are protected. Steller sea lions are vulnerable to shooting, incidentaltake in fishing gear, entanglement in debris, catastrophic events, environmental contaminants and displacementfrom, or degradation, of their habitat.Thousands of Steller sea lions were culled, killed for research or killed for commercial reasons in the first halfof the 20th century. This was very disruptive and caused the loss of at least one rookery. Populations have not fullyrecovered in most areas in spite of receiving full protection under the Fisheries Act in 1970. Currently, about 8,900sea lions are found on rookeries in B.C., which represents about 65% of the number present prior to the large-scalekills. The total B.C. population inhabiting coastal waters during the breeding season is estimated at 18,400 to 19,700individuals, including non-breeding animals associated with rookeries in southeast Alaska. 729Data gaps: More information is needed on rates of disturbance at haulout sites (e.g., by aircraft, boats, pedestrians,construction or fishing activities). 730 The population-level impacts of oil spills are not well established. 731c. major salmon spawning sitesWhat are they? Native anadromous salmonids in B.C. include chinook, chum, coho, pink and sockeye salmon,and steelhead (see Section 2.5.1.3-F, p. 121). High levels of habitat diversity, variable environmental conditionsand the strong tendency for salmon to return to their rivers of origin have combined to promote rapid, postglacialevolution of these species, resulting in many thousands of unique spawning populations specificallyadapted to local conditions. 732Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus)return annually to favoured breedingand haul-out sites. Two of B.C.’s sealion rookeries are among the world’slargest.photo: jared hobbs.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaMajor salmon spawning sites (Map 11A) are located where spawning populations exceed a defined numberof individuals in two or more years (i.e., >20,000 pink salmon, >10,000 chum salmon, >5,000 lake-type sockeyesalmon, >2,000 coho salmon, >500 chinook salmon, >500 river-type sockeye salmon). 733,734Why are they important? A disproportionate number of B.C. salmon come from major spawning sites. Thesepopulations exhibit considerable genetic diversity below the species level, reflecting the evolution of localadaptations that especially suit them to occupy a given geographic locale. 735 In addition to being important tobiodiversity, major salmon spawning sites are culturally significant to First Nations (see Text box 2, p. 13).Salmon species such as sockeyesalmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) spawnin many of B.C.’s rivers.photo: bc parks.Status/threats in B.C. The number of major spawning sites for each species is: 189 for chum salmon, 183 forcoho salmon, 89 for even-year runs of pink salmon, 65 for odd-year runs of pink salmon, 125 for both odd- andeven-year runs of pink salmon (i.e., sites where both thresholds are met), 55 for chinook salmon and 46 forsockeye salmon. 736The greatest threats to major salmon spawning sites are climate change and conversion or degradation ofspawning and rearing habitat (see Section 2.5.1.3-F, p. 121). The seasonal concentration of salmon populationsduring certain parts of their life cycle contributes to their vulnerability to catastrophic events. For example, onAugust 5, 2005, a train derailment resulted in a spill of approximately 45,000 L of sodium hydroxide solutioninto the Cheakamus River. Nearly all free-swimming fish occupying the Cheakamus River mainstem were killed,with mortality estimated at more than 500,000 fish from 10 species. The only survivors were those fish that werestill in the gravel as developing young or were residing in tributary streams or back channels, and those thathad not yet returned to the Cheakamus River. 737Data gaps: Major salmon populations and spawning sites are well studied. The effects of climate change on thefuture use of these sites are not known.

itish columbia’s natural legacy2.5.2.2 special communitiesa. old-growth temperate rainforestsWhat are they? Temperate rainforests occur in mid latitudes and are typically associated with the ocean andcoastal mountain ranges, which promote high rainfall. B.C. has coastal rainforest along its entire coast andon its offshore islands, as well as inland rainforest located between 51°N and 54°N along the windward slopesof the Columbia and Rocky mountains. 738 Another definition of the inland temperate rainforest gives a largerrange, extending from south of the U.S. border to Prince George. 739 In B.C., the coastal temperate rainforest islargely described by the Coastal Western Hemlock and Mountain Hemlock biogeoclimatic zones and the inlandtemperate rainforest by the Interior Cedar–Hemlock zone. Old-growth temperate rainforest is defined as morethan 250 years old (Map 11B).Temperate rainforests are primarily dominated by a disturbance regime called gap dynamics, meaning that,in general, single trees die, creating gaps, and are replaced by trees growing up from the understory, rather thanentire stands being replaced at once. This results in forests that are very old and complex, with multiple layersof trees. Forest stands are often older than the individual trees within them and may not have been disturbedfor many thousands of years. Such stands have been called ‘antique’ forests. 740 On the west coast of VancouverIsland, stands have been aged as having existed for more than 3,000 years since the last disturbance. 741,742 InB.C.’s inland temperate rainforest, researchers have found trees greater than 1,400 years old and stands thathave survived through multiple generations of trees. 743Some temperate rainforest areas are influenced by disturbances such as large-scale windthrow (e.g., northernVancouver Island and exposed parts of the outer coast), large-scale fire (e.g., the south coast and the drier zonesof the Interior Cedar–Hemlock zone) and flooding (e.g., riparian areas).The coastal rainforest grows some of the world’s largest trees, with some Sitka spruce exceeding 90 m inheight and western redcedars reaching more than 15 m in circumference. 744 Although inland rainforest treestypically do not achieve these dimensions, they are regionally exceptional for their size. In contrast to the largestructuredforest, parts of the coastal temperate rainforest consists of woodland bog forest, characterized bywidely spaced, small, stunted trees and little woody debris or other structure. Riparian forests are also prevalentin both coastal and inland temperate rainforests.Old-growth temperate rainforest in theCarmanah Valley.photo: jared hobbs.Why are they important? B.C.’s old-growth rainforests contain high biodiversity. Their large structures(i.e., standing trees and coarse woody debris) and multiple layers provide habitat niches for many species. This

t130°W 120°W110°W60°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e s60°NM A P 1 1 BSpecial elements:ecosystemsLegend!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLake55°NB r i t i s hC o l u m b i aFort St. JohnA l b e r t a55°NSpecial elementsHot springsG Saline lakes# Burns Bog# Creston Valley Wetlands# Columbia Valley WetlandsGlacially influencedwatersheds (>5% of areacovered by glaciers)Old growthtemperate rainforest(>250 years old in theCoastal WesternHemlock, MountainHemlock and InteriorDouglas-fir biogeoclimaticzones)Prince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of Detail50°NP a c i f i cO c e a nVancouverIslandGGGGGG GG GGG GGGG#VancouverGGGKamloopsGGGGGGGKelowna##Calgary50°N0 100 200KilometresData sources:Dr. G. Scudder, Ministry ofEnvironment, Ministry of EnergyMines and Petroleum Resources,Ministry of Agriculture and LandsMap by:Caslys Consulting LtdProjection:BC Albers NAD83Produced for:VictoriaU N I T E D S T A T E SApril 14, 2008130°W120°W

itish columbia’s natural legacycomplexity combined with the great age of many of these forests affords time and opportunity for speciation.The high diversity of non-vertebrate species inhabiting these forests is particularly notable. For example, incoastal rainforests, more than 300 species of previously unknown arthropods have been identified in the Sitkaspruce canopy, none of which have been found in young regenerating forests, 745 and 83 species of oribatid miteshave been found in the canopy and in areas of the forest floor associated with western redcedars. 746 Both coastaland inland old-growth rainforests support a high diversity of lichens and fungi. 747,748Bog forest ecosystems within the coastal rainforest are typically nutrient-poor, which tends to result in relativelyhigh plant diversity due to the inability of single species to dominate these sites.There are 242 species of provincial conservation concern in the Coastal Western Hemlock zone, 45 in theMountain Hemlock zone and 170 in the Interior Cedar–Hemlock zone (see Table 4, p. 34). Some of these speciesoccur in more than one of these zones.Status/threats in B.C. Researchers estimate that 56% of the world’s coastal temperate rainforest has been loggedor converted to non-forest uses. In North America, the only remaining large, unlogged watersheds are in BritishColumbia (mainly on the central and north coasts) and Alaska. 749 The world’s largest area of intact coastaltemperate rainforest (321,120 ha) is encompassed by the Kitlope Heritage Conservancy Protected Area on B.C.’smainland coast. 750Much of B.C.’s remaining old-growth coastal temperate rainforest is fragmented by roads, other access routesand forest harvesting. Almost half (47%) is in small, unfragmented areas that are less than 20,000 ha in size. Approximatelyone-third is in unfragmented areas of greater than 50,000 ha. 751 Development has been concentratedin low-lying, high-productivity areas and very little old forest remains in these sites. 752,753,754Depending on how the inland temperate rainforest is defined, either all or most of this ecosystem occurs inB.C. All of the province’s old-growth inland rainforest is highly vulnerable to the impacts of roads, logging andflooding by hydroelectric dams. Much of this ecosystem has already disappeared and the remaining stands arehighly fragmented. 755Data gaps: The mapping of old-growth temperate rainforests in B.C. is out of date and incomplete for someareas. The ecology of these forests is not well understood. Recovery times for different rainforest elements andthe overall recovery ability of these forests are unknown, particularly in the context of climate change.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiab. intact large mammal predator-prey systemsWhat are they? British Columbia is home to four species of large carnivores (i.e., with body mass greater than20 kg): grey wolf, cougar, American black bear and grizzly bear. Large herbivores historically or currently preyedon by this suite of predators include all of the province’s native ungulate species: plains and wood bison (Bosbison bison and B.b. athabascae), mountain goat, bighorn and thinhorn sheep (Ovis canadensis and O. dalli),moose, elk, mule and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus and O. virginianus) and caribou.An intact large mammal predator-prey system is one in which all of the native species are present, with noalien species that plays a role as either predator or prey relative to the others. These systems are vital elementsin many natural communities (see Section 2.5.1.2-C, p. 100).The loss of one or more species from a large mammal predator-prey system can result in a variety of ecosystemimpacts. The absence of top predators can lead to an artificially high abundance of herbivores and smaller, generalistpredators, whose influence can ripple through the ecosystem, producing impacts such as overgrazing,overbrowsing, declines in populations of ground-nesting birds and spread of alien species. 756Why are they important? B.C. is globally significant for the fact that 28% of the province has intact large mammalpredator-prey ecosystems and these systems are unusually rich in temperate-zone, large carnivore andungulate species. Many of these species have undergone significant range contractions in other jurisdictions,which increases the significance of their presence in B.C. Worldwide, less than 21% of the earth’s land baseretains all of the large mammal species that were historically found in each area. 757The presence or absence of intact large mammal assemblages, including the full historical complement oflarge carnivores and ungulates, is a useful ecologically based measurement of human impacts on biodiversity.In general, areas with intact large mammal assemblages are more likely to be ecologically functional than thosethat are missing one or more species. 758Status/threats in B.C. Large mammals are particularly vulnerable to local extirpation due to direct mortality(depending on the species, they may be killed for meat or trophies or as a population-control or protectivemeasure) and the sensitivity of some of these species to disturbance and habitat fragmentation. 759 A continentwideanalysis of sensitive species (i.e., those that have undergone significant range contractions) of carnivoresand ungulates in North America shows B.C. to be one of the areas with the highest number of these species,both historically and currently. Species richness for sensitive carnivores and ungulates is particularly high inthe northern Rocky Mountains from Colorado to the Yukon, but is also high in parts of B.C. outside the Rockies

itish columbia’s natural legacya(Figure 30). 760 B.C.’s large mammal fauna is intact along the mainland coast, but there are gaps elsewhere inthe coastal region (see Map 11A, p.138). Specifically, Dawson caribou, known only from Haida Gwaii/QueenCharlotte Islands, are extinct, and Roosevelt elk (Cervus canadensis roosevelti) have been extirpated from partsof Vancouver Island, the Sunshine Coast and the lower mainland.In most of the rest of B.C., one or more large mammal species have been extirpated since the time of Europeancontact. Wood bison are missing from most of northern B.C. and grizzlies from much of the central and southerninterior. The other species most frequently missing from predator-prey systems in areas of B.C. are wolves,plains bison, elk and caribou. The primary reason for these losses is historical unregulated direct killing. 761Attempts to reintroduce extirpated large mammals into their former range have been made in B.C. Experienceelsewhere has proven that such reintroductions can have dramatic, positive ecological effects. 762Data gaps: The mapping of historic and current distributions of some large carnivores and ungulates is incomplete(e.g., historic distribution of wood bison, current distribution of grey wolf).2.5.2.3 special featuresNumberof speciesba. large wetlands ( freshwater)In B.C., wetlands tend to be small, isolated features. Three exceptions in the province are: Burns Bog, the largestraised bog in coastal North and South America; and two internationally recognized wetland complexesin the Kootenays – the Creston Valley Wildlife Management Area and the Columbia Valley Wetlands WildlifeManagement Area (see Map 11B, p. 142).Creston Valley WetlandsWhat is it? The Creston Valley wetland complex is a large area (approximately 7,000 ha) at the south end ofKootenay Lake. It consists of Duck Lake (1,500 ha), 17 marshes and a portion of the Kootenay River.Why is it important? The area provides habitat to more than 265 bird species, 50 mammal species and 30 fishspecies, as well as reptiles, amphibians and thousands of invertebrate and plant species. It is an importantstopover site for tundra swans (Cygnus columbianus), greater white-fronted geese (Anser albifrons) and manyother waterfowl. It is also a regionally important site for birds of prey wintering in the B.C. interior and hometo the northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens), a species of conservation concern. The marshes are a valuable linkin a chain of wetlands stretching from the Arctic Ocean to California.figure 30: Historic (a) and current(b) species richness for 17 carnivore andungulate species that have undergonesignificant range contractions in NorthAmerica.source: Laliberte, A.S. and W.J. Ripple.2004. Range contractions of North Americancarnivores and ungulates. Bioscience 54(2):123-138.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaStatus/threats in B.C. Most of the complex is managed under the Creston Valley Wildlife Management Area Act. Threatsto the Creston Valley wetlands include continued ecosystem conversion, runoff from surrounding agricultural andurban areas and the requirement for continuous management to maintain the current artificial water levels thatmaintain wetland productivity. The wetland complex is also intersected by highway and railway corridors.Columbia Valley WetlandsWhat is it? The Columbia Valley wetland complex in the East Kootenay Trench is the longest contiguous networkof wetlands in North America, covering more than 26,000 ha.Why is it important? These wetlands host more than 260 resident and migratory bird species, including somethat are rare within the province (e.g., prairie falcon [Falco mexicanus], short-eared owl [Asio flammeus] andAmerican avocet [Recurvirostra americana]).Status/threats in B.C. Much of this complex is managed within several Wildlife Management Areas. Threats to theColumbia Valley wetlands include runoff from pesticides and fertilizers used in surrounding areas, which affectswetland function, and increasing recreational impacts. Motorized recreation using power boats and jet skis is ofparticular concern because it can result in erosion and destruction of nesting habitat through increased waveaction, and can also cause nest desertion.Burns Bog 763What is it? Burns Bog, in the Fraser River delta, is a type of wetland known as a raised bog, which typically developson top of a fen. In a raised bog, the supply of mineral-rich groundwater is cut off as the bog rises, leavingnutrient-poor precipitation as the bog’s only source of moisture and nutrients. Raised bogs are characterized byacidic, nutrient-poor water, two-layered peat deposits and communities dominated by plants that can survivein these conditions, such as Sphagnum and heaths (Ericaceae). 764Why is it important? Although relatively common in the North America’s boreal and eastern regions, raised bogsare less common in western North America, where blanket bogs or fens predominate. Burns Bog is the largestraised bog on the west coast of the Americas, covering 4,000 ha, and is at the southern limit of some northernspecies. 765 Raised bogs host uncommon collections of species, including unusual numbers of carnivorous plants,an apparent adaptation to lack of nutrients. Plant species in Burns Bog that are uncommon to the region includethe carnivorous great sundew (Drosera anglica), as well as few-flowered sedge (Carex pauciflora) and crowberry(Empetrum nigrum). The bog is also home to animals of provincial conservation concern, including sandhill

itish columbia’s natural legacycranes and the occidentalis subspecies of the southern red-backed vole. A new species, the Olympic shrew, wasrecently confirmed from Burns Bog. 766Like other peatlands, raised bogs sequester greenhouse gases (both methane and CO 2), thus acting as a bufferagainst climate change. Disturbance of the bog surface increases emission of these gases.Status/threats in B.C. About half of this wetland (2,042 ha) is protected as the Burns Bog Ecological ConservancyArea, but it is threatened by incursion of ‘non-bog’ water that is not favourable to the bog flora and fauna. Muchof the remainder of the bog is privately owned and is occupied by a large landfill.Large wetlands data gaps: Burns Bog and the two Kootenays wetland complexes are well mapped. However,the impacts of land uses in surrounding areas are not well known. The ecological and hydrological processesof Burns Bog, and bogs in general, are not well understood, 767 particularly the requirements for successionand recovery. 768b. karstWhat is it? Karst is a landscape derived from soluble bedrock – typically limestone, but also dolomite, marbleand gypsum. With time, water dissolves the bedrock and creates caves, sinkholes, vertical shafts, convolutedrock surfaces and disappearing and reappearing streams. Approximately 11% of British Columbia is potentiallyunderlain by karst, including the Rocky Mountains (particularly in the south) and the temperate rainforests ofVancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands; there are also smaller, more isolated patches on the northcoast, in the Purcell Mountains, in the northwest along the Stikine and Taku rivers, in the northeast near Chetwyndand Prince George, and near Chilliwack in the Cariboo. 769,770 The province appears to have the most diverseexamples of karst in Canada. 771The great sundew (Drosera anglica),survives in acidic and nutrient-poorwaters usually found in bogs. Sundewsare insect-eating plants, an adaptationto the lack of nutrients.photo: istock.Why is it important? Some habitats formed from karst are naturally isolated and therefore tend to host rare orunique species. Karst caves in B.C. are inhabited by species found nowhere else and are important as bat hibernacula.772 Above ground, the complex physical structures formed in karst stream beds provide sites for fishto rest, breed and avoid predation. Terrestrial ecosystems on karst also tend to be very productive because ofhigh levels of dissolved minerals, fractured bedrock and well-drained soils, all of which encourage deep rootingand high growth rates of associated plants and trees. Their chemistry is basic rather than acidic, allowingcolonization by plant species (including bryophytes, ferns and rooted plants) that are rare or absent on moreacidic substrates such as granite. This chemistry, plus their productivity, encourages high species richness. Karstsites in B.C. are recognized for their rare plant species and cave fauna, including some endemic species. 773,774

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaProcesses in karst ecosystems occurunderground (as pictured here) andon the surface. Many uniquely adaptedspecies make use of these specialenvironments.photo: martin davis.For example, caves on Vancouver Island host at least 10 species of invertebrates found nowhere else and othersthat are extremely rare. 775In Alaska, karst landscapes have been shown to increase the productivity of adjacent salmon streams byproducing cool, stable streams with ideal properties for fish spawning 776 and by leaching of calcium carbonate,which buffers acidic streams; aquatic insect populations tend to be more diverse within karst-fed streams.Beyond their contributions to biodiversity, karst ecosystems are often of cultural value to First Nations, includingas burial sites, 777 and are important repositories for historical evidence of climate change (sediments andformations) and extinct species. 778,779Status/threats in B.C. Karst ecosystems in B.C. are highly vulnerable to disturbance particularly those found inthe wet, mountainous coastal regions of the province. Karst located in the interior is generally less susceptibleto surface development due to the protection provided by deep soils and surficial materials deposited throughglaciation. Road building and logging can cause direct physical damage, soil erosion and sediment transfer,and can interrupt natural surface and subsurface drainage patterns and collapse caves, potentially causing thecollapse of the entire karst ecosystem. 780Because karst is highly productive, associated forests are sought after for timber harvesting. However,the geological characteristics that encourage productivity also encourage soil loss and site degradation oncevegetation cover is disturbed. Indirect damage, such as sedimentation from fine-textured soils and blockagescaused by debris, can also affect the functioning of karst ecosystems. Just over half of the B.C. landscape thatis potentially karst is forested and, of that, 55% has been logged. 781In some areas there is high recreational use by cavers.Data gaps: Provincial mapping of karst sites is incomplete and relatively little assessment of karst-associatedspecies has been done. 782 It is also unlikely that all noteworthy sites are known.c. hot springsWhat are they? Hot springs are habitats created by pools of very hot, sometimes near boiling, water that is heatedfrom deep within the earth. Hot springs occur on every continent. Within Canada, they occur in the mountainousregions of B.C. (see Map 11B, p. 142), Alberta, the Northwest Territories, Yukon and Nunavut.Why are they important? Because of the uncommon conditions in hot springs (very high temperatures, littleor no oxygen and large amounts of dissolved minerals), hot springs habitat is very different from surrounding

itish columbia’s natural legacyhabitats. Hot springs are highly localized and isolated from each other and tend to host very simple but uniqueecosystems and species. Only one species in B.C. is reported to be restricted to hot springs: the hotwater physa (Physellawrighti) is a critically imperilled freshwater snail that occurs only in the Liard Hot Springs 783 (i.e., it is endemicto B.C. and to that particular site). In B.C., the southern maiden hair fern (Adiantum capillus-veneris) is reportedonly from the Fairmont Hot Springs but also occurs on five continents and is sufficiently secure in some areas thatit is harvested by florists. Other plants sometimes occurring near hot springs in B.C. are the giant helleborine(Epipactis gigantea) and marsh muhly (Muhlenbergia glomerata), which have limited distributions in the province.Both are relatively widespread in North America, but giant helleborine is localized and often threatened. Thereundoubtedly are smaller organisms, such as microbes and possibly invertebrates, restricted to B.C. hot springs.Status/threats in B.C. Locations of hot springs within British Columbia are known. Most larger and accessibleones are privately owned and developed. Several occur within provincial parks. Among the best known are LiardRiver Hot Springs Provincial Park, Ahousat Hot Springs (Gibson Marine Provincial Park) and Hot Springs Cove(Maquinna Provincial Marine Park). All attract visitors. Their small size, isolation and attractiveness to humansmake hot springs especially vulnerable to human activities.Data gaps: Most hot springs have not been surveyed for their contributions to biodiversity, particularly forsmaller organisms.d. glacially influenced streamsWhat are they? Glaciers cover approximately 4% of B.C.’s land area (see Figure 7, p. 25). They serve as frozenreservoirs of water that feed lakes and rivers during the late summer and fall when runoff from seasonal snowcover is depleted. Almost half of the gauged rivers in the province have at least one glacier in their basin. 784Glacially influenced watersheds are defined here as those with more than 5% of their area covered by glaciers,and streams within these watersheds are considered to be glacially influenced. 785 Glacially influenced watershedscover 20% of the province (Map 11B, p. 142).In glacier-fed rivers, the highest flows tend to occur in early or mid summer, depending on latitude, andglacier runoff can account for a significant portion of the available water supply. 786 Daily flow patterns are alsodistinctive. Near its source, the volume of a glacial river can have as much variation during a single summerday as over the course of an entire summer. Glacial rivers run high in the late afternoon and early evening insummer, with peak water levels on hot summer days sometimes reaching as high as during spring thaw. Aftersunset, melting slows, and by morning, water flow is greatly reduced. 787

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaWhy are they important? In late summer and fall, glacier melt maintains stream flow during dry weather, providinga reliable water supply and valuable aquatic habitat in downstream waterways and associated riparianand estuarine ecosystems. Glaciers can also affect stream temperature and may be important to cold-waterspecialists such as bull trout.Status/threats in B.C. Glaciers in B.C. are generally shrinking due to climate change and glacially influencedstreams are threatened by the resulting changes in glacier melt. Initially, receding glaciers discharge more waterinto some streams and rivers. While higher flows may benefit some aquatic species, potential negative impactsinclude increased stream turbidity and damage to fish habitat and riparian areas. In the longer term, glacierretreat will mean reduced water volume, and possibly temperature change, in glacier-fed streams and rivers,especially during the summer months. 788A recent study of August stream flow in 236 basins in B.C. showed significantly more negative trends forglacier-fed than for non-glacier-fed streams, supporting the hypothesis that retreating glaciers have exacerbatedrecent summer low flows. The negative stream flow trends in glacier-fed catchments suggest that summer streamflow in B.C. will decline if current climate change trends continue and glaciers continue to recede. 789Data gaps: There is no complete listing of species that are dependent on glacially influenced streams in B.C.There is a lack of stream monitoring data to gauge changes in the rate of water flow and temperature.e. serpentine soilsWhat are they? Serpentine soils are derived from serpentine and other rocks typical of the earth’s mantle. Theserocks contain high levels of magnesium, chromium, manganese, cobalt and nickel, which make the soils toxicto many plants. Serpentine soils also are characterized by a low calcium/magnesium ratio and low levels of potassiumand phosphorus – minerals important for plant growth. The resulting vegetation is sometimes termed‘serpentine barrens.’ Forests are absent or stunted, shrubs are usually sparse, and species adapted to serpentinesoils are typically slow-growing. 790 Serpentine soils occur worldwide in areas of tectonic plate activity, but occupyless than 1% of the earth’s surface, so are not common anywhere. In B.C., serpentine soils follow a line of tectonicactivity through the centre of the province from Tulameen Lake in the south to Atlin in the northwest.Why are they important? Plants that can tolerate the harsh environment of serpentine soils often cannot competesuccessfully with other species in less hostile environments, so are restricted to serpentine ecosystems. Examplesin B.C. include Lemmon’s holly fern (Polystichum lemmonii) found on Mount Baldy in the Okanagan and the

itish columbia’s natural legacymountain holly fern (P. scopulinum) from the Tulameen River valley. Both species are relatively widespread(though localized) and considered globally secure, but are rare in B.C. The presence of serpentine ecosystemsincreases the overall biodiversity in B.C. by providing a niche for these specialized plants.Status/threats in B.C. The overall status of serpentine soils is unknown. Because of their lack of productivitythere is a tendency to treat areas of serpentine soils as wasteland. In B.C., the major threat is likely from mineralexploration and development, and possibly urbanization. Elsewhere, efforts to make serpentine ecosystemsproductive have involved massive intrusions that eliminate species adapted to these ecosystems.Data gaps: No systematic, province-wide survey of these ecosystems has been undertaken.f. saline lakesWhat are they? Saline or ‘salt’ lakes have been defined as those having more than 3g/L salt content, in contrast with‘freshwater’ lakes, which have less than 3g/L of salt. The ‘salts’ include sodium, magnesium, carbonate, bicarbonateand sulphate. Salt lakes or ponds have no outlet. They are formed where evaporation exceeds rainfall and mineralsbecome concentrated by evaporation during the summer. They often are alkaline, have extremely high nutrientlevels, trace metals and low oxygen. Often by the end of summer, saline lakes are surrounded by crystalline salts,and some areas dry up completely, resulting in small salt flats. Maritime glasswort (Salicornia maritima) may adda red margin around some ponds, while alkali saltgrass (Distichlis spicata var. stricta) adds a yellow tint to somecrystalline rings. The lakes typically have few or no submergent plants and few emergents.Saline lakes occur on all continents and are widespread in dry environments. B.C.’s southern Interior Plateau,particularly in the Okanagan and Kamloops areas and throughout the Fraser Plateau, is dotted with small salineponds that are mostly less than 1 km 2 in area (see Map 11B, p. 142).Lemmon’s holly fern (Polystichumlemmonii) can tolerate the harshenvironment of serpentine soils, whichare toxic to many other plants.photo: virginia skilton.Why are they important? The unique hydrology and species composition of saline lakes separates them fromthe surrounding habitat. Some species, including some dragonflies and midges (chironomids) and other invertebrates,such as brine shrimp (Artemia spp.), are specifically adapted to these conditions. For species that canmaintain their internal chemical balance under these conditions, the lakes are secure and free of most potentialpredators. Adapted invertebrates can thus attain large numbers, resulting in ideal stopover and nesting sites forbirds such as phalaropes (Phalaropus spp.) and plovers (Charadrius spp.).A very few saline lakes, such as Mahoney Lake in the Okanagan, are meromictic, meaning the water layersdo not turn over, so there is no mixing. In Mahoney Lake, this lack of mixing permits the densest population

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaof phototrophic sulphur bacteria (dominated by the purple sulphur bacterium [Amoebobacterpurpureus]) ever reported in a natural body of water. The sulphur bacteria forma thin but highly concentrated layer, called a sulphur bacterial plate, at the boundarybetween the layers of water with and without oxygen. This bacterial plate, in turn, supportsa copepod (Diaptomus connexus) and a rotifer (Brachionus plicatilis). 791Some saline lakes, such as Spotted Lake in the Okanagan, are culturally significant toFirst Nations. The lake and surrounding land has been purchased by the Okanagan NationAlliance for the purpose of conservation.Maritime glasswort (Salicornia maritima), growing at theedge of one of B.C.’s saline lakes, forms a distinct red margin.photo: sarma liepins.Status/threats in B.C. Some saline lakes, such as Mahoney Lake and Soap Lake, are protectedwithin ecological reserves. Saline lakes are especially vulnerable because they occurin dry areas where agricultural and rural development are prevalent. Climate change posesa particular threat to saline lakes because they are typically shallow and distant from tallervegetation and consequently not buffered from air temperature change. Although the lakesare valuable to some species, it appears that little can be done to sustain many of themin the face of climate change. Pollution and the introduction of exotic species are alsothreats. In some areas, salt lakes are an economically important source of minerals suchas halite, uranium, zeolites and borax.Data gaps: Listing and mapping of saline lakes within the province is incomplete. Theirsmall size means they are usually overlooked in broad-scale inventory.g. fishless lakesKliluk, also known as Spotted Lake, is a culturally significantsite for the Okanagan Nation. As the lake dries up in summer,its high concentration of minerals forms shallow pools ofwhite, pale yellow, green and blue mud.photo: orville dyer.What are they? Fishless lake is a term applied to freshwater lakes that, because of theirphysical isolation from other water bodies, do not contain fish and have not been stockedwith fish. They occur throughout B.C., but are particularly common in mountainous regionswhere access by downstream fish is prevented by waterfalls or canyons, and on plateauswhere isolated lakes have no inflow or outflow.Why are they important? Although historically common in B.C., fishless lakes are becomingincreasingly rare in the province and elsewhere, and are a special element becausethey provide a unique environment. Prior to stocking, approximately 95% of an estimated

itish columbia’s natural legacy16,000 mountain lakes in the western United States were fishless. Now 60% of all of these lakes and 95% of thedeeper (more than 3 m) and larger (more than 2 ha) lakes contain introduced trout. 792 Much the same has happenedto accessible lakes at lower elevations in British Columbia. 793 Fishless lakes and headwaters are specialin that resident species are not subject to predatory fish. The community composition in fishless lakes is thereforedifferent from that found in lakes with fish, and includes species such as rare cladoceran crustaceans andthe tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum), a species of conservation concern. These communities may notbe able to effectively withstand predation.Status/threats in B.C. In much of the province, fewer than 5% of the low-elevation lakes remain natural, 794and, even where habitats are protected, diversity may not be conserved. 795 Long-term studies on the effectsof introduced fish show that even when the introduced fish populations are extirpated, their impacts on communitystructure may continue up to a decade after the last fish introduction. In other lakes, the fish successfullyreproduce and become a permanent predator, even spreading to other previously fishless lakes in a watershed.The practice of introducing game fish into fishless lakes has effectively eliminated the fishless lake ecosystemfrom large areas of western North America.Data gaps: There is no consolidated list or mapping of fishless lakes.h. microbialitesWhat are they? Microbialites are fossilized mats formed by microbes, primarily cyanobacteria (previously knownas blue-green algae). 796 Cyanobacteria create microbialites by trapping sedimentary grains, binding the grainswith mucous, and cementing them with lime into thin layers. The bacteria extend the microbialites verticallyto access sunlight necessary for photosynthesis. The resulting structures have a variety of shapes: columnar,conical, branching or stratiform. Over millennia, these structures became fossilized limestone, and microbialitestoday have a very definite laminated structure and appearance. Many examples date from the Precambrian era,but some microbialites are still home to living microbes. Two examples are found in B.C. in Pavilion Lake andKelly Lake (see Map 11A, p. 138).Why are they important? Cyanobacteria are among the earliest living organisms on the planet and likely thefirst to photosynthesize, using water, sunlight and carbon dioxide to yield oxygen and calcium dioxide (lime).Fossilized bacteria sometimes found in microbialites are evidence of some of the earliest life forms, dating fromapproximately 3.5 billion years ago, and may provide clues to the origins of life on earth. 797

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaStatus/threats in B.C. Microbialites are rare and vulnerable to disturbance due to their fragility. One of the twoknown occurrences of microbialites in B.C. is found in Pavilion Lake in Marble Canyon Provincial Park. ThePavilion Lake microbialites, which reach 2 m in height, are the largest known freshwater microbialites and containboth cyanobacteria and diatoms. In nearby Kelly Lake, the microbialites were thought to be only 1–2 cmin height. 798 Recently, however, much larger (>50 cm) structures have been measured. 799 Kelly Lake is adjacentto Downing Provincial Park, but is not itself protected.Data gaps: Although all microbialite sites may have been found, extensive surveys in candidate lakes have notbeen undertaken.

3 Threats to Biodiversityin British ColumbiaBiodiversity is under threat around the world. The 2005 Millenium Ecosystem Assessment estimatedthat 60% of the world’s grasslands, forests, farmlands, rivers and lakes have been degraded, along withtheir ability to perform essential ecosystem functions and to support life. 800 Although the World ConservationUnion (IUCN) monitors only a fraction of the world’s 1.5 million scientifically described species, itsassessment suggests that a significant proportion of species are of conservation concern. The global extinctionrate is estimated at 100 to 1,000 times the natural background rate of extinction and may increase by 100-foldin the future. 801 Lost along with each species is its current and evolutionary potential to provide food, fuel,building materials, pollination, decomposition or other services essential to maintain life for all organisms,including humans.Generally, ecosystem integrity in British Columbia has remained relatively high due to the province’s shorthistory of development and mountainous terrain. However, the current trends for both species and ecosystemsare of major concern. Where biodiversity intersects with the ever-increasing human use of land and resources,species and ecosystems have suffered. 802 Within B.C., 43% of the assessed species are of provincial conservationconcern (see Table 13, p. 54). Also of provincial conservation concern are four of the 16 biogeoclimatic zones(see Table 3, p. 32), four of the nine Major Drainage Areas (see Table 9, p.43) and 340 (56%) of the 611 describedecological communities (see Table 7, p. 38). The status of biodiversity at the genetic, species and ecosystemlevels in B.C. indicates that all is not well.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaThe past 4,000 years of relative ecological stability was disrupted by the arrival of European and Asian settlers.Ecosystems that took thousands of years to develop have been disturbed, especially in the southern part ofthe province, by land conversion, widespread logging, dams and alien species. Not since the last ice age, 10,000years ago, has such a change in biodiversity occurred in the province.3.1 ApproachThis section describes the impacts (past and current) and threats (future) to biodiversity in the freshwater andterrestrial realms and the overlap with the marine realm (estuaries and intertidal areas). A special emphasis isplaced on climate change. Information on trends is presented where available. Where quantitative informationwas limited or not available, qualitative data based on professional judgements were incorporated intothe assessment.Since a consistent framework for measuring impacts in B.C. does not exist, a framework (Figure 31) wascreated based on input from a 2006 survey of 25 B.C. experts (referred to below as the 2006 biodiversity threatssurvey) and the IUCN classification of the major international threats to biodiversity. 803 The general conceptunderlying this framework is that there are multiple human activities (e.g., forestry, grazing) that culminate ina number of stresses (e.g., ecosystem conversion) and impact the elements of biodiversity, resulting in consequencessuch as loss of diversity or habitat fragmentation. Two main sources of information were used to determinethe magnitude of, and relationship between, human activities and stresses. Both involved the observationof impacts as reported through opinion surveys and workshops: the 2006 biodiversity threats survey 804 and a2003 assessment of threats. 805 Supplementary information was obtained from documents relating to impactsand threats to biodiversity in B.C.Section 3 includes an examination of the main stresses (ecosystem conversion, ecosystem degradation andalien species) and the three lower-ranked stresses (environmental contamination, species disturbance andspecies mortality), followed by a discussion of the human activities that contribute to them. Most of the discussion(e.g., information and trends) focuses on the stresses and human activities that have the highest impacton biodiversity, according to the surveys.3.2 Major Stresses on BiodiversityMany of the declining trends presented in Section 2 are the result of two factors: ecosystem conversion and ecosystemdegradation. For example, many streams in the Lower Fraser Valley have been lost to draining and culverting(see Text box 7, p. 43), grasslands have been converted to farms and urban centres (see Text box 5, p. 39),

threats to biodiversity in british columbiaHuman activities(iucn: Direct threats)stResses(iucn: stresses)eLementsOF BiODiveRsitYIMPACTSON BIODIVERSITYfigure 31: Thebiodiversity threatframework.CLIMATE CHANGEAGRICULTUREURBAN & RURALDEVELOPMENTFORESTRYTRANSPORTATION &UTILITY CORRIDORSOIL & GASWATER DEVELOPMENTGRAZINGINDUSTRIAL OPERATIONSMININGAQUACULTURERECREATIONECOSYstem cONVERSIONECOSYstemDEGRADATIONALIEN SPECIESENVIRONMENTALCONTAMINATIONSPecies DISTURBANCESPECIES MORTALITYLEVELS OFORGANIZATION• genes• species• ecosystemsATTRIBUTES• composition• structure• functionREALMS• freshwater• terrestrial• marineLOSS OF GENETICDIVERSITYPOPULATIOn DECLINESPECIES EXTIRPATION/EXTINCTIONIMPAIReD ECOSYSTEMFUNCTIONHABitatFRAGMENTATIONLOSS OF cONNECTIVITYHuman ActivitiesClimate Change: Impacts due to changes intemperature, precipitation, wind, or other aspects of theearth’s climate.Agriculture: Infrastructure and activities associatedwith intensive agriculture cropping (e.g. vegetables,grass, nursery, silage etc.).Urban & Rural Development: Infrastructure andactivities associated with human use for the purposesof living (e.g. housing, buildings, sewage).Forestry: Infrastructure and activities associated withharvest or management of trees.Transportation & Utility Corridors: Infrastructureand activities associated with the movement of people,commodities or information (e.g. highways, ports,railways, power lines).Oil & Gas: Infrastructure and activities associated withthe extraction of petroleum or natural gas.Water Development: Infrastructure and activitiesassociated with diversion, storage, or pumping of water.Grazing: Infrastructure and activities associated withextensive agriculture (i.e. grazing animals).Industrial Operations: Infrastructure and activitiesassociated with secondary industry or other primaryindustries not included in forestry, mining, oil & gas orwater development.Mining: Infrastructure and activities associated with theextraction of minerals or other geological materials.Aquaculture: Infrastructure and activities associatedwith shellfish and finfish operations.Recreation: Infrastructure or activities associatedwith motorized or non-motorized human uses for thepurposes of recreation (e.g. hiking, swimming, hunting,fishing).StressesEcosystem Conversion: Replacement of naturalcommunities with human-dominated natural systems(e.g. intensive agriculture) or physical works (e.g. mines,urban areas).Ecosystem Degradation: Direct change to thestructure of natural systems (e.g. forest harvesting,water diversion).Alien Species: Individuals or populations of a specieswhen outside the natural range of the species (e.g.purple loosestrife, grey squirrels).Environmental Contamination: The release ofchemicals, including nutrients, to natural systems (e.g.sulphur oxides, treated sewage, fertilizers, pesticides).Species Disturbance: The alteration of the behaviourof species (e.g. aircraft flying close to mountain goats,dogs chasing waterfowl).Species Mortality: The direct killing of individuals (e.g.harvest, by-catch, road kills, intentional poisoning).old-growth forests have been converted to early seral stages, and mountain caribou range in southern B.C. hasbeen fragmented leading to substantial population declines and extirpations (see Text box 13, p. 85). Ecosystemconversion and degradation are prevalent in all four of the biogeoclimatic zones of conservation concern (seeTable 3, p. 32). 806

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaA third factor often cited for its effect on biodiversity is alien species invasion – often a secondary impactthat follows ecosystem degradation. 807,808 Alien species are outcompeting many rare native plants in Garry oakecosystems on Vancouver Island (see Text box 6, p. 40) and dominating grasslands in the Okanagan. 809 Thenumber of alien species of vascular plants and freshwater fish in the province continues to increase, 810 withmany of them having serious impacts on biodiversity.The 2007 B.C. environmental trends report assessed six broad-scale stresses facing 179 of B.C.’s species of conservationconcern and concluded that the top two were habitat loss (defined as a combination of habitat conversionand degradation) and alien species. 811 Similarly, the 2006 biodiversity threats survey identified the three majorstresses on biodiversity in B.C. as ecosystem conversion, ecosystem degradation and alien species, based on thelevel of concern for genes, species and ecosystems in both the terrestrial and freshwater realms (Figure 32). Stressesrated as being of lesser concern were environmental contamination, species disturbance and species mortality. Allof these can have consequences for biodiversity, such as loss of species, decreases in population size and distribution,loss of connectivity and ecosystem resilience, or compromised ecosystem processes and function.The identification of ecosystem conversion, ecosystem degradation and alien species as the most significantstresses on biodiversity in B.C. is consistent with national and international findings. Ecosystem conversionand degradation have been identified by national and international studies as the most significant immediatestresses on biodiversity. 812,813,814,815 In addition, alien species have emerged as an increasing threat to native speciesand ecosystems around the world. 816Losses to biodiversity usually originate from more than one source. Multiple stresses can impact biodiversityat a magnitude greater than the sum of the individual stresses, can be cumulative over time and can triggercascading impacts on other components of biodiversity. For example, B.C. is experiencing rapid climate change;we do not know the exact magnitude and extent of the threats to biodiversity, but impacts that have been observedalready suggest that the stresses will be significant. 817,818 Climate change will have its greatest impact in areasof the province where biodiversity has already been affected by other factors such as ecosystem degradationor alien species. Future ecosystems may or may not re-assemble into the same form as in the past, and the speedat which plants and animals adapt to or move with changes in conditions will determine whether they thrive,decline or disappear. 819 Where the landscape has already been degraded and fragmented, habitat connectivitymay be lost, resulting in species being unable to move in response to the changing climate. This may havea more significant impact on species that are restricted to freshwater ecosystems (e.g., fish), as they have feweropportunities than terrestrial species for shifting their ranges.

threats to biodiversity in british columbiaTerrestrial genetic diversityTerrestrial species and populationsTerrestrial ecosystemsFreshwater genetic diversityFreshwater species and populationsFreshwater ecosystems0 5 10 15 20 25 30RELATIVE IMPACT OF BIODIVERSITY STRESSESALIEN SPECIESSPECIES MORTALITYSPECIES DISTURBANCEECOSYSTEM DEGRADATIONECOSYSTEM CONVERSIONENVIRONMENTALCONTAMINATIONfigure 32: Impact of stresses onelements of biodiversity.source: Long, G. 2007. Biodiversity Safety NetGap Analysis. Biodiversity BC, Victoria, BC.66pp. Available at: www.biodiversitybc.org.note: For this analysis, 25 B.C. expertsidentified the relative contribution of eachof the six impacts by allocating 100 pointsamongst the six realm/level combinations.In the 2006 biodiversity threats survey, the experts identified ecosystems as being of higher concern thanspecies and genetic-level diversity in both realms, and expressed slightly higher concern for biodiversity in thefreshwater realm than in the terrestrial realm.3.2.1 ecosystem conversionEcosystem conversion is one of the greatest stresses on biodiversity in B.C. 820 Ecosystem conversion is thedirect and complete conversion of natural landscapes, such as forests, wetlands or grasslands, to landscapes forhuman uses (e.g., buildings, houses, parking lots, agricultural fields). 821 Ecosystem conversion or loss compromisesor eliminates the ability of native species to survive in the new conditions and they either adapt, move ordie. The result is reduced species richness and the loss of ecological functions such as air and water purification,pollination, soil building, climate regulation, and nutrient and water cycling. These functions performedby plant and animal species are essential for ecosystem health and for human well-being.The magnitude of ecosystem conversion in B.C. varies spatially. In the terrestrial realm, there has been significantecosystem conversion in the Coastal Douglas-fir biogeoclimatic zone on the southeast coast of VancouverIsland and in the Bunchgrass and Ponderosa Pine zones in the southern interior (Table 25), all three of whichare of conservation concern (see Section 2.1.1.1, p. 30). Although only about 2% of the province’s land basehas been converted, the conversion is concentrated in these three rarest biogeoclimatic zones. In other partsof the province, the pattern of conversion follows the lower-elevation transportation corridors, with areas ofloss concentrated around population centres. The province’s mountainous topography has limited humanactivity and ecosystem conversion in high-elevation areas, but lower areas, such as valley bottoms and coastalDowntown Vancouver is an urbanarea converted from old-growthtemperate rainforest. Stanley Park,in the background, illustrates thenatural condition.photo: istock.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaregions, have been significantly impacted; 94% of ecosystem conversion in B.C. has occurred below 1,000 melevation (Map 12).In the Okanagan Valley and Fraser River delta, more than 75% of the wetlands have been converted by agriculture,urbanization and commercial activities. 822,823 In the freshwater realm, extensive conversion also comesfrom reservoirs, which can eliminate natural ecosystems such as wetlands. Activities that result in ecosystemconversion in the overlap between the terrestrial and marine realms include shoreline armouring (e.g., retainingwalls) and the diking, draining or filling of estuaries.table 25. area of terrestrial ecosystem conversion in b.c. since european contact.BIOgeoclimatic zone cOnservation Total land area Area of Area of PERCENT ofstatus Before Ecosystem ecosystem ecosystem land areaconversion conversion Remaining converted to(km 2 ) (km 2 ) (km 2 ) Human usesCoastal Douglas-fir Imperilled (G2) 2,561 1,251 1,310 49%Bunchgrass Imperilled (G2) 2,579 531 2,048 21%Ponderosa Pine Imperilled/ vulnerable (G2/G3) 3,513 617 2,896 18%Interior Douglas-fir Vulnerable (G3) 42,721 2,302 40,419 5%Boreal White and Black Spruce Apparently secure (G4) 159,473 6,106 153,367 4%Sub-boreal Spruce Apparently secure (G4) 95,551 3,206 92,345 3%Coastal Western Hemlock Apparently secure (G4) 104,998 2,745 102,253 3%Interior Cedar–Hemlock Apparently secure (G4) 51,751 837 50,914 2%Sub-boreal Pine–Spruce Apparently secure (G4) 22,643 284 22,359 1%Montane Spruce Apparently secure (G4) 27,996 201 27,795 1%Engelmann Spruce–Subalpine Fir Secure (G5) 170,564 200 170,364

130°W 120°W110°W60°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e stM A P 1 260°NTerrestrial ecosystemconversion (%)*Legend!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLakePercentage0.00B r i t i s hC o l u m b i a0.01 - 0.130.14 - 0.670.68 - 1.661.67 - 3.493.50 - 6.99Fort St. JohnA l b e r t a7.00 - 12.1212.13 - 21.9521.96 - 43.0055°N55°N43.01 - 100.00Numbers indicate the percentof land and reservoir area.Prince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of DetailEqual Interval ClassificationCalgary0 100 200Kilometres50°NPercentage0.0 - 10.010.1 - 20.020.1 - 30.030.1 - 40.040.1 - 50.050.1 - 60.060.1 - 70.070.1 - 80.0P a c i f i cO c e a nVancouverIslandVancouverVictoriaKamloopsKelownaU N I T E D S T A T E S50°NData sources:BTM (v. 1 and 2 merged),TRIM-EBMMap by:Caslys Consulting LtdProjection:BC Albers NAD83Produced for:80.1 - 90.090.1 - 100.0*Terrestrial ecosystem conversion is the proportion of land area that falls within the following land uses: reservoirs;urban; agriculture; recreation; residential/agriculture mix; and mining.May 28, 2008130°W120°W

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia3.2.2 ecosystem degradationEcosystem degradation is change to the structure of a natural system (e.g., through forest harvesting or waterdiversion), impacting an ecosystem’s composition and function. This can take many forms, including habitatfragmentation, reduction in the quality or extent of habitat, or alteration of water flow.The alteration of one component of biodiversity can set off a cascade of effects on other species and ecosystems.For example, fire suppression in an area of mixed forest and grassland allows the incursion of treesinto the grassland, reducing the extent of the latter ecosystem. 824 At some point, the grassland may become toorestricted for many of its species to survive. The increased forest encroachment could also modify the structureand composition of its predator community, resulting in increased predation on grassland species. In streams, anincrease in the withdrawal of water can increase the temperature and reduce the ability of fish species to survive.The reduction in stream flow could delay the entry of salmon into the stream to spawn, exposing them to marinepredators for a longer time and reducing the prey base for terrestrial predators and scavengers. Other causesof degradation include livestock grazing, damming of rivers, logging, installation of fences and road building.Degraded ecosystems are more vulnerable to invasion by alien species and to the spread of disease. 825Ecosystem degradation occurs throughout B.C. For example, the increasing allocation of water from streamsfor human uses (Figure 33) affects natural stream hydrology. 826 About 97% of water licensed in British Columbiais for power production, including storage. The remaining 3% is licensed for consumptive uses such as industrial,figure 33: Streams allocated tohuman uses, 1950s–2001.source: B.C. Ministry of Water, Land and AirProtection. 2002. Trends in Water AllocationRestrictions Across British Columbia. InEnvironmental Trends in British Columbia2002. State of the Environment ReportingOffice, Victoria, BC. Available at: www.env.gov.bc.ca/soerpt/8surfacewateruse/allocations.html.notes: 0 = licenses present on the stream,but no restrictions. No licenses = no licencespresent on the stream. Values are thepercentage of stream length fully allocatedto human uses.1950s 1970s 2000-2001Percentage of licenced streamlength that is fully allocatedor approaching full allocationfor 2000-200181-10061-8041-6031-401-200No license

threats to biodiversity in british columbiacommercial and agricultural activities and drinking. The Bennett Dam on the Peace River, completed in 1967,created the largest body of fresh water in B.C., the Williston Reservoir. 827 It converted large parts of the Finlay andParsnip rivers from a network of streams and rivers to a single water body, with devastating effects on Arctic graylingpopulations. 828 Within two years of the dam’s completion there were impacts downstream, including reduced peakflows and a 28% decrease in the number of small lakes and wetlands. Also downstream, the Peace-Athabasca deltain northeastern Alberta, one of Canada’s most productive and diverse marsh and wetland habitats, was significantlyreduced in size, demonstrating the effects of actions in B.C. on biodiversity in other jurisdictions. 829Various stresses can combine to increase the magnitude of ecosystem degradation. This concept of cumulativeimpacts is based on the idea that while a single impact may not be notable, the combination of additionalimpacts can result in a significant stress on the system. In the face of multiple impacts, ecosystem resilience willdecline until the ecosystem no longer has the ability to rebound and to provide the functions it once did.The Nicola River case study (Text box 18) illustrates the cumulative impact of multiple stresses on one freshwatersystem. This situation is expected to become widespread in the Thompson and Okanagan areas, where licensedwater use already removes a high percentage of the flow in many systems during the annual low-flow period andfuture water demand is expected to increase as a result of climate change and population growth. 830A portion of the water from the SalmonRiver is diverted through this concretesluice into the upper Campbell Riversystem to enhance the hydroelectriccapacity of the John Hart Dam.photo: tim ennis.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatext box 18. the nicola river: extreme pressure on water resources 831The Nicola River is a tributary of the Thompson River in the FraserRiver drainage. The Nicola River drains 7,227 km 2 – an area equivalentto one-eighth of the Thompson River drainage – andis a major producer of chinook salmon, coho salmon and steelhead,supporting world-renowned runs of these species. 832 Watertemperature is recognized as an extremely important variable thatcan affect the distribution, growth, behaviour, metabolism, diseaseresistance, survival and productivity of juvenile andadult salmonids. 833Water temperatures in the Thompson River are inherentlysusceptible to warming trends during the summer months due toregional climatic conditions. 834 Summers are characteristically hotand dry and air temperatures can exceed 40°C. Annual precipitationranges from 250–500 mm per year. 835 High demand for waterby the agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors exacerbatesthis natural susceptibility by decreasing flows and increasingextreme temperature fluctuations. 836 In addition, removal of riparianvegetation decreases shading and can increase channel width.Individually and collectively, these changes can elevate watertemperatures in many situations.Fisheries and Oceans Canada conducted temperature monitoringduring 1994–1996 in the Nicola River watershed. 837,838,839The study revealed temperatures frequently within the rangesconsidered unsuitable or lethal to salmonids. The preferred rangefor salmonid spawning is 4–14°C. Spawning ceases and diseaseincreases at water temperatures above 16°C, and at 21–25°C,temperatures become lethal to salmonids. 1994 was the hottestyear during the study, with average mid summer temperaturesexceeding 21°C at almost all sites. At two sites on July 24, 1994,maximum recorded temperatures reached 29°C, well above thelethal tolerance range for Pacific salmonids. The total time above25°C in 1994 ranged from 33 to 93 hours, with the maximum consecutiveperiods above 25°C ranging from 9 to 18 hours. While thetemperatures measured in 1995 and 1996 were cooler, the temperatureswere still stressful and even lethal to salmonids.In addition to the commercial, recreational and First Nationsfisheries supported by the Nicola River system, extensive forestryand agriculture takes place in the Nicola drainage. More than26% of the watershed has been logged, 840 and agricultural activityis intensive and concentrated along the lower, more productivereaches. Upland areas are used for summer grazing and the valleybottoms are used for winter cattle feeding. There are at least 1,600water licenses in the Nicola River watershed and 95 restrictions,many of them in place since as early as 1991. 841 More than 560 kmof stream length in the watershed has been allocated to licensesand over 20% of that stream length has been restricted. 842 In addition,development is concentrated along the Coldwater River, amajor tributary of the Nicola River.The Nicola River situation highlights how a natural vulnerability– in this case, to temperature increases – can be severelyexacerbated by a combination of climate change and resourcedevelopment (e.g., loss of shade and water flow) to the point thatecosystem viability and the sustainability of major fish populationsare seriously threatened.

threats to biodiversity in british columbia3 . 2 . 3 a l i e n s pe c i e sAlien species are those that occur outside their native range due to human introduction. 843 Alien species canbe introduced intentionally (e.g., through agriculture, horticulture, forestry or the release of pets), accidentally(e.g., contamination on plants, species attached to equipment that is transported) or from captive or commercialcultivation (e.g., zoos, farmed animals, escapes from research facilities). 844 Species that are native tosome parts of B.C. can be alien species when moved to other areas of the province (e.g., raccoons, beaver anddeer are alien species on Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands). For the purposes of this report, species thatare native to neighbouring jurisdictions and shift their distributions due to climate or habitat change are notconsidered alien species.Not all alien species are harmful because most cannot spread; invasive alien species are those speciesthat threaten biodiversity. One estimate is that about 10% of alien species become invasive. 845 However, somespecies also exhibit a time lag between introduction and impact on biodiversity. For example, gorse (Ulexeuropaeus) was introduced to B.C. at least 90 years ago, 846 and was only recently recognized as an invasivealien species. a Invasive alien species alter forest fire cycles, nutrient cycling, hydrology and energy budgets innative ecosystems. 847 They displace native populations of plants and animals by occupying habitat and competingfor resources. 848 Alien species can also affect native species through predation, displacement, habitatdegradation (e.g., removal or replacement of vegetation), hybridization and the introduction of diseases, aswell as by facilitating the spread of other non-native species. 849 Sometimes alien species are introduced toperform beneficial ecological roles, such as in the case of species introduced for biological control. For example,the beetle Galerucella calmariensis has been introduced to some areas to control purple loosestrife(Lythrum salicaria).In B.C., some of the most vulnerable ecosystems include the grasslands of the interior, where invasivealien species such as purple loosestrife and European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) reduce the abundance of nativespecies, and grazing, road building and fire suppression have facilitated the spread of alien plant speciessuch as cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum). On some of B.C.’s coastal islands, ecosystems have been degraded byalien species such as rats, racoons, deer and European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). In the urban areas ofthe lower mainland and Vancouver Island, the introduction of European herbaceous species, in conjunctionwith fire suppression, has altered the Garry oak ecosystem as well as many of the wetlands. 850 In streams, therelease of species such as yellow perch (Perca flavescens) has reduced native trout populations through competiaGorse was added to the provincial list of noxious weeds in 1996.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiation and predation. 851 Once established, invasive alien species can be extremely difficult and costly to controlor eradicate, with knapweed (Centaurea spp.) being a good example of this problem in B.C. 852The B.C. Conservation Data Centre lists 809 alien species. 853 Most are vascular plants, but the inventoryof many alien insects, such as beetles, true bugs and plant lice, is incomplete, and the abundance of alien insectsin other areas already far exceeds that of alien vascular plants. 854,855,856 The number of alien vascular plantsidentified in B.C. increased by 29% between 1994 and 2006 (Figure 34). 857 Alien freshwater fish species increasedby 300% between 1950 and 2007, rising from seven species to 21 (Figure 34), 858,859 and the number of waterbodies hosting alien fish species increased from 28 to 625 between 1950 and 2005. 860 Note that the increasein detections of alien species is a function of both actual introductions and better information.Map 13 shows the distribution of the 776 terrestrial and freshwater alien species of vertebrates, invertebratesand vascular plants for which location data were available. 861 The biogeoclimatic zones with the highest numbersof mapped alien species were the Coastal Western Hemlock (579 species), Coastal Douglas-fir (515) andInterior Douglas-fir (335) zones.750VASCULAR PLANTS25FRESHWATER FISH217002018figure 34: Alien vascular plant andfreshwater fish species in B.C.source: B.C. Ministry of Environment. 2007.Species Conservation. Technical Paperfor Environmental Trends 2007. State ofEnvironment Reporting Office, Victoria,BC. Available at: www.env.gov.bc.ca/soe/et07/07_species_conserv/technical_paper/species_conservation.pdf; and D. McPhail,University of British Columbia, Emeritus,personal communication.note:* Years with no data available.Number of Species6506005505001994 1995* 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005* 2006Number of Species1510501371950 1975 2005 2007YEARYEAR

130°W 120°W110°W60°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e stM A P 1 360°NNumber of terrestrialand freshwateralien species*Legend!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLakeNumber of SpeciesB r i t i s h01C o l u m b i a234Fort St. JohnA l b e r t a567 - 855°N55°N9 - 1112 - 92Number of alien species(760 alien species total)Prince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of DetailEqual Interval ClassificationCalgary0 100 200Kilometres50°NNumber of Species0 - 910 - 18P a c i f i cO c e a nKamloopsKelowna50°NData sources:Ministry of EnvironmentMap by:Caslys Consulting LtdProjection:BC Albers NAD8319 - 2829 - 3738 - 46VancouverIslandVancouverProduced for:47 - 5556 - 6465 - 7475 - 8384 - 92VictoriaU N I T E D S T A T E S*Taxonomic groups include: mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, amphibians, insects and vascular plants.May 28, 2008130°W120°W

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatext box 19. aquaculture of manila clams in intertidal areas 862The Manila clam (Tapes philippinarum) is an interesting example of an alien species that has become commerciallyimportant and is threatened by impacts on intertidal biodiversity, yet also potentially threatensintertidal biodiversity. Accidentally introduced into B.C. from Japan with the seed of the Pacific oyster (Crassostreagigas) in the early 1900s, the Manila clam has become the most important commercial wild-harvestedclam species in the province. 863 High concentrations of clam leases occur in some areas, such as BaynesSound. There is a poor understanding of the cumulative effects of high densities of clam tenures combinedwith secondary impacts such as water quality changes, other alien species and climate change.A number of approved activities associated with Manila clam production present threats to intertidalbiodiversity.• Substrate modification: Manila clams grow and survive best in a stable, loosely packed substrateof gravel, sand, mud and shell. To enhance natural substrate that is inadequate for Manilaclam production, gravel or a combination of gravel and crushed oyster shell is spread onbeaches, which likely affects the structure of benthic communities.• Beach modification: To enhance substrate stability and protect clam pots from storm damage,predator-exclusion netting and berms are used to reduce wave energy. Other methods usedto stabilize beaches for clam production include contouring the intertidal area and channelizingstreams that flow through the plots. All of these practices may alter the natural patterns ofwaves and currents and result in impacts on the natural patterns of erosion and sedimentationin the intertidal zone.• Predator control: Predation on clams by bottom fish, crabs, starfish and sea birds is controlledby the application of protective netting over seeded substrate. The removal and destruction ofthese predator species may shift the intertidal community to one primarily made up of clams.• Maintenance: Terrestrial vehicles are sometimes used to spread gravel on beaches, move materialinto place or retrieve bags of clams or materials. Significant human activity takes place onbeaches during site preparation and seeding, often at low tides. Vehicles compact substrateand alter drainage and sediments, impacting the intertidal vegetation and fauna such as

threats to biodiversity in british columbiacrustaceans and shallow-burrowing bivalves. Accidental discharge of oil and gasoline can contaminateintertidal fish and fish habitat. Boat propellers and the dragging of boats across beachescan damage eelgrass beds and intertidal vegetation. Nesting, roosting or foraging activitiesby coastal birds can be disrupted by human activities on the beach at certain times of year.• Harvesting: Clams are harvested by hand-raking, with most harvesting taking place at nightduring low tides from October to March. The turning of sediments during raking can impactthe spawning success of fish species that spawn in intertidal areas, such as longfin smelt,Pacific herring, sand lance (Ammodytes spp.) and rock sole (Lepidopsetta bilineata). Clam rakingcan also increase sediment in the water, and may bury some species and expose others.3.2.4 environmental contaminationEnvironmental contamination occurs when substances are released intentionally, accidentally or as a by-product,into natural systems. They may be transported through air, water or soil and can be emitted from specific sites(point source) or through more diffuse sources (nonpoint source), such as runoff from land. Contaminants canaccumulate in various ways: within an organism (i.e., through ingestion); at progressively higher levels within afood web, as predators consume prey; or in particular geographic areas before being released into other ecosystems.For example, airborne contaminants can accumulate in the snow that feeds lakes in the Rocky Mountains,resulting in concentrations high enough to affect wildlife at the top of the food chain. 864Traditionally, the list of contaminants included metals (e.g., mercury, lead, copper, zinc), but more recentadditions include: persistent organic pollutants (POPs), which include a wide range of chlorinated and otherhalogenated chemicals, such as dioxins, furans, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs); fine particulate matter emitted from vehicles, factories and power plants; various types ofpharmaceuticals, herbicides and pesticides; sewage effluent; and nitrogen, phosphorus or other nutrients fromsources such as fertilizers.The impact of a contaminant on a species or ecosystem depends on the amount of exposure and itstoxicity and persistence. Effects may be lethal (i.e., the contaminant kills organisms) or sublethal 865 (e.g., itimpairs reproduction or degrades ecosystems). Several POPs have been identified as endocrine-disruptorsthat interfere with hormones, resulting in feminization of male animals, masculinization of females, eggshell

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiathinning in birds, and disruption of vitamin A and thyroid hormone physiology in mammals. 866 Sources of thesesubstances have been found in sewage and pulp mill effluent and in pesticides. 867Shellfish beds in coastal B.C. are closed to harvesting when samples show contamination with bacteria (fecalcoliforms) from human or animal wastes. Sources of contamination include urban runoff, sewage dischargeand agricultural drainage. Closures of shellfish beds have increased since the 1970s owing to increases in humanpopulation and associated increases in the discharge of sewage (Figure 35). Increases in closures can beattributed to better monitoring for contamination, but also indicate increases in shoreline development. Thesharp increase in 2001 resulted from a temporary closure in Clayoquot and Barkley sounds, likely the result ofcontamination from wildlife wastes that had been washed into the ocean by heavy rains. Closures to protecthuman health also indicate that there may be deleterious effects on other life forms. 868After the recognition of the impacts of POPs, many were banned or subject to stringent regulations, which havecontrolled their use and release since the 1970s. As a result, levels of many POPs have decreased substantially,but because of their low rate of decomposition, they remain in the environment and continue to circulate. 869Levels of some other POPs have not decreased. PBDEs, which are used as flame retardants in consumer products,have generally increased. While one form used in polyurethane foam has decreased, many others used in the180160140GEORGIA BASINOUTSIDE GEORGIA BASIN120100figure 35: Trends in shellfishbeds closed to harvesting in BritishColumbia, 1989–2006.source: Environment Canada. 2005.Shellfish Closures: An Indicator ofContamination in Marine Ecosystems in BC.Ecosystem Information Section. Available at:www.ecoinfo.org/env_ind/region/shellfish/shellfish_e.cfm.Hectares8060402001989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006Year

threats to biodiversity in british columbiaproduction of plastics (e.g., carpet backings, electrical insulation, computer and TV cases and other consumergoods) have increased. 870 This is reflected by an almost tenfold increase in the amount of PBDEs in the breastmilk of Vancouver women between 1992 and 2002, from 3 ng/g to 20 ng/g. 871The amount of dioxins and furans emitted from pulp mills has decreased, but substantial amounts of sulphurcompounds are still being emitted into the air. 872 While many metals are no longer emitted, there are stilldetectable levels in the environment from past events (see Section 3.3.11, p. 209).3.2.5 species disturbanceSpecies disturbance is the alteration of the behaviour of species due to human activities, including those thatresult in the movement of physical objects or that create or alter sounds, sights, smells or other sensory stimuli.Examples include aircraft flying close to mountain goats, dogs chasing waterfowl, and power lines causing birdsto modify flight patterns. Transportation and recreation are major causes of disturbance.Disturbance can result in indirect mortality (increased risk of death), lowered productivity, or reduced useor abandonment of an area. 873 Some species may become habituated to disturbance (e.g., ungulates grazingnear a highway), but their risk of mortality may increase through direct mortality or predation. Predation canincrease when structures provide camouflage or better access via trails, such as when wolves follow packedsnowtrails to gain access to mountain caribou herds. 874 In the intertidal zone, predator control nets used toreduce the loss of harvestable shellfish can have the unintended effect of excluding waterfowl from intertidalfeeding habitats. 875In 2002, disturbance was rated as the seventh greatest threat (out of nine) to species of highest conservationconcern in B.C. 876 Many species in B.C. are sensitive to human disturbance (e.g., wolverines, grizzly bears,mountain goats and mountain caribou.) For some species, disturbance is most significant at certain times ofthe year. One study of brant, which stage in intertidal areas at Parksville and Qualicum Beach during springmigration, rated human-associated disturbance (by people, dogs and boats) as the highest cause of disturbanceat 39%, followed by natural disturbance by birds of prey at 33%. 8773.2.6 species mortalitySpecies mortality is the direct killing of individuals either intentionally (e.g., harvesting, poisoning) or unintentionally(e.g., by-catch, road kill). In 2002, it was rated as the sixth greatest threat (out of nine) to species of highestconservation concern in B.C. 878 Though rated lower than other stresses on biodiversity, species mortality results

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiain the direct reduction in population size. It can occur on a large scale (e.g., fishing, hunting) or on a smallerscale (e.g., pest removal). The direct loss of individuals at a large scale can reduce a species or population belowa minimum population threshold, thus reducing its chance to maintain a viable population size. Some formsof species mortality (e.g., removal of plants) can create other stresses such as ecosystem degradation.3.3 Human Activities Impacting BiodiversityIn Section 3.2, the major stresses on biodiversity in B.C. were identified as ecosystem conversion, ecosystemdegradation and alien species. Section 3.3 examines the human activities in various economic sectors thatcontribute to these stresses. Note that it is not the sectors, but some specific practices undertaken within thesesectors, that impact biodiversity.People require products derived from nature such as food, water, wood, electrical power and soil to surviveand to enjoy life. As populations increase, more natural resources are sought. Cities expand to house the increasingpopulation, agriculture intensifies to grow enough food, more power generation is required to produceadequate electricity and more roads are built to transport goods and people. Because people and nature existtogether on the same land, each of these human endeavours has the potential to contribute in a large or smallway to those things that threaten biodiversity. Road construction can fragment habitat and increase accessto wilderness areas; urban expansion can result in paving of riparian areas, draining of wetlands and pollutingof streams; and agricultural practices can displace native species and divert water from sources used byaquatic species.As illustrated in the Nicola River case study (see Text box 18, p. 164), stresses on biodiversity most oftenoriginate from multiple human activities with cumulative impacts that can have cascading effects. 879 Dependingon the type of ecosystem, the climatic conditions or the particular aspect of biodiversity, the stresses can varyin geographical extent, magnitude, duration or persistence. A 2003 province-wide survey of almost 300 biodiversityexperts identified which human activities were considered the most significant within the terrestrial andfreshwater realms and the marine overlap with these two realms (Table 26). 880 In the terrestrial and freshwaterrealms, climate change was ranked highest, while harvest was considered the greatest threat to biodiversity inthe overlap with the marine realm. The analysis also ranked forestry, agriculture, dams, rural and urban development,oil and gas, and recreation as being among the human activities that most impact biodiversity in B.C. aaThe 2003 survey used different terms and methods than the Biodiversity Threat Framework (see Figure 31, p. 157).

threats to biodiversity in british columbiatable 26. 2003 provincial overview of top 10 human activities impacting biodiversity in b.c.TERRESTRIAL realm FRESHWATER REALm maRINE OVERLAPClimate change Climate change Harvest (commercial, recreational, illegal)Forestry (Crown land) Forestry (Crown land) Climate change (sea level change, hydrological changes)Alien species Rural development Alien speciesRecreation Dams AquacultureDams Alien species Transportation/corridors – ocean trafficForestry (private land) Agriculture Forestry – ocean/lake log handlingOil and gas Forestry (private land) Rural developmentGrazing Transportation Oil and gasHarvest Recreation Urban developmentRural development Harvest Recreationsource: Holt, R.F., G. Utzig, M. Carver and J. Booth. 2003. Biodiversity Conservation in BC: An Assessment of Threats and Gaps.Unpublished report prepared for B.C. Ministry of Environment, Biodiversity Branch, Victoria, BC.One of the criteria for the assessment of conservation status for biogeoclimatic zones presented in Section2.2.1.1 (p. 30) was the level of impact to each zone from 11 different categories. a,881 The results showed thatclimate change, residential development and agriculture are major contributors to ecosystem conversion anddegradation in all four of the biogeoclimatic zones of conservation concern. Transportation, fire suppression,logging, energy and mines are also significant contributors to impacts in these zones.Trends reported in Sections 2 and 3 also provide insights into the human activities impacting biodiversityin B.C. For example, the loss of Garry oak ecosystems on southern Vancouver Island (see Text box 6, p. 40) andgrasslands in the Okanagan (see Text box 5, p. 39) are primarily the result of agriculture and urban and ruraldevelopment. A systematic analysis of 179 B.C. species of conservation concern in 2007 identified urbanization,agriculture and human disturbance b as the greatest contributors to ecosystem conversion and degradation c forthese plants and animals. 882For the 2006 biodiversity threat survey, the 25 experts ranked their level of concern for 12 different humanactivities that potentially impact elements of biodiversity. 883 The survey identified climate change, agriculture,forestry, urban and rural development, transportation and utility corridors, water development, and oil and gasdevelopment as the activities of highest concern (Figure 36).aBased on the IUCN categories of threats to biodiversity: residential development, agriculture, energy and mines, transportation, biologicalresource use, human intrusion, natural systems modification, invasives/problem species, pollution, geologic and climate change.bIncluding recreation, tourism, military activities, research, transport, vehicle and vessel traffic.cThe term used in the study was habitat loss, which included both ecosystem conversion and ecosystem degradation.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiafigure 36: Impact of humanactivities on elements of biodiversity.source: Long, G. 2007. BiodiversitySafety Net Gap Analysis. Biodiversity BC,Victoria, BC. 66pp. Available at:www.biodiversitybc.org.AgricultureAquacultureClimate ChangeForestryGrazingIndustrial DevelopmentMiningOil & GasRecreationTransportation & Utility CorridorsAlien SpeciesSpecies MortalitySpecies DisturbanceEcosystem DegradationEcosystem ConversionEnvironmentalContaminationUrban/Rural DevelopmentWater Development0 2 4 68 10 12 14RELATIVE WEIGHTING OF HUMAN ACTIVITIESTaken together, these studies suggest that the human activities that most contribute to the three majorstresses on biodiversity in B.C. are climate change, agriculture, recreation, urban and rural development, forestry,transportation and utility corridors, oil and gas development and water development. Climate change isexpected to be the greatest overriding threat to biodiversity in the future, although the full extent of its impacthas not yet occurred. 884,885,8863 . 3 . 1 c l i m at e c h a n g eClimate is the primary factor enabling and shaping the distribution of organisms and the nature and characterof ecosystems, 887 and is therefore a key driver of biodiversity. Climate is defined as the ‘average weather’ overa period of time, the standard interval being 30 years. 888 Temperature and precipitation, measured monthly,seasonally and annually, are used to represent climate. Global and regional climates vary over millennia, usuallychanging gradually, but at times, especially during glacial conditions, shifting rapidly (see Section 1.4, p. 15).

threats to biodiversity in british columbiaBritish Columbia has experienced at least 4,000 years of relatively stable climate, leading to the current pattern889, 890of ecosystems.Rapid climate change is underway in response to human greenhouse gas (primarily CO 2) emissions. 891The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports that the average globalsurface temperature has increased by nearly 1°C over the past century and is likely to rise by another 1.4–5.8°Cby 2100. 892 A warming atmosphere affects all aspects of the climate system: air pressure and compositionof the atmosphere; the temperature of surface air, land, water and ice; the water content of air, clouds,snow and ice; wind direction and speed; ocean currents; ocean temperature, seawater density and salinity;physical processes such as precipitation and evaporation; and the frequency and duration of extreme events.The resulting future climates will be unprecedented in the past 750,000 years. 893 The precise amount ofwarming and associated changes are uncertain. Nevertheless, significant warming has already taken placein northwestern North America where changes are expected to occur faster and be more pronounced thanthe global average. 894Organisms are sensitive to change in climate and in particular the weather it implies, although individuals,species and ecosystems can tolerate some climatic variation. Future climates are expected to exceed biologicaltolerances for many species and ecosystems in B.C., leading to widespread effects on biodiversity. 895,896,897 Ifgreenhouse gas emissions continue at present-day rates, key global considerations for biodiversity based onobserved trends and climate change impact models are: 898• Ecosystems will probably exhibit a wide range of vulnerabilities to climate change because ofecosystem-specific critical thresholds.• The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be compromised, especially when associated withenvironmental contamination, unsustainable resource exploitation and land-use change.• 20–30% of animal species currently assessed are likely to experience high risk of extinction with2–3°C of warming.• Substantial changes will occur in the functioning and structure of terrestrial, freshwater and marineecosystems with 2–3°C warming.Most B.C. ecosystems are at high risk from impacts due to climate change. 899,900,901 Notably vulnerableecosystems that are well represented in the province include boreal forests and mountain ecosystems. Someecosystems may tolerate a level of future climate change and persist or have an ability to adapt. Others may

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiacross critical thresholds to ecologically novel states. The response of species (e.g., via shifting distributions) mayoccur at intermediate time scales (from months to centuries), while the response time of the biosphere may beon the scale of centuries or possibly millennia.Biological responses to changing climates have been widely detected. 902 In North America, several trendsindicate that species, ecosystems and biodiversity-related phenomena are already showing effects of climatechange, such as: 903• Vegetation responses: earlier green-up, bud burst and flowering.• Wildlife responses: earlier breeding; changes in migration patterns; range changes; mortality.• Insect responses: B.C.’s mountain pine beetle outbreak.• Fire responses: increased length of fire season; larger area burned.• Precipitation responses: earlier snow melt; more rain instead of snow.Insect distribution and phenology are particularly good indicators of climate change and are already showingresponses to changing temperatures and precipitation patterns in the northern hemisphere. 904 Butterflieshave proven especially sensitive; for example, shifts in the distribution of Edith’s checkerspot (both northwardand to higher elevations) are well demonstrated in western North America. 905 In B.C., the rapid expansion andintensification of the mountain pine beetle infestation demonstrates clearly that warming of winter minimumtemperatures and lengthening of the growing season not only affect the distribution and abundance of an insect,but can have resulting widespread effects on ecosystems. 906Warming temperatures have also affected vertebrates in British Columbia. For birds, changes include earlierarrival and later departure of migrants, increases in overwintering numbers in some species, northward rangeexpansions and changes in the relative density of some species. 907,908 In the freshwater realm, sockeye salmonmigration has been gradually delayed in the Okanagan River since 1970 by warming water temperatures. 909Even a small increase in river temperatures could have profound effects on salmon runs (especially the speciesthat migrate to the upper reaches of rivers like the Fraser), as salmon generally only have sufficient energyreserves to reach their spawning sites 910,911 and increases in temperature can exhaust their energy reserves. 912Warmer stream temperatures may also facilitate the increase of alien species such as the American shad (Alosasapidissima). The Columbia River population of this introduced anadromous species is estimated to be about30 million, and a few individuals have been found in the Fraser River. Over the past 50 years, this species hasadapted to colder water; 913 if it develops a permanent population in the warming Fraser River, it will reduce theavailability of plankton for many species. 914

threats to biodiversity in british columbiaIncreasing temperature is the primary result of climate change. Previous analyses for British Columbia haveshown that temperatures have been rising across the province, with the largest changes in the cold seasons(winter and spring), in nighttime lows, and in those areas of B.C. that have more inter-annual variability. 915,916Changes in average temperatures can affect the timing of reproduction in plants and animals, timing of speciesmigration, length of the growing season, species distributions and population sizes, and the frequencyof insect and disease outbreaks.Trends in temperature and precipitation reveal major changes that vary by season and by region over thepast 100 years or so. These changes are consistent with the direction of changes in the past 30 years (see Maps14–18, pp. 179–183), specifically:• Annual daily minimum and maximum temperatures have warmed in all seasons in all of B.C.• The strongest warming on a provincial scale occurred in the winter daily minimum temperature,which rose by up to 5.8°C over a 30-year period. Fall temperatures increased the least(0.75–1.45°C).• The changes in maximum daily temperatures vary widely compared to minimum temperatures.Winters in much of the province have warmed strongly, by 1.5–2.9°C, and springs have alsowarmed. Summer daily maximum temperatures have warmed in the south and north, but havecooled in central B.C., especially on the adjacent coast. Daily maximum fall temperatures havewarmed in the south, but in the north have cooled by 0.5–1.5°C.Previous studies of the magnitude and direction of climate change suggest that precipitation has increasedin southern B.C. by 2–4% per decade and that total annual precipitation has increased in many parts of theprovince, most noticeably in the Okanagan and north coast regions. 917,918 The long-term annual precipitationtrend shows a widespread increase of 10–30% per century in most of the province, except the southwest, wherelittle change has occurred. Precipitation has increased in all seasons throughout most of the province, exceptin the south, where winter precipitation has changed little or even decreased (Map 14). Precipitation analysesdemonstrate that broad annual changes mask significant month-to-month variability trends that have thepotential to impact biodiversity.For this report,1971 to 2000 was used as the assessment period. a,919 In this recent interval, warming occurredwidely throughout the province during the winter and, as was the case for the 100-year trend, annual minimumdaily temperatures increased most in the north and least on the south and central coast. In contrast, maximumaFor the purposes of this analysis, it was assumed that most elements of biodiversity will be responding to the most recent changes inclimate, hence the use of the 1971–2000 time frame.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaIn B.C., northern regions areexperiencing the greatest rates oftemperature change.photo: liz williams.daily temperatures rose most on the coast and in the north, and least in the southern interior and southeast.It is important to note that in some areas, such as northern B.C., the absolute rate of change in temperature(e.g., minimum temperature; Map 15) has been large, but relative to the range of natural climatic variationit is less than for the southern part of the province (Map 18). From the perspective of biodiversity and sensitivityof individual species, small average temperature changes in regions of narrow climatic variation (such as in theCoastal Douglas-fir biogeoclimatic zone) may have much more consequence than larger average temperaturechanges where the climatic variation is greater. Species exposed to large natural variation (as in the Boreal Whiteand Black Spruce biogeoclimatic zone) may have the capacity to tolerate large changes. In general, the greatestrelative temperature changes in B.C. are associated with ecosystems of conservation concern (the CoastalDouglas-fir, Bunchgrass and Ponderosa Pine).For the current modelling approaches, temperature is the most reliable and predictable measure of climatechange. Temperature trends may thus be good indicators of those regions or ecosystems with the most potentialto change in the future.

Y u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e sY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e sM A P 1 4Seasonal trendsin precipitation from1971 to 2000B r i t i s hC o l u m b i aA l b e r t aB r i t i s hC o l u m b i aA l b e r t aLegendRiver/StreamLakePrecipitation trendQueenCharlotteIslandsQueenCharlotteIslands-11.9 to -9.0-8.9 to -6.0-5.9 to -3.0-2.9 to 0.0+0.1 to +3.0+3.1 to +6.0P a c i f i cP a c i f i cO c e a nO c e a nVancouverIslandWinter - December, January and FebruaryU N I T E D S T A T E SVancouverIslandSpring - March, April and MayU N I T E D S T A T E SUnits are millimetres per decade.Negative numbers indicate adecrease and postive an increasein precipitation levels.Y u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e sY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e sB r i t i s hB r i t i s hC o l u m b i aC o l u m b i aArea of DetailA l b e r t aA l b e r t a0 250 500KilometresQueenCharlotteIslandsQueenCharlotteIslandsData sources:Pacific Climate ImpactsConsortium (University ofVictoria)Map by:Caslys Consulting LtdP a c i f i cP a c i f i cProjection:BC Albers NAD83O c e a nO c e a nProduced for:VancouverIslandVancouverIslandSummer - June, July and AugustU N I T E D S T A T E SFall - September, October and NovemberU N I T E D S T A T E SMay 28, 2008

Y u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e sY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e sM A P 1 5Seasonal trends inminimum temperaturefrom 1971 to 2000B r i t i s hC o l u m b i aA l b e r t aB r i t i s hC o l u m b i aA l b e r t aLegendRiver/StreamLakeTemperature trendQueenCharlotteIslandsQueenCharlotteIslands-0.25 to 0.000.00 to +0.25+0.26 to +0.50+0.51 to +0.75+0.76 to +1.00+1.01 to +1.25+1.26 to +1.50+1.51 to +1.75P a c i f i cP a c i f i c+1.76 to +2.00O c e a nO c e a nVancouverIslandWinter - December, January and FebruaryU N I T E D S T A T E SVancouverIslandSpring - March, April and MayU N I T E D S T A T E SUnits are °C per decade.Negative numbers indicate adecrease and postive an increasein temperature values.Y u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e sY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e sB r i t i s hC o l u m b i aB r i t i s hC o l u m b i aArea of DetailA l b e r t aA l b e r t a0 250 500KilometresQueenCharlotteIslandsQueenCharlotteIslandsData sources:Pacific Climate ImpactsConsortium (University ofVictoria)Map by:Caslys Consulting LtdP a c i f i cP a c i f i cProjection:BC Albers NAD83O c e a nO c e a nProduced for:VancouverIslandVancouverIslandSummer - June, July and AugustU N I T E D S T A T E SFall - September, October and NovemberU N I T E D S T A T E SApril 14, 2008

Y u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e sY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e sM A P 1 6Seasonal trends inmaximum temperaturefrom 1971 to 2000B r i t i s hC o l u m b i aA l b e r t aB r i t i s hC o l u m b i aA l b e r t aLegendRiver/StreamLakeTemperature trendQueenCharlotteIslandsQueenCharlotteIslands-0.50 to -0.25-0.26 to 0.000.00 to +0.25+0.26 to +0.50+0.51 to +0.75+0.76 to +1.00+1.01 to +1.25+1.26 to +1.50P a c i f i cP a c i f i cO c e a nO c e a nVancouverIslandWinter - December, January and FebruaryU N I T E D S T A T E SVancouverIslandSpring - March, April and MayU N I T E D S T A T E SUnits are °C per decade.Negative numbers indicate adecrease and postive an increasein temperature values.Y u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e sY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e sB r i t i s hC o l u m b i aB r i t i s hC o l u m b i aArea of DetailA l b e r t aA l b e r t a0 250 500KilometresQueenCharlotteIslandsQueenCharlotteIslandsData sources:Pacific Climate ImpactsConsortium (University ofVictoria)Map by:Caslys Consulting LtdP a c i f i cP a c i f i cProjection:BC Albers NAD83O c e a nO c e a nProduced for:VancouverIslandVancouverIslandSummer - June, July and AugustU N I T E D S T A T E SFall - September, October and NovemberU N I T E D S T A T E SApril 14, 2008

130°W 120°W110°W60°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e stM A P 1 760°NAbsolute rate ofchange in minimumtemperature (averageof all months) from1971 to 2000Legend!. CityRoadRiver/StreamB r i t i s hC o l u m b i aLakeTemperature Change0.00 - 0.350.36 - 0.410.42 - 0.45Fort St. JohnA l b e r t a0.46 - 0.500.51 - 0.540.55 - 0.5955°N55°N0.60 - 0.640.65 - 0.710.72 - 0.820.83 - 0.98Units are °C per decade.Prince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of DetailEqual Interval ClassificationCalgary0 100 200Kilometres50°NTemperature Change0.00 - 0.100.11 - 0.200.21 - 0.290.30 - 0.390.40 - 0.49P a c i f i cO c e a nVancouverIslandVancouverKamloopsKelowna50°NData sources:Pacific Climate ImpactsConsortium (University ofVictoria)Map by:Caslys Consulting LtdProjection:BC Albers NAD83Produced for:0.50 - 0.590.60 - 0.690.70 - 0.790.80 - 0.88VictoriaU N I T E D S T A T E S0.89 - 0.98February 5, 2008130°W120°W

t130°W 120°W110°W60°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e s60°NM A P 1 8Relative change inminimum temperature(average of all months)from 1971 to 2000Legend!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLakeB r i t i s hTemperature Change0.000 - 0.252C o l u m b i a0.253 - 0.2730.274 - 0.2830.284 - 0.293Fort St. JohnA l b e r t a0.294 - 0.3060.307 - 0.3150.316 - 0.32455°N55°N0.325 - 0.3360.337 - 0.3540.355 - 0.475Units are standard deviations perdecade averaged for all months.Prince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of DetailEqual Interval ClassificationCalgary0 100 200Kilometres50°NTemperature Change0.00 - 0.050.06 - 0.090.10 - 0.140.15 - 0.190.20 - 0.240.25 - 0.28P a c i f i cO c e a nVancouverIslandVancouverKamloopsKelowna50°NData sources:Pacific Climate ImpactsConsortium (University ofVictoria)Map by:Caslys Consulting LtdProjection:BC Albers NAD83Produced for:0.29 - 0.330.34 - 0.380.39 - 0.43VictoriaU N I T E D S T A T E S0.44 - 0.47May 23, 2008130°W120°W

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia3.3.1.1 future conditionsMeasured trends and observed responses clearly indicate that climate change is underway and that this changewill affect biodiversity. 920 The degree of change in biodiversity will depend in part on the size and rate of futureclimate change and its geographic variability. Numerical climate models of atmosphere, ocean and landgenerate projections that provide insight into future temperature and precipitation trends as greenhouse gasconcentrations increase. The outputs from global models vary according to the structure of the model and theatmospheric concentration of greenhouse gasses, mainly CO 2, used in a model. Typically, future conditions arepresented as a range of scenarios (low, medium and high) from several models for specific time horizons.Data from three models and emission scenarios, representing low, medium and high change, show thatwarming will be well underway by 2020 and that widespread major warming likely will have occurred in B.C.by 2050 (Figure 37). 921 By 2080, the potential mean annual temperature increase for all of B.C. is shown to bein the range of 3°C (low-change scenario) to 4.8°C (high-change scenario). 922 Results from a slightly differentapproach, in which values from many models for a range of greenhouse gas emissions are used, reveal similarwidespread warming beginning by 2020. 923 By 2080, all regions of B.C. will have warmed by at least 2.5°C(low-change scenario) and some parts, such as the north, by as much as 10°C (high-change scenario). Notably,temperature trends for northern B.C. for the 1971–2000 interval already reveal warming at a rate of 5–10°C percentury for minimum daily temperatures. 924Climate models are less capable of anticipating future precipitation than future temperatures. Nevertheless,broad patterns are evident (Figure 38). The mean annual precipitation increase for B.C. is shown to be in therange of 9% (under a low-change scenario) to 18% (under a high-change scenario) by 2080, 925 with most of theincrease occurring in the winter and decreased precipitation projected for the summer. 926Increases in mean annual precipitation will be evident by 2020. Northern B.C. appears to exhibit the greatestpotential for increased precipitation.The differences across the range from low- to high-change scenarios reinforce the need to explicitly recognizeand account for the uncertainties that exist in projections of future climate. That said, the results from data forB.C. are consistent with those reported by the IPCC for the northern hemisphere. 927 Maps 14–16 show importantseasonal trends and differences that will undoubtedly have key consequences to many elements of biodiversity. Forexample, for anadromous fish, trends toward decreased autumn and increased winter precipitation on the coast canlead to increased stress, followed by winter flooding and stream erosion with negative consequences for survival.An increase in annual precipitation without an increase in summer precipitation offers little benefit to species thatneed moisture during the hot, dry season, and summer precipitation is indeed projected to decrease. 928

threats to biodiversity in british columbia2020's 2020s2050's 2050s2080's 2080s2020's 2020s2050s 2050's 2080s 2080'sLLow(HadCM3 B22)B.C.B.C.B.C.LLow(HadCM3 B22)B.C.B.C.B.C.Medium(CGCM2 A22)B.C.B.C.B.C.Medium(CGCM2 A22)B.C.B.C.B.C.High(CSIROMk2b A11)B.C.B.C.B.C.High(CSIROMk2b A11)B.C.B.C.B.C.figure 37: Projected mean annual temperature change for the2020s, 2050s and 2080s for three climate change scenarios: low,medium and high.source: Murdock, T.Q., A.T. Werner and D. Bronaugh. 2007. PreliminaryAnalysis of BC Climate Trends for Biodiversity. Biodiversity BC, Victoria, BC.24pp. Available at: www.biodiversitybc.org.notes: HadCM3 B22 = Hadley Centre Coupled Model with a low greenhousegas emission future. CGCMs A22 = Canadian Global Climate Model 2 withan intermediate greenhouse gas emission future. CSIROM2b A11 = CommonwealthScientific and Industrial Research Organization Model with a highgreenhouse gas emission future.figure 38: Projected mean annual precipitation change for the2020s, 2050s and 2080s for three climate change scenarios: low,medium and high.source: Murdock, T.Q., A.T. Werner and D. Bronaugh. 2007. PreliminaryAnalysis of BC Climate Trends for Biodiversity. Biodiversity BC, Victoria, BC.24pp. Available at: www.biodiversitybc.org.notes: HadCM3 B22 = Hadley Centre Coupled Model with a low greenhousegas emission future. CGCMs A22 = Canadian Global Climate Model 2 withan intermediate greenhouse gas emission future. CSIROM2b A11 = CommonwealthScientific and Industrial Research Organization Model with a highgreenhouse gas emission future.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia3.3.1.2 implications of climate change for biodiversity in british columbiaMeasured trends and data from models point to unprecedented transformation of global climate that will havemajor impacts on biodiversity. These impacts will exacerbate non-climate factors related to human activity, suchas land-use changes, pollution and resource use. 929 Climate trends reported here specifically for B.C., as well asconsideration of global climate change patterns, indicate that our region can expect greater-than-average climatechange. A comprehensive analysis of the effects of climate change on biodiversity is beyond the scope of this report,but several published studies, as well as unpublished data, provide the basis for a summary. 930,931,932,933,934Potential climate change impacts can be considered on the basis of information from measured trends, paleoecologicalstudies (see Section 1.4, p. 15), impacts models and a general consideration of the requirementsof species and ecosystems. 935,936 Practically, the identification of biodiversity attributes (i.e., populations, species,ecosystems, processes) especially sensitive to climate change provides a basis for selecting key indicatorsof biodiversity health.Several key principles need emphasis when considering the potential consequences of climate change forbiodiversity:• Considering the uncertainty in the magnitude of climate change, it is even more difficult to anticipatethe responses of species and ecosystems, most of which are poorly understood.• Responses are likely to be complex, involving interspecies relationships and critical thresholds.• Ecosystems do not migrate; species do, and they may or may not re-assemble into the same ecosystemsas in the past.• The rate of climate change will exceed the ability of most species to migrate and adjust their rangeto new conditions.• Many species, especially those of old-growth ecosystems, will likely undergo population and rangereduction and experience serious declines to levels that may be too low for recovery before theyare able to expand into new regions.• Extreme climatic events will punctuate more gradual changes, leading to unanticipated ecologicalchanges, including extinction.• Expansion of alien species’ ranges may be to the detriment of native species.• Regions of high natural climatic variability may have greater natural resilience than those with lownatural variability.

threats to biodiversity in british columbiaPotential impacts at the provincial level can be readily appreciated by comparing projected gains and lossesin the climate envelope a for each biogeoclimatic zone (Figure 39). By 2085, only 22% of the province will still havethe same zonal climate envelope that it had in 1995. 937 By 2085, the climate envelopes for the Ponderosa Pine,Interior Cedar–Hemlock, Interior Douglas-fir, Bunchgrass and Coastal Douglas-fir zones will increase. However,while these zones will increase in extent, their condition may not necessarily remain or improve. These zonesmay experience a loss of resilience, increase of alien species or expansion of other ecosystems (e.g., deserts fromsouthern regions in the United States). 938Figure 40 shows the shift in climate envelopes from the present to 2085, represented by biogeoclimatic zonalclimates. b Climate envelopes can predict potential vegetation changes, but they cannot anticipate the speed atwhich species can migrate or the disturbance events that will potentially cause a shift to a new ecological community.As well, in the absence of suitable soils, vegetation will not become established regardless of the climate.Area (ha)20,000,00016,000,00012,000,0008,000,0004,000,000CURRENT AREAPROJECTED AREAfigure 39: Climate envelopesfor biogeoclimatic zones in B.C.:current distribution and projecteddistribution (2085).source: Compiled from data in Hamann,A. and T. Wang. 2006. Potential effects ofclimate change on ecosystem and treespecies distribution in British Columbia.Ecology 87: 2773-2786.note: The Alpine Tundra zone has beensplit into three zones since this analysiswas done.0AlpineTundraBunchgrassBoreal Whiteand Black SpruceCoastal Douglas-firCoastal WesternHemlockEngelmann–Spruce–SubAlpine FirInterior Cedar–HemlockInterior Douglas-firMountain HemlockBIOGEOCLIMATIC ZONESMontane SprucePonderosa PineSub-BorealPine–SpruceSub-Boreal SpruceSpruce–Willow–BirchaA climate envelope describes the area of suitable climate for a species or ecosystem in terms of temperature and precipitation.Climate envelope models determine the current distribution of the species or ecosystem, then map the location of this sameenvelope under a climate change scenario.bThis shift is based primarily on a model prepared by the Canadian Centre for Climate Modeling and Analysis (the CGCM1gax generalcirculation model using the IS92a emission scenario). Although the modelling was done at the BEC variant level, the resulting informationhas been summarized at the zone level for these maps. Each of the maps represents a 30-year average. The ‘current’ map is anaverage for 1981–2010, and the 2085 map is an average for 2071–2100.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiafigure 40: Potential shift inbiogeoclimatic zones by 2085due to climate change.source: Adapted from Hamann, A.and T. Wang. 2006. Potential effectsof climate change on ecosystem and treespecies distribution on British Columbia.Ecology 87: 2773-2786.note: The Arctic Tundra zone has been splitinto three zones since this analysis wasdone. 2085 represents the average of theperiod from 2071 to 2100.CURRENT 2085Alpine TundraSpruce–Willow–BirchBoreal White and Black SpruceSub-Boreal Pine–SpruceSub-Boreal SpruceMountain HemlockEngelmann Spruce–Subalpine FirMontane SpruceBunchgrassPonderosa PineInterior Douglas-firCoastal Douglas-firInterior Cedar–HemlockCoastal Western HemlockThe key potential consequences of climate change to B.C.’s biodiversity are further summarized on the followingpages, with descriptions of specific effects on different ecosystem types based on empirical informationas well as modelling.species of conservation concernAlthough there could be some benefits for species of conservation concern associated with warmclimates, 939 extinction may be expected for species and populations that are already threatened by small populationsize, loss of unique habitats and low reproduction/dispersal rates (among other factors). 940 Climate changewill likely exacerbate these existing stresses and conditions. Fragmentation of habitat and of populations inparticular, makes biodiversity elements more vulnerable to increased variation in climate, especially extremeclimate events. Increased fire activity may be of particular concern. Species associated with ecosystems that areexceptionally prone to climate change, such as the alpine tundra, likely will be at high risk of loss.

threats to biodiversity in british columbiafreshwater environmentsTo date there has been no comprehensive evaluation of the potential effects of climate change on B.C.’s freshwaterecosystems, though impacts on salmon and other freshwater fish have received attention. 941,942 Majorimpacts must be expected because changes in temperature and precipitation (warmer and drier summers,for example) may work in tandem to create increased impacts and because aquatic environments are proneto extreme climatic events such as floods. Furthermore, human activity has degraded many aquatic systems.As freshwater systems are constrained by topography (i.e., unable to shift), connectivity of freshwater systemswill be important to enable these systems to adjust.Warmer ocean, lake and river water may be already impacting salmon and other fish populations by influencingmigration timing and food availability and limiting use of river systems. 943 Models indicate that temperatureswill increase further and strong effects on salmon must be expected. This expectation is supported by theobserved association between reduction in Fraser River sockeye populations and increasing river temperaturesand changes to river flow volume and timing. 944 Changes in runoff and other flow characteristics of streams areexpected 945 and may impact salmon spawning beds, either through erosion and sediment deposition at winterhigh flows and flood events or by exposing them during low water. In rainfall-driven streams, extended summerlow-flow periods are expected, further increasing water temperature, favouring warm water species andaltering community structure and functioning. In snowmelt- and glacier-fed streams, the intensity and timingof freshet floods are expected to change. As a result of reduced snow cover and decline of glaciers, some riversystems may become rainfall-driven, altering their ecology profoundly (see Section 2.5.2.3-D, p. 149).Other measured effects include increased ocean acidity (see Text box 17, p. 129) 946 and increased coastalwater turbidity, which may reduce the availability of fish prey species for seabirds. With the increase in temperatureand longer ice-free periods, lakes and streams that do not have current nutrient limitations may increasein productivity. 947 Reduction in salmonid populations in river systems may decrease food for forest-dwellerssuch as bears and impact nutrient cycling and terrestrial food webs (see Section 2.5.1.3-F, p. 121). 948Paleoecological studies suggest not only changes in the composition of lake ecosystems because of warmerwater, 949 but also potential changes in the size and depth of small lakes. 950 Reduced water volume clearlywould result in alterations in shoreline and planktonic communities.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiawetlandsWetlands are particularly vulnerable to climate change because the physical landscape that supports this landcover type is restricted. 951 Generally, wetlands of cool, moist climates, such as bogs with stable hydrology, will benegatively impacted, whereas marshes with fluctuating water tables and higher nutrient levels will be favoured.Paleoecological evidence suggests that shallow-water interior wetlands are likely to dry up. 952 Changes in wetlandswill impact not only obligate species, but will have major consequences for the breeding and migration of birds.Increasing human demand for water will likely intensify the impacts of climate change.Wetland ecosystems, such as Little BigBar in the southern Cariboo region, arevulnerable to climate change.photo: bruce harrison.Rising sea levels will result in the lossof some coastal ecosystems.photo: trudy chatwin.coastal ecosystemsGlobal sea levels are rising at surprisingly high rates compared to model projections. 953 Coastline ecosystems,such as intertidal communities, estuaries and salt marshes, and the species that use them, will be impactedby flooding, increased wave and storm activity and changes in sedimentation and erosion. 954,955 Rising waterlevels will squeeze lowland coastal habitats against natural and artificial barriers such as mountains and dikes.Sediments may bury coastal wetland surfaces. Saltwater intrusion will alter soil and water chemistry and leadto extirpation of freshwater plants, resulting in habitat loss for migrating birds. The erosive force of stormsurges may breach natural protective barriers such as sand spits. High-energy intertidal ecosystems such asthose of rocky headlands may have considerable resilience, whereas estuaries, especially those constrainedby dikes on subsiding deltas (e.g., the Fraser River Delta) are at high risk of impact. Changes in stream hydrologywill impact estuarine habitats through changes to water flow and sediment load resulting in alterationto nearshore productivity, such as in sites of nutrient upwelling. An increase in CO 2and the resulting increase inocean acidity (see Text box 17, p. 129) will affect the ability of crustaceans to develop shells, which could modifyfood webs. 956alpine and subalpine parkland ecosystemsCold, high-elevation ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to climate change because of their restricted landscapeposition and elevational limits. 957 Treelines were about 100 m higher during warmer intervals only 8,000years ago. 958 Increases in the length of the growing season, with warmer temperatures and reduced snow durationand snow pack (especially on the coast), will favour woody species, including trees. The climate envelopefor alpine ecosystems may decrease by 60% by 2025 and 97% by 2085, with treelines (approximately equal to thelower boundary of the alpine zone) moving upslope by 168 m and 542 m, respectively. 959 Alpine and subalpinepatches in southern B.C. are small and especially vulnerable to climate change, as the land is mostly rock at theelevations where these ecosystems occur.

threats to biodiversity in british columbiaThe subalpine Spruce–Willow–Birch biogeoclimatic zone climate envelope could largely disappear by2055. 960 However, the mountain temperature gradient is steep and alpine climates will likely persist, especiallyin northern B.C.northern and high-altitude spruce forestsClimate impact modelling suggests a high risk for the transformation of northern and high-altitude spruce foreststo ecosystems typical of southern B.C. 961 A model of the future distribution of western redcedar suggests thatlarge parts of northern B.C. will be suitable for this species. 962 The climate envelope for the Sub-Boreal Spruce andSub-Boreal Pine–Spruce biogeoclimatic zones is expected to be reduced by more than half by 2055 and more than80% by 2085. The climate envelope for the B.C. version of the boreal forest (the Boreal White and Black Sprucebiogeoclimatic zone) will remain stable through 2055, but decline by about half by 2085.The current mountain pine beetle epidemic has already led to widespread changes in these forests (seeText box 16, p. 105), and other insects, such as the western spruce budworm (Choristoneura occidentalis) couldalso reach epidemic levels. The incidence of fire in northern coniferous forests is increasing and is projectedto increase even more. 963 Warming soil temperatures may be unfavourable to the growth of forest floor mosses,a key element of northern spruce forests. Changes in structure and composition are likely to have major impactson ungulate populations.Engelmann Spruce–Subalpine fir forests, at least in southern B.C., are a relatively recent development inresponse to the spread of cool and moist climates at mid to high elevations. 964 They could be expected to declinein area with climate change. The Engelmann Spruce–Subalpine fir climate envelope is predicted to be stableuntil 2085, largely because increases in the north offset widespread losses in the south. 965The extent of B.C.’s northern forests, likethis black spruce (Picea mariana) forest,is expected to decline.photo: liz williams.southern dry forestsDry interior forest dominated by pine species or Douglas-fir likely covered a much larger area than todayunder the warm and dry climate of 8,000 to 6,000 years ago, 966 a time when fires were also more frequent. Thesedry forests occurred notably where moist Interior Cedar–Hemlock forest occurs today. Climate impact modelssuggest that the climate envelopes for the Interior Douglas-fir and Ponderosa Pine zones will expand widelyinto areas currently occupied by northern spruce forest climates (i.e., northeast B.C.) by 2085. Insect epidemicswill likely remain a threat. Data from the fossil record and impact models suggest grasslands may replacedry conifer forest at low to mid elevations in southern interior B.C. 967,968,969 Upon disturbance, these forests maybe at increased risk of invasion by alien species.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiacoastal and inland temperate rainforestsThe fossil record indicates that major shifts in geographic range, and possibly in composition, can be expectedfor coastal and inland temperate rainforests under a warmer future climate, 970 with Douglas-fir-dominatedstands displacing western redcedar–hemlock stands in relatively dry sectors. Novel species combinations maybe expected. 971 In the driest portion of the coastal forest, expansion of the Garry oak’s range is expected, as areincreases in the abundance of some rare species such as Oregon ash. 972 However, the Garry oak ecosystem maynot increase, due to fragmentation and alien species. Rapid expansion in the Coastal Douglas-fir zone climateenvelope may result in a 336% increase by 2085. 973 The climate envelope of the Coastal Western Hemlock zoneis projected to increase steadily in elevation at the cost of the subalpine Mountain Hemlock zone, which maybe strongly impacted (79% decline by 2085). 974 Drier summer conditions could reduce the suitability of coastalforests as habitat for mosses and other bryophytes.The Interior Cedar–Hemlock zone climate envelope is also anticipated to increase, especially in centralB.C. 975 However, a projection for western redcedar shows widespread decline in southern B.C., accompaniedby widespread expansion in the north. 976 Paleoecological studies reveal that these forests arose in responseto a cooling and moistening climate in the last two millennia. 977,978 Hence, a decline in area might be expectedwith warming.grasslandsThe fossil record and impact models suggest that the grasslands climate envelope may expand enormously,more than for any other ecosystem type. 979,980,981 Alien species may dominate new grasslands. Rare northerngrasslands in the Boreal White and Black Spruce zone could decrease as a result of warmer, wetter conditionsand encroachment by woody plants resulting from climate change. 982alien speciesAlien species may expand as climate change modifies the frequency and intensity of extreme climatic events, resultingin a reduced resistance to alien species invasions, 983 and therefore creating better opportunities foralien species to establish and expand. 984 Climate change may expedite the colonization of wide areas by alienspecies in both the terrestrial and freshwater realms. For instance, alien warm-water fish species, such as smallmouthand largemouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu and M. salmoides) and yellow perch, may thrive as watertemperatures increase. 985 These species may out-compete and/or prey on cold-water native species. Similarly,increased frequency and magnitude of forest fires (and our responses to them) will create openings vulnerableto colonization by alien plants.

threats to biodiversity in british columbia3.3.2 ag r i c u lt u r eAgriculture consists of two forms of production: intensive and extensive. Intensive production systems havelarge labour and other capital costs (e.g., cultivation of field crops, orchard crops, horticultural crops, vineyards,feedlots), while extensive systems have much lower inputs (e.g., grazing). Intensive agriculture is generallylocated in areas of high ecosystem productivity where soils are the most fertile, such as valley bottoms andcoastal floodplains. Typical activities associated with intensive agriculture include fertilization, tillage, annualplanting and harvesting, pesticide application and irrigation. Extensive agriculture occurs mainly in grasslandecosystems and covers greater areas of land, but the activities are less intensive (e.g., rotational grazing).Impacts of some agricultural activities occur through ecosystem conversion, ecosystem degradation,introduction of alien species and environmental contamination. Agricultural activities can also modifyecosystem processes. Ecosystem conversion occurs the most in areas with rich soil, such as floodplains andvalley bottoms that are converted to intensive agricultural crops (e.g., berries, nurseries) or buildings (e.g.,greenhouses). However, above the valley bottoms in the south Okanagan there was a 500% increase in theamount of land converted to vineyards between 1990 and 2005, 986 contributing to the loss of the antelopebrush/ needle-and-thread grass ecosystem (see Figure 9, p. 39). Once land has been converted from naturalecosystems to agriculture, some crops (e.g., vegetables, grains and grass) still provide food and habitat forwildlife. However, through agricultural intensification, many of the lands are converted to other uses, suchas berry farms, nurseries and greenhouses, which reduce the value of the land to biodiversity. Table 27 showsa significant increase in these types of intensive agriculture uses in the Greater Vancouver Regional District(now known as Metro Vancouver).Drainage of wetlands and upland areas can change hydrology, resulting in ecosystem degradation. Thediversion of streams for water storage and irrigation may result in low flows for fish. Agriculture can also alterecological processes in both terrestrial and freshwater realms through changes to soil, water and species compositionby contamination from animal waste, fertilizer and pesticides, and the subsequent eutrophicationof surface water from agricultural runoff 987 and through planting of non-native plants such as hay crops. Inaddition, fragmentation of ecosystems occurs as more fences, buildings and roads are installed or built. Overgrazingcan compact soil and reduce riparian areas, resulting in increased stream temperature and channelinstability and invasion by alien species. 988 Water withdrawal from streams for irrigation purposes can reducestream flow, impacting fish, as well as reducing the volume of water in wetlands, which impacts species suchas amphibians. The transport of alien species may also allow the introduction of disease. 989Much of the Okanagan’s nativeecosystems have been converted toagricultural uses such as vineyards.photo: tory stevens.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatable 27. agricultural land use within the greater vancouver regional districtbetween 1981 and 2001.TYPE OF use aRea (HA) cHANGE1981 2001 aRea (HA) %The Greater Vancouver RegionalDistrict experienced a 527% increase ingreenhouses between 1981 and 2001.photo: istock.Nurseries 159 1,460 1,301 818%Greenhouses 45 282 237 527%Buildings and woodlots 2,261 7,179 4,918 218%Berries and fruit 1,445 3,940 2,495 173%Grasses (grazing, hay, turf ) 12,240 19,204 6,964 57%Vegetables 5,685 6,737 1,052 19%Grains 1,370 1,255 -115 -8%Total 23,205 40,057 16,852 73%Unmanaged land (idle) 414 293 -121 -29%source: Prepared for this report with data from the Census of Agriculture (1981 and 2001).3.3.3 forestrySeventy percent of B.C.’s land is covered by forest (see Figure 7, p. 25), and timber has been harvested,or is expected to be harvested, from approximately 46% of B.C.’s forests; 990 this excludes protected forests,other reserves and forests that are considered uneconomical for timber production. Specific forestry activitiesinclude building access roads, silviculture (harvest and re-establishment) and fire suppression. These activitiescan result in ecosystem degradation and disturbance. Forestry-related activities affect species and ecosystemsin different ways, including fragmentation of habitat and disruption of movement corridors; simplificationof forest communities; alteration of age-class distribution, tree species distribution and stand structure; and lossof key habitat elements such as wildlife trees (see Section 2.5.1.2-F, p. 108) and coarse woody debris (see Section2.5.1.2-I, p. 113). 991 Changing a forest from a complex of multiple tree species of different ages to a monoculturesimplifies ecological communities. Herbicides applied during silviculture operations are toxic to some animalspecies and affect others by eliminating food plant species. 992An assessment of 3,199 B.C. vertebrate and vascular plant species and subspecies classified 41% as forestassociated,and 8% of these are of conservation concern. 993 All of B.C.’s freshwater fish and amphibians areconsidered forest-associated, a as well as 75% of mammals and 60% of birds. b Most logging in B.C. takes placein the productive, easily accessible, low-elevation valleys or slopes where the majority of species also live. ManyaA forest-associated species is one with a measurable dependence on a forest ecosystem for any aspect of its life history.bIncludes subspecies and populations.

threats to biodiversity in british columbiaspecies (e.g., marbled murrelets and certain lichens and invertebrates) are known to rely on old, large trees andthe oldest age classes of forests. 994,995,996,997Figure 41 shows the annual timber harvest in B.C. between 1912 and 2006. About 40% of the province’s landarea is occupied by forests that are less than 140 years old, mostly due to a combination of logging, clearing andburning. 998 Younger forests cover a greater proportion of the B.C. interior than of the coast, likely due to the greaterfrequency of fires in the interior, combined with the higher volume of forest harvesting in the interior since themid 1970s. 999 The prevalence of younger forests will increase in the interior as a result of the current mountainpine beetle infestation (see Text box 16, p. 105). These trends in harvest volume and age classes are reflectedin a growing proportion of managed stands, which often have less biodiversity than the original forests.Approximately 9% of the total land area of British Columbia has been logged since the 1970s (Table 28, Map19). Although logging prior to this time is not reflected in the map or the table, it was significant in some areasof the province. The Coastal Douglas-fir zone was almost entirely logged in the early 1900s, and forests morethan 100 years old in this zone now occupy only 4% of the area occupied 150 years ago. 1000 Similarly, only 0.5%of the old forest that once dominated parts of the central Okanagan remains, now reduced to fragmentedpatches of less than 3 ha each. 1001Forestry can cause ecosystemdegradation.photo: istock.100Timber volume (millions of m 3 )908070360)504030201001910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000Yearfigure 41: Total timber harvest,1912–2005/06 (private and Crownland).source: B.C. Ministry of Forests and Range.2006. The State of British Columbia’s Forests,2006. Forest Practices Branch, Victoria,BC. Available at: www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/sof/2006/.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatable 28. percent of land logged in b.c.since the 1970s by biogeoclimatic zone.BIOGEOCLIMATIC ZONEPERCENT OF TOTAL LANDaREa LOGGED SINCE 1970sSub-boreal Spruce 23%Interior Douglas-fir 22%Montane Spruce 22%Interior Cedar–Hemlock 22%Sub-boreal Pine–Spruce 17%Coastal Western Hemlock 14%Ponderosa Pine 8%Engelmann Spruce–Subalpine Fir 6%Coastal Douglas-fir 6%Boreal White and Black Spruce 5%Mountain Hemlock 2%Spruce–Willow–Birch

t130°W 120°W110°WM A P 1 960°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e s60°NLogged sincethe 1970s (%)Legend!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLakePercentageB r i t i s hC o l u m b i a0.000.01 - 1.571.58 - 4.584.59 - 8.658.66 - 13.84Fort St. JohnA l b e r t a13.85 - 19.7819.79 - 27.4227.43 - 37.0937.10 - 51.2155°N55°N51.22 - 100.00Numbers indicate the percentof land area.Prince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of Detail50°NEqual Interval ClassificationPercentage0.00 - 10.0010.01 - 20.0020.01 - 30.0030.01 - 40.0040.01 - 50.0050.01 - 60.00P a c i f i cO c e a nVancouverIslandVancouverKamloopsKelownaCalgary50°N0 100 200KilometresData sources:BTM (v. 1 and 2 merged),Ministry of Forests and RangeMap by:Caslys Consulting LtdProjection:BC Albers NAD83Produced for:60.01 - 70.0070.01 - 80.0080.01 - 90.00VictoriaU N I T E D S T A T E S90.01 - 100.00June 17, 2008130°W120°W

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia1996 and 2001. This growth was concentrated in the lower mainland, eastern Vancouver Island and OkanaganB.C.’s population has nearly doubledsince 1971.photo: leith leslie.areas, as well as in the northeast corner of the province (Figure 43). 1005Many impacts on biodiversity are associated with population size, but the location of growth is also a majorfactor. Within B.C., human population is concentrated where species richness is highest: the lower mainland,the east and south coasts of Vancouver Island, and the low-elevation lake and river valleys of the southern interior.The impacts to biodiversity are relatively permanent; even reductions in human population (experiencedin some areas of the province) do not necessarily improve the status of biodiversity, since infrastructure such asroads and buildings remains. Given continued population growth in low-elevation areas, the impact of urbandevelopment on biodiversity is expected to intensify.In addition to population growth and geographic location, the density of the growth is an important factorthat impacts biodiversity. Since World War II, low-density housing has been the dominant form of residentialdevelopment in North America creating urban and suburban sprawl and resulting in fragmentation of forestsand farmland and impacts to both streams and wildlife. 1006 The number of people living in each dwelling in B.C.is decreasing (from 2.62 persons in 1991, to 2.60 in 1996, and 2.50 in 2001). 1007,1008 This trend is occurring in allregions of B.C., leading to an escalation in the number of dwellings required to house the same population andtherefore impacting biodiversity.Urbanization creates large amounts of impervious surfaces: parking lots, building and roads. Instead ofsoaking into the ground, precipitation runs off the impervious surfaces and into storm drains. Recent research6,000figure 42: Population growth forB.C. (1861–2006) with a projection to2031.source: B.C. Stats. 2007. British ColumbiaPopulation 1867 to 2007. Available at:www.bcstats.gov.bc.ca/data/pop/pop/bc1867on.csv.Human Population (x1000)5,0004,0003,0002,0001,00001861 1871 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 2021 2031YearCurrent population 2007

threats to biodiversity in british columbiashows that stormwater-related impacts typically start to0.0%+53.4%Whitehorseoccur once the impervious percentage of a watershedreaches about 10%. 1009 In B.C. examples of imperviousarea measurements include 4.6% in the French Creekwatershed on Vancouver Island 1010 and 48% in the Tilbury0.0%Industrial Area in the Municipality of Delta. 1011 Morethan 2,725 watersheds were evaluated in the Georgia+48.8%-28.6%Total populationchange: +43.9%Basin–Puget Sound region between 1992 and 2000, and58 of them showed an increase in impervious area of2–19% of their total area (Figure 44). 1012 Between 1990 and2000, Vancouver created 67 km 2 of impervious surfacesalong the edges of existing urban areas or as infill withinParking lots are large impervioussurfaces where rainwater is not ableto soak into the ground and is insteadchannelled into storm drains.photo: istock.-12.1%+34.0%Victoria-10.7%+31.9%+2.7%+7.0%+69.4%Vancouver-78.9%+8.9%+20.1%+30.3%those areas. 10133.3.5 transportation and utilitycorridorsThis category of human activity includes the infrastructureand activities associated with the movement of people,commodities and information. Specific infrastructureincludes sea ports and airports, and linear features such asroads, hydro and communications transmission corridors,seismic lines, pipelines and railways. These activities impactbiodiversity through ecosystem conversion, ecosys-Number of Watersheds2,3692001501005002,369Nochange13230181580.03% 0.05% 0.07% 1.94% 1.95 to18.3%583figure 43: B.C. population change (selected areas),1981–2001.source: Statistics Canada. 2006. Canadian EnvironmentalSustainability Indicators: Socio-Economic Information 2006,Revised. Statistics Canada Environment Accounts and StatisticsDivision, Ottawa, ON. Catalogue No. 16-253-XIE.tem degradation and the introduction of alien species andspecies disturbance. The construction of ports and similarstructures converts natural ecosystems to land cover thatexcludes species and ecosystems. Even relatively narrowroads through forest can produce marked edge effects thatmay have negative consequences for the function andfigure 44: Change in imperviousarea in the Georgia Basin–PugetSound region, 1992–2000.source: U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency. Puget Sound Georgia BasinEcosystem Indicators: Urbanization andForest Change. Available at: www.epa.gov/region10/psgb/indicators/urbaniz_forest_change/what/.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaUtility corridors and roads fragmentecosystems.photo: ivars linards zolnerovchs.Resource access roads in many areasof the province have the potential to bedecommissioned.photo: ray roper.diversity of these ecosystems. 1014 There is also significant ecosystem degradation in the area beyond the actualfeature. The construction of linear features alters hydrology in water courses and increases sedimentation, andcan disconnect streams from floodplains and block aquatic species movement.Roads and other linear features impede the movement of native species, facilitate invasion by alien speciesand alter predator-prey relationships. Specifically, roads can fragment ranges, populations, habitats andecosystems, 1015,1016,1017 and reduce gene flow, resulting in loss of genetic diversity. 1018 Roads can increase accessto previously inaccessible areas, resulting in increased road kill of wildlife and increased access for legal andillegal fishing and hunting. Both on-road traffic and off-road vehicles create disturbance, which can alter speciesbehaviour. Roads also facilitate ecosystem conversion, ecosystem degradation, alien species invasion andenvironmental contamination. 1019,1020The ecological impacts of roads can affect approximately 20 times the land area that the roads actuallycover. 1021 Hence roads and other linear features are a useful index for the cumulative impact on biodiversity.Between 1988 and 2000, road length in B.C. increased by 48%, from an estimated 387,000 km to more than570,000 km (Figure 45). 1022 By 2005, total road length was 702,574 km, a 23% increase in just five years, and an82% increase since 1988. This is a conservative estimate of the expansion of linear features in B.C., as it doesnot include seismic lines.Table 29 shows density of roads and other linear features across B.C.’s biogeoclimatic zones, including mainand secondary roads, forest access roads, transmission lines, railways, seismic lines and pipelines. The highestdensities of roads are found in the Coastal Douglas-fir, Ponderosa Pine, Bunchgrass and Interior Douglas-firzones, all zones of conservation concern (see Section 2.2.1.1, p. 30). 1023The density of roads and other linear features varies across the province, with the greatest densities in thenortheast, central interior and southwest (including Vancouver Island) and in major valleys in the southerninterior (Map 20). Seventy-six percent of B.C.’s roads are forest access roads. The area of high density in thenortheast corner of the province is largely due to seismic lines used for oil and gas exploration. Although seismiclines are allowed to revert back to forest after use, thousands of kilometres of new lines are cut each year. 1024Large tracts of mountainous land in the northwest of the province and along the central coast are relativelyfree of disturbance from roads. 1025

threats to biodiversity in british columbia3.3.6 water developmenttable 29. presence of roads or other linearfeatures in b.c. by biogeoclimatic zone.BIOGEOCLIMATICZONERoad Density(km/km 2 )Percent of1-HA UNITS WITHROADS PRESENTWater development activities include the useof water, as well as the associated infrastructure,such as dams. In B.C., the allocationCoastal Douglas-fir 4.7 38% of water is governed by water licenses andPonderosa Pine 3.0 28% short-term use approvals that are issued forBunchgrass 2.8 25% a variety of purposes, such as domestic orInterior Douglas-fir 2.1 22%municipal water supply, irrigation, industrialBoreal White and Black Spruce 1.4 15%and commercial uses, mining, power production,oil and gas drilling and injection, andInterior Cedar–Hemlock 1.3 14%Sub-boreal Spruce 1.3 13%Montane Spruce 1.3 14% water storage. 1026 Table 30 (p. 204) shows waterSub-boreal Pine–Spruce 1.1 12% allocation for selected purposes in B.C.’s nineCoastal Western Hemlock 0.9 9% Major Drainage Areas.Engelmann Spruce–Subalpine Fir 0.3 3%The diversion of water from lakes can causeMountain Hemlock 0.1 1%excessive drawdown of surface water sourcesSpruce–Willow–Birch 0.1 1%with consequent disruption of aquatic andBoreal Altai Fescue Alpine

t130°W 120°W110°W60°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e s60°NM A P 2 0Density of roads andother linear developmentfeatures* (km/km 2 )Legend!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLakeB r i t i s hC o l u m b i aLinear Density0.000.01 - 0.140.15 - 0.350.36 - 0.63Fort St. JohnA l b e r t a0.64 - 0.950.96 - 1.291.30 - 1.671.68 - 2.1355°N55°N2.14 - 2.892.90 - 22.10Prince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of DetailEqual Interval ClassificationCalgary0 100 200Kilometres50°NLinear Density0.00 - 2.212.22 - 4.424.43 - 6.636.64 - 8.848.85 - 11.0511.06 - 13.26P a c i f i cO c e a nVancouverIslandVancouverKamloopsKelowna50°NData sources:TRIM-EBM, Digital Road Atlas,Oil and Gas CommissionMap by:Caslys Consulting LtdProjection:BC Albers NAD83Produced for:13.27 - 15.4715.48 - 17.6817.69 - 19.89VictoriaU N I T E D S T A T E S19.90 - 22.10*Other linear development features include: transmission lines; railways; seismic lines; and pipelines.June 11, 2008130°W120°W

threats to biodiversity in british columbiaindustrial and commercial uses. 1030 The total volume of surface water licenses doubled between 1960 and 1990(Figure 46).In recent years, water restrictions have been registered against streams when the demand for licenses exceedsthe capacity of the water supply. 1031 Water restrictions increased seven-fold between the 1960s and the1990s. Between half and two-thirds of available surface water in populated regions of B.C. has been allocated(see Text box 18, p. 164). 1032Dams are built primarily for hydroelectric power generation, flood control and irrigation. In B.C., mountainousterrain, high-volume rivers and long, narrow valleys make dam construction relatively easy. Ninety percentof B.C.’s electricity is generated by hydroelectric dams, and more than 70% of this is produced by dams on thePeace and Columbia rivers. 1033 Of the 2,200 registered dams in British Columbia, 44 are for generating hydroelectricpower, including 13 on the Columbia River, two on the Peace River, 11 in the lower mainland, sevenon Vancouver Island and two on the mainland coast. 1034,1035 The thousands of other dams are generally smalland used for domestic water sources, run-of-river power production and local industrial uses. Like the largerdams, these smaller dams can also impede fish passage, trap nutrients and alter flow regimes. Recent interest inrun-of-river projects has raised questions about the cumulative impacts of these often small operations. Theseinclude water diversion and increased roads and transmission lines.Impacts from dams result in both ecosystem conversion and degradation related to infrastructure, upstreamreservoirs and degradation of downstream ecosystems. The inundation of a reservoir upstream of a dam results inecosystem conversion through the extirpation of riparian and valley-bottom habitats, which typically support highlevels of biodiversity. 1036 Besides decreasing biodiversity in adjacent riparian plant communities, 1037 flooded riparianvegetation can be a source of methane and CO 2, both greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. 1038Reservoirs slow the velocity of the water, trapping sediments and nutrients that normally deposit in estuaries anddeltas downstream and building up on the bottom of the reservoir. 1039 Many species have difficulty adjusting tothe sometimes daily fluctuating water levels in a reservoir, and aquatic biodiversity is lower in a reservoir than ina lake of similar size and location (see Section 2.5.1.3-C, p. 116).Dams also create significant ecosystem degradation by hampering the movement of migratory and anadromousfish species (which reduces the transfer of marine-derived nutrients into interior ecosystems), changingturbidity and sediment levels to which species and ecosystems are adapted, disrupting normal processes of riverchannel scouring and silt deposition, preventing normal downstream movement of large woody debris, changingwater temperature and oxygen conditions, providing habitat for alien species and creating unstable, early seralBillions of m 3 yearDams, such as the Revelstoke Dam,have both upstream and downstreamimpacts.photo: daniel ross.8060402001900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990figure 46: Trends in surface waterlicensing in B.C.source: B.C. Ministry of Environment, Landsand Parks. 2000. Environmental Trends inBritish Columbia 2000. State of EnvironmentReporting Office, Victoria, BC. 54pp.Available at: www.env.gov.bc.ca/soerpt/files_to_link/etrends-2000.pdf.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatable 30. surface water allocationin b.c. by major drainage area.MajORDrainage AreavOLume of LicensedWater allocation(kilolitres/year)Fraser 10,617,165,159Coastal 6,960,674,550Columbia 3,191,406,652Skeena 547,689,512Mackenzie 393,667,691Stikine 1,002,531Nass 816,950Yukon 816,924Taku 27,990Provincial total 21,713,267,959source: Prepared for this report based on data from the B.C.Ministry of Environment.note: This excludes water storage, diversion for dams andallocations for conservation purposes.communities along shorelines. A dam typically decreases theannual flood below the dam and may increase flow duringthe summer so that the river no longer deposits sedimentsdownstream. Decreased delivery of water and nutrientsto downstream ecosystems, such as marshes and riparianareas, can cause a shift to species that are adapted to drierconditions. Water that flows through turbines into a river iscolder and less oxygenated, because it originates from deepin the reservoir and does not mix with surface air. Vegetation,wildlife and fish populations can be altered for hundreds ofkilometres downstream. 1040The Major Drainage Areas in B.C. that are most significantlyaffected by dams are those of the Columbia, Coastal,McKenzie and Fraser rivers and, less significantly, the SkeenaRiver. A dam can influence extensive areas of the upstreamwatershed (see Map 21). Some river systems in B.C. areaffected by dams built outside the province.3.3.7 oil and gasIn B.C., oil and gas development isconcentrated in the northeastern partof the province.photo: don wilkie.Terrestrial oil and gas development includes exploration, extraction and transportation activities, each with theirown set of impacts on biodiversity. Primary and secondary impacts of oil and gas extraction include ecosystemconversion, ecosystem degradation (including fragmentation), species disturbance, environmental contaminationof soil, water and air, soil compaction and erosion and sedimentation of waterways. 1041,1042 Secondary impacts,such as the construction of roads and seismic lines and the development of settlements and infrastructure tosupport workers, can have significant effects. Oil and gas in B.C. are high in sulphur, and long-term wind depositionof sulphur on vegetation or soil can impair ecosystem functioning through reduced diversity of speciesand dramatically reduced foliage cover. 1043At present, most activities associated with petroleum or natural gas extraction in B.C. take place in the relativelyflat, rolling plain in the northeast corner of the province (see Map 22, p. 208), an extension of the interior

threats to biodiversity in british columbiatable 31. density of oil and gas sites in plains of Alberta. There are currently more than 32,000b.c. by biogeoclimatic zone.oil and gas facilities, including wells, in the province, withBIOGEOCLIMATIC ZONE Density (Number ofsites/1,000 km 2 )most of the sites concentrated in the Boreal White andBlack Spruce biogeoclimatic zone (Table 31).Boreal White and Black Spruce 196Engelmann Spruce–Subalpine Fir 3Coastal Douglas-fir 23.3.8 recreationMontane SpruceSpruce–Willow–Birch22British Columbia is known for its outdoor recreationopportunities, and recreational activities are consideredSub-boreal Spruce 1Interior Douglas-fir

t130°W 120°W110°WM A P 2 160°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e s60°NAreas upstreamof a damLegendB r i t i s h!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLakeDam DownstreamNoYesC o l u m b i aFort St. JohnA l b e r t a55°N55°NPrince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of DetailCalgary0 100 200Kilometres50°NP a c i f i cO c e a nKamloopsKelowna50°NData sources:Corporate Watershed Base,Ministry of EnvironmentMap by:Caslys Consulting LtdVancouverIslandVancouverProjection:BC Albers NAD83Produced for:VictoriaU N I T E D S T A T E SJune 17, 2008130°W120°W

threats to biodiversity in british columbiaand mating behaviour 1054 and drive animals away from their preferred habitats, causing stress and expenditureof energy. As well, exhaust from motorized vehicles results in localized environmental contamination. 1055Activities associated with recreation also have significant impacts in the freshwater realm, particularlywhen lakes are altered to improve fishing opportunities. Some previously fishless lakes and ponds havebeen poisoned and then aerated to improve the survival of introduced game fish, which are generally predatory(see Section 2.5.2.3-G, p. 153). Predatory fish, such as trout, forage on amphibian eggs and larvae andhave resulted in the loss of some tiger salamander breeding populations. 1056,1057 Introduced predatory fish maybe responsible for numerous amphibian population declines and local extirpations, as well as changesin the structure of amphibian communities. 1058 Trout introductions may fragment and isolate populationsof amphibian species and reduce the ability of amphibians to move from lake to lake. 1059 The introductionof fish can also result in behavioural changes in lake invertebrates, causing them to become less activeand seek refuge more often, 1060 affecting their availability as prey, as well as the primary and secondary trophiccommunities. 1061Introduction of new fish species into lakes that already contain fish can also impact biodiversity. For example,the introduction of the brown bullhead (Ameiurus nebulosus) caused the extinction of the Hadley Lake benthicand limnetic sticklebacks. 10623.3.9 grazingRoughly 90% of British Columbia’s remaining grasslands are grazed by domestic livestock, either through deededprivate rangelands, grazing tenures on provincial Crown land or grazing regimes on First Nations land. 1063Grazing also affects riparian areas associated with grasslands, as well as some alpine and forested ecosystems.Grasslands and associated wetlands represent a tiny portion of the province’s land base, but have very highlevels of biodiversity. Grasslands cover less than 1% of the province’s land base, but provide critical habitat formore than 30% of B.C.’s terrestrial species of conservation concern. 1064The most significant impacts of livestock grazing are ecosystem degradation, ecosystem conversion, and theintroduction and spread of alien species. In B.C., grazing primarily results in ecosystem degradation. Conversionof grasslands or other native ecosystems to cultivated pastures affects only a small proportion of the land baseaffected by grazing. 1065 Poor management practices, such as overgrazing and continuous grazing, degrade nativeplant communities and reduce wildlife habitat; in some cases, riparian vegetation is completely eliminated. 1066Grazing by wild ungulates can also impact biodiversity. For example, in the East Kootenay Trench, combinedgrazing by domestic livestock and wild ungulates (bighorn sheep, elk, white-tailed deer and mule deer)

t130°W 120°W110°WM A P 2 260°NY u k o nN o r t h w e s tT e r r i t o r i e s60°NOil and gassite density (sites/km 2 )Legend!. CityRoadRiver/StreamLakeSite DensityB r i t i s h0.000.01 - 0.04C o l u m b i a0.05 - 0.080.09 - 0.130.14 - 0.20Fort St. JohnA l b e r t a0.21 - 0.300.31 - 0.430.44 - 0.620.63 - 0.9555°N55°N0.96 - 14.73Prince RupertEdmontonPrince GeorgeQueenCharlotteIslandsArea of Detail50°NEqual Interval ClassificationSite Density0.00 - 1.471.48 - 2.95P a c i f i cO c e a nKamloopsKelownaCalgary50°N0 100 200KilometresData sources:Oil and Gas CommissionMap by:Caslys Consulting LtdProjection:BC Albers NAD832.96 - 4.424.43 - 5.895.90 - 7.367.37 - 8.84VancouverIslandVancouverProduced for:8.85 - 10.3110.32 - 11.7811.79 - 13.26VictoriaU N I T E D S T A T E S13.27 - 14.73February 5, 2008130°W120°W

threats to biodiversity in british columbiahas resulted in significant pressure on the area’s open grasslands. In the Peace region, bison probably playeda role historically in shaping aspen parkland and grassland ecosystems, but the extent of their influence isnot well understood. 10673.3.10 industrial operationsIndustrial operations refers to infrastructure and activities associated with large production facilities, such asfactories, pulp and paper mills, refineries and smelters. The most significant impact of industrial operations isenvironmental contamination. Other impacts include ecosystem degradation, species disturbance and speciesmortality. 1068 Water development impacts associated with industry are discussed in Section 3.3.6 (p. 201).Numerous substances that have deleterious biophysical effects are currently released into the environmentby industrial operations or were released in the past and are now no longer used, yet continue to be present(see Section 3.2.4, p. 169). These contaminants include toxic biochemicals, heavy metals, persistent organicpollutants, airborne fine particulates, excess nutrients released into aquatic environments (e.g., nitrogen orphosphorus) and pharmaceuticals. 1069The National Pollutant Release Inventory tracks the release, disposal and recycling of more than 300 pollutantsby industrial, commercial and institutional facilities in Canada. In 2005, the 12 toxic pollutants discharged on-sitein the largest quantities in B.C. were: hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide, ammonia, methanol, hydrochloric acid,manganese, nitrate, styrene, hydrogen fluoride, zinc, chlorine dioxide and sulphuric acid. Discharges includeunintentional spills and leaks, intentional releases (e.g., emissions to air from stacks, discharges to surface waters)and on-site disposal within the boundaries of the facility site (e.g., to landfills, underground injection). 10703.3.11 miningMining includes all infrastructure and activities associated with the extraction of geological materials, suchas coal, metals, gems, construction aggregates, clay, shale and dimension stone. Impacts include surface andsubsurface soil disturbance; aquatic, terrestrial and atmospheric pollution; erosion; and sedimentation fromoverburden and waste rock disposal.Mining operations often result in ecosystem degradation or conversion, but only affect a relatively smallportion of the provincial land base. Exploration activities have a larger footprint. Freshwater ecosystems aregenerally more affected by ecosystem conversion and degradation than are terrestrial ecosystems. 1071 Mines arealso major freshwater users and their wastewater often contains contaminants when returned to the source water

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiabody. Approximately 60 decommissioned B.C. mines present pollution issues of toxic metal leaching (copper,zinc and cadmium are typical examples) and acid rock drainage into the environment. 1072Gravel pits facilitate the dispersal of alien plant species because many of these species thrive in disturbed sitesand because materials are continuously being moved in and out of these sites and along road corridors. 10733.3.12 aquacultureSome freshwater fish are raised inland-based lakes, ponds or tankoperations.photo: istock.Three main species groups are currently cultured in B.C. waters: salmon and other finfish; shellfish; and marineplants. Operations that take place in marine waters (e.g., salmon farming, deep-water shellfish farming, offshoremarine plant cultivation) are outside the scope of this report.Shellfish species that are cultivated in intertidal and estuarine ecosystems include clams and oysters (thelatter are also cultivated in deep-water systems). In B.C., freshwater finfish aquaculture occurs primarily onprivate land and encompasses commercial enterprises such as salmon and trout hatcheries, trout farms andfee-fishing operations. About 34 small-scale farms raise rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in B.C. and a fewfacilities raise other freshwater species, such as tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), carp (Cyprinus carpio) and signalcrayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus), in land-based lakes, ponds or tank operations. 1074The primary impact of shellfish and finfish aquaculture is introduction of alien species, since many cultivatedspecies are non-native. Two of the province’s leading shellfish aquaculture species, the Pacific oyster and Manilaclam, were both introduced to B.C. waters in the early 1900s and have since greatly expanded their range (seeText box 19, p. 168). Freshwater hatcheries and fish farms and some shellfish aquaculture operations impactbiodiversity through ecosystem degradation (e.g., habitat modification, installation of netting). Environmentalcontamination and direct mortality of species that prey on aquaculture stocks are also potential impacts. 10753.4 Data Gaps3.4.1 generalA threats framework that better integrates both terrestrial and freshwater activities and stresses is required.The current threats framework, based on the IUCN definitions, works well for the terrestrial realm, but haslimited application in the freshwater realm, since many impacts are categorized as degradation. An additionaldescriptor labelled ‘Mechanism’ could be added. For example a ‘stress’ of hydrological alteration would include

threats to biodiversity in british columbiaseveral ‘mechanisms’ such as land cover conversion, water withdrawal or channelization, all of which derivefrom several ‘sources’ (e.g. agriculture, urban development).Data gaps include the time lag to document trends for impacts that can occur quickly (e.g., seismic lines)and the status and trends of all human activities and stresses. Land cover mapping (i.e., Baseline Thematic Mapping)and road data are out of date. Forest harvesting data are fragmented and not available for dates prior tothe 1970s. The specific effects of many stresses on B.C.’s biodiversity are not well understood. The interactionbetween many stressors (i.e., cumulative effects) and the responses by elements of biodiversity are not welldocumented.3.4.2 climate changeThe examination of impacts of climate change is in its early stages. Some of the key gaps include: observationprograms for climate-sensitive biodiversity attributes; climate data from sparsely populated, but biologicallyimportant regions, such as northern B.C. and the montane and alpine zones; and hydrometric data. There isalso a lack of regional climate models. The relationship between climate variables and the geographical distributionof key ecological processes, ecosystems and species, especially climate-sensitive indicator species, a isnot well understood.aAn indicator species is a species whose status provides information on the overall condition of the ecosystem and of other species inthat ecosystem.

4 Major Findings4.1 IntroductionBiodiversity exists at the level of genes, species and ecosystems, and all of these levels are integratedthrough ecological processes such as fire, predation and decomposition. These processes play a vitalrole in shaping biodiversity by acting at a range of scales, with varying intensity, frequency and duration.The resulting synergy means that biodiversity is much greater than the sum of its parts.British Columbia has high ecosystem diversity as a result of its mountainous topography, coastal locationand the resulting variety of local climates. Topography has limited human activities in much of the province,and, combined with B.C.’s brief history of non-indigenous settlement and intensive industrial development,has resulted in relatively high levels of ecological integrity in the province’s more remote and inaccessible areas.Conversely, these factors have concentrated impacts in low-elevation areas where ecological integrity has beensignificantly compromised.British Columbia’s extraordinary biodiversity cannot be taken for granted. Throughout the province there iscompelling scientific evidence that it is being significantly altered by individual and cumulative stresses resultingfrom human activities that are impairing ecological integrity. Climate change is an overriding impact thatis already taking a toll on B.C.’s biodiversity and is expected to become an increasingly significant threat in themedium and long term. Loss of biodiversity threatens the ecological services on which we all depend.the status ofbiodiversity in b.c.can be summarizedas follows:British Columbia’s biodiversityis globally significant becauseof its variety and integrity,but without immediate action,it is vulnerable to rapiddeterioration, especiallyin light of climate change.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaThe concept of ecological resilience – that is, the capacity of an ecosystem to cope with disturbance orstress – is fundamental to any discussion of biodiversity and an important component of ecological integrity.Ecosystems are complex, dynamic and adaptive systems that are rarely at equilibrium. Ecological resiliencedetermines the amount of stress and alteration that can occur in an ecosystem without it losing its definingcharacteristics, as well as the speed with which it recovers. A resilient ecosystem can better withstand shocksand rebuild itself without changing into a different state that is controlled by a different set of processes. Whenecosystems become simplified through the elimination of components or processes, they become increasinglyvulnerable to biophysical or human-induced events.Trend data for B.C. show that declines in biodiversity are occurring at the genetic, species and ecosystemlevels and that the integrity of key and special elements of biodiversity is being lost. Meanwhile, major gaps inour knowledge of the province’s biodiversity hinder our capacity to understand and respond to this situation.Without immediate and effective action, British Columbia’s remarkable biological richness may be lost.4.2 Development of the Major Findingsphoto: jon faulknor.The numbered major findings that follow provide a synthesis of the status assessment presented in Sections2 and 3. Development of the major findings was guided by three principles: that the findings be supported bythis report; that they add value to the report (e.g., by pointing out convergence of themes, places, etc.); and thatthey cover the full scope of the report.The process of developing the major findings was iterative. The Technical Subcommittee of BiodiversityBC initiated the process and then sought input from scientific experts and direction from the Biodiversity BCSteering Committee.The order in which the major findings are presented in Section 4.3 follows the structure of this report, ratherthan representing any prioritization. The findings related to ecosystem, species and genetic diversity focus onelements within each of these levels of organization that are of current conservation concern. The other findingsare not limited to elements of conservation concern. All of the supporting information provided for eachmajor finding is referenced in corresponding parts of Sections 1 to 3.

major findings4.3 The Major Findingsecosystem diversityEcosystems are made up of plants, animals and microorganisms, all interacting with the abiotic environmentand integrated by ecological processes that play a critical role in shaping them. Ecosystems that maintain all oftheir component parts and processes are the most resilient.Ecosystems can be described and assessed at a range of scales. The broadest scale used in this report is landcover, which classifies areas (excluding human-dominated and water) as forest, alpine, glacier, wetland andgrassland. The primary scale used in this report is biogeoclimatic zones, which are broad geographic areas sharingsimilar climate and vegetation. Within B.C. there are 16 biogeoclimatic zones: 12 forested (Coastal WesternHemlock, Coastal Douglas-fir, Spruce–Willow–Birch, Boreal White and Black Spruce, Sub-Boreal Pine–Spruce,Sub-Boreal Spruce, Mountain Hemlock, Engelmann Spruce–Subalpine Fir, Montane Spruce, Interior Cedar–Hemlock, Interior Douglas-fir and Ponderosa Pine a ); three alpine (Boreal Altai Fescue Alpine, Coastal MountainheatherAlpine and Interior Mountain-heather Alpine); and one grassland (Bunchgrass). Major Drainage Areaswere used as the basis for additional broad-scale analysis focusing on freshwater ecosystems.The finest scale used in this report is ecological communities, of which 611 have been described in the provinceto date. Ecological community classification is incomplete for some biogeoclimatic zones, most notablythe alpine zones, but the current list represents a majority of the province’s ecological communities.Freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems overlap with the marine realm in estuaries and intertidal areas.1. At the broad scale, four biogeoclimatic zones, representing approximately 5% of BritishColumbia’s land base, are of provincial conservation concern.B.C.’s three dry-forest biogeoclimatic zones (Coastal Douglas-fir, Interior Douglas-fir and Ponderosa Pine) andone grassland zone (Bunchgrass) have been assessed as being of conservation concern. Nine of the province’sforested zones and the three alpine zones are not currently assessed as being of conservation concern. The alpinezones are expected to change dramatically in response to climate change and, in many places, will disappearentirely, along with the species that presently inhabit them.aThe Ponderosa Pine biogeoclimatic zone consists of a mix of forest and grassland, but is generally dominated by trees.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia2. At the fine scale, more than half of the ecological communities described in British Columbiaare of provincial conservation concern.Ecological communities of conservation concern are found in every one of the province’s biogeoclimatic zones.The Coastal Western Hemlock zone has the greatest number of communities of concern. The highest percentagesof communities of concern occur in the four biogeoclimatic zones of conservation concern and in theCoastal Western Hemlock zone.3. British Columbia has a majority of the global range for six of the 16 biogeoclimatic zones thatoccur in the province.Two of B.C.’s biogeoclimatic zones – the Sub-boreal Pine–Spruce and the Sub-boreal Spruce – occur nowhereelse in the world. The other four zones that have more than half of their global range in B.C. are the CoastalDouglas-fir, Interior Cedar–Hemlock, Montane Spruce and Mountain Hemlock. Five of these zones are relativelyintact; the exception is the Coastal Douglas-fir zone.4. The Coastal Douglas-fir biogeoclimatic zone is the rarest biogeoclimatic zone in BritishColumbia and is of great conservation concern.The Coastal Douglas-fir zone has the highest density of species that are of both provincial and global conservationconcern of any B.C. biogeoclimatic zone. It also has the highest proportion of areas covered by roadsor other linear development and has experienced the highest level of ecosystem conversion. Within this zone,almost all of the forests have been logged since European contact, only about 10% of the Garry oak meadowsremain and wetlands are under severe pressure.5. Low-elevation grassland communities are the rarest land cover type in British Columbia andare concentrated in the biogeoclimatic zones of conservation concern.Grasslands occupy less than 1% of the provincial land base, but are home to a disproportionate number of speciesof conservation concern. They are located primarily in the Bunchgrass, Ponderosa Pine and Interior Douglas-firbiogeoclimatic zones. A large percentage of the grasslands in these biogeoclimatic zones have been lost due toecosystem conversion and fire suppression, are being degraded by motorized recreation and livestock grazing,and are being impacted by alien species. In the north, grasslands occur at low elevations in the Boreal Whiteand Black Spruce zone, on warm, dry, south-facing slopes. These already-rare grasslands are becoming rarerdue to climate change, as warmer, wetter conditions result in encroachment by woody plants.

major findings6. Significant areas of wetlands in British Columbia have been converted or degraded,particularly in the two Major Drainage Areas of greatest conservation concern.Wetlands are among the most biologically diverse and productive of all ecosystems. They provide habitat formany species and fulfill a broad range of ecological functions. Although they cover only a small area of theprovincial land base, their contribution to biodiversity conservation is greatly disproportionate to their size.B.C. has nine Major Drainage Areas, and wetlands are particularly impacted in the two that are of greatest conservationconcern – those of the Columbia and Fraser rivers. The Fraser River alone drains roughly one-quarterof the province. In the Lower Fraser Valley, which extends from the Strait of Georgia inland to Hope and fromthe north shore mountains to the U.S. border, more than half of the original wetland area has disappeared. Inthe south Okanagan, which is part of the Columbia River drainage, about 85% of the original wetland area hasdisappeared.photo: max lindenthaler.7. Estuaries are of concern in British Columbia because of their rarity and the levelof human impacts to them.Estuaries occur where freshwater systems meet the sea. Even though they account for less than 3% of theprovince’s coastline, an estimated 80% of all coastal wildlife relies on estuary habitat. The Fraser River estuaryis one of B.C.’s most important areas for seasonal concentrations of birds. Estuaries have experienced significantdegradation as a result of human activities and are highly vulnerable to projected sea-level rise due to climatechange.diversity of speciesSpecies are genetically distinct groups of organisms that are capable of successfully interbreeding. Speciesinteract within ecosystems, performing essential ecological functions. Only about 3,800 species have been assessedto date in British Columbia, but the actual number of species in the province may well exceed 50,000(not including single-celled organisms). Some parts of the province (primarily unroaded and unsettled areas)have not been surveyed and some taxonomic groups remain largely unstudied. The highest species richnessdocumented in B.C. occurs in the areas with the largest human populations.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia8. Of the species assessed to date in British Columbia, 43% are of provincial conservationconcern and these are concentrated in the four biogeoclimatic zones of conservationconcern.The number of species of provincial conservation concern is increasing as more species are assessed and aspopulations of previously secure species decline. Species currently known to be of provincial conservationconcern include a high proportion of mosses, reptiles and turtles, and ferns and fern allies. There is a generallydeclining trend in provincial conservation status for three of the best-studied taxonomic groups: vascular plantsof highest conservation concern, mammals and freshwater fish. A disproportionate number of B.C.’s species ofconservation concern are concentrated in southern, low-elevation areas. Six percent of the species assessed todate in B.C. are also of global conservation concern.9. British Columbia is known to have a majority of the global range for 99 species.Of the species assessed to date, 3% have a majority of their global range in B.C. Of the 99 species that have amajority of their global range in B.C., 15 are found nowhere else and 30 are of global conservation concern. Mostof B.C.’s species of conservation concern are shared with other jurisdictions.genetic diversityphoto: jason doucette.Genetic variation within species facilitates adaptation to changing environments, and B.C. has a disproportionatelyhigh level of genetic diversity relative to its species diversity. The province’s glacial history and variedclimate and topography (including many coastal islands) have fostered the evolution of local adaptations bycreating unique local conditions and reducing dispersal between populations. As a result, many species occurin the province as complexes of geographically distinct subspecies, which differ from each other in appearance,environmental tolerances and/or behaviour, as well as in genetic make-up.Due to B.C.’s large size and biophysical variability, the province is home to many species that are at the edgeof their range. Such populations are often genetically distinct from populations at the core of a species’ range.B.C. also has a high density of hybrid zones, where divergent groups overlap and some species hybridize as aresult of landscape change and historic expansion and contraction of species ranges. These hybrid zones contributeto genetic diversity in both terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems in B.C.

Forests are the dominant land cover type in B.C. The province’s forested ecosystems have been shaped by topographyand climate, as well as by natural disturbance regimes (which are themselves influenced by topographyand climate). The landscape structure of forested ecosystems is influenced by the timing, frequency, magnitudeand severity of disturbances, and by the prevailing type of disturbance (e.g., stand-replacing fires versus singlemajorfindings10. British Columbia has a high level of genetic diversity within species, which is critical foradaptation and resilience.Currently, 457 subspecies, ecotypes, populations and varieties of plants and animals are identified as beingof provincial conservation concern in B.C. and 38 of these are found nowhere else. Genetic diversity within speciesis critical for their persistence in changing environments. For example, there are more than 400 geneticallydistinct populations among five species of Pacific salmon. This variability has allowed these species to use allavailable stream systems in B.C. and provides resilience to salmon and the functions they perform.key and special elements of biodiversityKey elements are pieces of the biodiversity puzzle that are essential and/or have a disproportionate influenceon ecosystem function. They may be components, structures or functions. Special elements are components ofbiodiversity that are uncommon and, in some cases, found nowhere else. They include seasonal concentrationsof species, special communities and noteworthy features.11. The flow of water in lakes, streams, wetlands and groundwater systems is being seriouslyimpacted in British Columbia by dams, water diversions, logging, stream crossings andclimate change.Dams and water diversions directly affect lakeshore, streamside and aquatic ecosystems and the organisms thatlive in them. The disruption of connectivity in stream systems can prevent fish passage and the flow of nutrientsand sediments. Groundwater–surface water interactions determine the minimum flow for many streamsin winter, when surface water is locked up as snow and ice, and during periods when there is no precipitation.Climate change is already having noticeable effects on streamflow patterns in some areas of B.C., and projectedchanges associated with warmer temperatures will likely affect all freshwater systems within the province.12. The natural disturbance processes that shape British Columbia’s forests are being disruptedby human activities.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiatree-replacing dynamics). Human activities can change all of these key factors. In B.C.’s temperate rainforests,logging of old-growth stands is the greatest concern. In the province’s other forests, the major concerns are firesuppression, logging and monoculture replanting. In addition to disrupting natural disturbance processes,these human activities also have other impacts on biodiversity, such as effects on soils, hydrology and individualspecies. Climate change has already begun to exacerbate these impacts (most notably with the rapid expansionand intensification of the current mountain pine beetle outbreak owing in large part to the warming of winterminimum temperatures) and will continue to do so.13. British Columbia’s mainland coast features a number of interconnected key and specialelements of biodiversity: intact temperate rainforest, an intact large mammal predator-preysystem, glacially influenced streams and salmon-driven nutrient cycling.British Columbia has approximately one-fifth of the world’s remaining temperate rainforest, with the majorityof the province’s undeveloped rainforest located along the middle and northern sections of the mainland coast.The mainland coast is also the largest contiguous area in the province with intact large mammal predator-preysystems (i.e., all native large mammals are present), which are vital elements in many natural communities.Anadromous salmon play a critical role in nutrient cycling throughout their B.C. range, but this process is especiallyimportant on the mainland coast, because of the overlap with the three other special elements. Salmonintegrate the terrestrial, freshwater and marine realms by serving as a key food source for many predators andscavengers and providing important nutrients to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. They are susceptible tocumulative impacts occurring across all three realms and impacts resulting from climate change are of particularconcern. One way that climate change is expected to affect salmon is through impacts on glacier-fed streams. Inthe short term, melting glaciers will likely discharge more water into some B.C. streams and rivers, which maydamage salmon habitat. In the longer term, salmon may be affected by reduced water volume, and possiblytemperature change, in glacier-fed streams and rivers, especially during the summer months.14. The majority of British Columbia has intact or relatively intact predator-prey systems, but amajor threat to them is motorized access and associated human activities.B.C. is globally significant for its richness of large carnivore and ungulate species and the fact that most of theprovince has intact, or mostly intact, large mammal predator-prey systems, which provide critical ecosystemservices. Large mammal predator-prey systems are directly impacted by the disturbance and fragmentation

major findingsassociated with motorized access, including access for off-road vehicles. Roads fragment populations, reducegene flow and provide access that can result in increased direct mortality due to hunting, poaching, motor vehiclecollisions and wildlife-human conflicts. Motorized access also causes disturbance, which displaces speciesfrom their habitats.15. British Columbia has many significant seasonal concentrations of species that are vulnerableto human impacts.Seasonal concentrations of species are vulnerable to human and non-human impacts. In B.C., seasonal concentrationsoften involve migratory species, including birds travelling along the Pacific Flyway and salmon migratingthrough coastal marine waters. Migratory species are affected by conditions throughout their range and B.C. hasa responsibility for species that migrate through the province. Many estuaries along the B.C. coast and wetlandsin the interior provide critical habitat for seasonal concentrations of migrating shorebirds, waterfowl and otherbirds. Other seasonal concentrations of species include seabird nesting colonies on coastal islands and prenestingor wintering aggregations. Island seabird populations are particularly threatened by alien species.threats to biodiversityphoto: lauren nicholl.The most significant stresses on biodiversity in B.C. are ecosystem conversion (the direct and complete conversionof natural ecosystems to landscapes for human uses), ecosystem degradation (change to the structure ofa natural system, which impacts the ecosystem’s composition and function) and alien species (species that occuroutside their native range due to human introduction), followed by environmental contamination, speciesdisturbance and species mortality.The most significant categories of human activity that impact biodiversity in B.C. are climate change andspecific practices associated with agriculture, recreation, urban and rural development, forestry, transportationand utility corridors, oil and gas development and water development. Specific practices associated withgrazing, industrial development, mining and aquaculture also have important impacts on biodiversity in theprovince. Note that it is not these economic sectors, but some specific practices undertaken by people involvedin the sectors, that impact biodiversity.Although these factors may operate separately, losses to biodiversity generally originate from more than onesource. Multiple impacts can affect biodiversity at a magnitude greater than the sum of the individual impacts,can be cumulative over time and can trigger cascading impacts on other components of biodiversity.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia16. Ecosystem conversion from urban/rural development and agriculture has seriouslyimpacted British Columbia’s biodiversity, especially in the three rarest biogeoclimatic zones.Although only about 2% of the province’s land base has been converted to human uses, the magnitude of conversionis dramatically higher in the three rarest biogeoclimatic zones: Coastal Douglas-fir, Bunchgrass andPonderosa Pine. Ecosystem conversion related to agriculture is most intensive in areas with rich soil, such asfloodplains and valley bottoms. Urban and rural development is concentrated in these same areas, particularlyin the lower Fraser River Valley, on southeastern Vancouver Island and in the Okanagan. The most immediateimpact of urban and rural development is the conversion of natural landscapes to buildings, parking lots andplaying fields, resulting in loss of species and ecosystems, along with impairment of ecosystem functions.17. Ecosystem degradation from forestry, oil and gas development, and transportation andutility corridors has seriously impacted British Columbia’s biodiversity.Forestry-related activities affect species and ecosystems in various ways, including habitat fragmentation,simplification of forest communities, alteration of age-class distribution, tree species distribution and standstructure, and loss of key habitat elements such as wildlife trees and coarse woody debris. Ecosystem degradationassociated with terrestrial oil and gas exploration and extraction is mainly concentrated in the Boreal Whiteand Black Spruce biogeoclimatic zone in the northeast corner of the province. Ecosystem degradation associatedwith transportation corridors, seismic lines and other linear features includes fragmentation, alterationof the hydrology of water courses and increased sedimentation in water bodies. Areas of the province with highdensities of transportation and utility corridors include the Coastal Douglas-fir, Ponderosa Pine, Bunchgrassand Interior Douglas-fir zones.18. Alien species are seriously impacting British Columbia’s biodiversity, especially on islandsand in lakes.Alien species can have many impacts, including alteration of forest fire cycles, nutrient cycling and hydrology,displacement of populations of native plants and animals, competition for resources, predation, disease introduction,and facilitation of the spread of other non-native species. Climate change and ecosystem conversionand degradation facilitate the invasion of alien species. Although alien species invasion is often a secondaryimpact, it can be a major independent impact in isolated systems, such as islands and lakes, which often havesignificant genetic and species-level diversity.

major findings19. Climate change is already seriously impacting British Columbia and is the foremost threatto biodiversity.The impacts of climate change on biodiversity in B.C. are predicted to be both extensive and intensive, andwill be exacerbated by non-climate factors related to human activity, such as land-use changes, pollution andresource use. Although measured trends and observed responses clearly indicate that climate change is underway,the full extent of its impact is yet to be felt. It is expected to be the greatest overriding threat to biodiversityin the future. Some species will be lost, while the ranges of others will change. B.C.’s proportion of the globalrange of many species may increase due to northward shifts in distributions resulting from climate change; thisis already occurring for some species. This trend may be accentuated by the tendency for species to collapseto the edge of their distributions. All of B.C.’s biogeoclimatic zones will be either changed or eliminated as aresult of climate change.20. The cumulative impacts of human activities in British Columbia are increasingand are resulting in the loss of ecosystem resilience.The cumulative impacts of human activities are greater than the sum of their individual effects. Compromisedecosystems and populations are more vulnerable to impacts than those that are pristine. For example, it is expectedthat climate change will have its greatest impact in areas where biodiversity has been already affectedby other stresses. The density of roads and other linear development features in an area is the single best indexof the cumulative impact of human activities on biodiversity. In B.C., the highest densities of roads are found inthe four biogeoclimatic zones of highest conservation concern: Coastal Douglas-fir, Ponderosa Pine, Bunchgrassand Interior Douglas-fir.photo: dave lewis.21. Connectivity of ecosystems in British Columbia is being lost and, among other impacts, thiswill limit the ability of species to shift their distributions in response to climate change.The degree of connectivity and the characteristics of linkages in natural landscapes vary, depending on topography,hydrology and natural disturbance regime. Human activities reduce connectivity and cause fragmentationthrough ecosystem conversion and degradation, disturbance, spread of alien species, direct mortalityand environmental contamination. Linear features such as roads, hydro transmission corridors, seismic lines,pipelines and railways impact biodiversity in numerous ways, but particularly affect connectivity when they arebuilt along valley bottoms, and when they cross streams, preventing the movement of terrestrial and aquatic

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaorganisms. Besides limiting the ability of species to shift their distributions in response to climate change orhabitat change, loss of connectivity also makes populations more vulnerable to extirpation as a result of chanceevents or the damaging effects of genetic drift and inbreeding.knowledge and capacityphoto: istock.There is a substantial and ever-growing body of knowledge about biodiversity in British Columbia, which includesscientific publications, species checklists, computer databases and individual expertise. However, thereis also much that is not known. Capacity refers to the ability to fill the many knowledge gaps and integrate newand existing information.22. Gaps in our knowledge of biodiversity in British Columbia create major challenges foreffective conservation action.Every species contributes, though not equally, to ecosystem function and resilience. However, approximately 92%of B.C.’s species (not including single-celled organisms) have not been assessed for their conservation status andthe global ranks for many species that have been assessed are out of date. The ecology of most species and thedistributions of all but a very few are poorly understood. Coarse-scale ecosystem classifications are complete inB.C., but information at a finer ecosystem scale is incomplete, as is ecosystem information from neighbouringjurisdictions. Trend monitoring is extremely limited and data on distribution and population size are lackingfor many species. Information about impacts on biodiversity is generally incomplete or out of date.23. The capacity to address some of the gaps in our knowledge of biodiversity in BritishColumbia is being impacted by the loss of already limited taxonomic expertise.Thousands, if not tens of thousands, of species in B.C. have not been scientifically described or are not documentedas being present in the province. Species groups for which such information is particularly lackinginclude most of the invertebrates and non-vascular plants. This taxonomic knowledge gap is currently beingexacerbated by an ‘extinction of experience’ as the scientists with the knowledge, skills and inclination to dothe work required to fill the gaps are retiring and often are not being replaced.

glossaryGlossaryAbiotic: non-living chemical and physical factors in theenvironment, including solar radiation, water, atmosphericgases, soil and physical geography.Adaptation: any feature of an organism that substantiallyimproves its ability to survive and leave more offspring.Also, the process of a species’ or a population’s geneticvariability changing due to natural selection in a mannerthat improves its viability.Adaptive divergence: divergence as a result of adaptivechange.Alien species: a species occurring in an area outside itshistorically known natural range as a result of intentionalor accidental dispersal by humans (i.e., movement ofindividuals) or direct human activities that remove a naturalbarrier (e.g., creation of a fish ladder to allow fish to movepast a waterfall). Also known as an exotic or introducedspecies.Allele: a form of a gene.Anadromous: fish species that spawn (breed and lay eggs) infreshwater environments, but spend at least part of theiradult life in a marine environment.Arthropod: invertebrate with external skeleton and jointedsegmental appendages.Benthic: the bottom substrate of an aquatic environment.Beringia: the entire region between the Kolyma River ineastern Siberia and the Mackenzie River in the CanadianNorthwest Territories, including the intervening continentalshelf where it is shallower than approximately 200 m.Biodiversity: the variety of species and ecosystems onearth and the ecological processes of which they are apart, including ecosystem, species and genetic diversitycomponents.Biofilm: a thin (0.01–2 mm) yet dense surface layer ofmicrobes, organic detritus and sediment in a mucilaginousmatrix of extracellular polymeric substances heldtogether with non-carbohydrate components secretedby microphytobenthos and benthic bacteria; found insome intertidal areas.Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification [BEC]: a multilevel,integrated system of ecological classification utilizingclimate, vegetation and soils data to produce a classificationof ecosystems.Biogeoclimatic zone: the broadest classification in theBiogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification, representinglarge geographical areas that share similar climate andvegetation.Biome: a major regional ecosystem, characterized by itsdistinctive vegetation, a particular plant formation andassociated animals, microbes and physical environment (e.g.,grasslands, tundra, savannah). A biome is a subdivision ofa continent on the basis of major differences in the lifeform of the vegetation, where life forms reflect the regionalclimates and soils.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaBivalve: having a shell composed of two parts (valves).Bryophyte: primitive plant in the plant phylum Bryophyta,lacking a vascular system and typically growing in moisthabitats.Cambium: a layer of actively dividing cells situated betweenxylem and phloem of a woody plant. As the cells develop,they add a new layer of woody material on the inner sideof the root or stem (mainly xylem) and a new layer of bark(phloem and associated tissues) on the outer side.Census population size: the actual number of individualsin a population.Climate change: a statistically significant variation ineither the mean state of the climate or in its variability,persisting for an extended time period (typically decadesor longer).Climate envelope: describes the area of suitable climatefor a species or ecosystem in terms of temperature andprecipitation. Climate envelope models determine thecurrent distribution of the species or ecosystem, thenmap the location of this same envelope under a climatechange scenario.Coarse woody debris [CWD]: large pieces of wood, generallygreater than 10 cm in diameter, on or near the forest floor,including sound or rotting logs, stumps and large branchesthat have fallen or been cut. In aquatic environments,this material is called large woody debris (LWD) or largeorganic debris.Community: an integrated group of living organismsinhabiting a given part of an ecosystem.Composition: the identity and variety of an ecological system.Descriptors of composition are typically lists of speciesresident in an area or an ecosystem.Conifer: a cone-bearing tree having needles or scale-likeleaves; usually evergreen.Connectivity: the degree to which the habitat or terrain islinked so as to facilitate the movement of individuals of aspecies from one place to another.Conservation concern: globally or provincially criticallyimperilled (G1 or S1), imperilled (G2 or S2), or vulnerable(G3 or S3). Species of global conservation concern areranked G1 to G3. Species of provincial conservationconcern are ranked S1 to S3.Conservation status: a measure of the risk of regionalextirpation or global extinction for an element ofbiodiversity, population, subspecies and ecosystem.Cryptogamic crust: a thin layer of lichens, moss, liverworts,algae, fungi and bacteria found in undisturbed semiaridecosystems. Also known as microbial, microfloral,microphytic or cryobiotic crust.Cumulative impact: changes to the environment that arecaused by a human action in combination with other past,present and future human actions.Decomposition: the breakdown of dead plant and animalmatter, into their inorganic constituents, such as carbonand nitrogen.Detritivore: an organism that feeds solely on non-livingorganic material.Dicot [dicotyledon]: a flowering, vascular plant that has twocotyledons (primary embryonic leaves) in its seed.Disjunct: disjoined or separated from the normal range.Dispersal: movement of individual organisms to differentlocalities.DNA [Deoxyribonucleic Acid]: a long organic moleculecomposed of nucleotides in a linear order that contributesthe genetic information of cells; capable of replicating itselfand of synthesizing ribonucleic acid (RNA).Duff: decaying vegetable matter that covers forest ground.Ecological community: a recurring plant community witha characteristic range in species composition, specificdiagnostic species, and a defined range in habitatconditions and physiognomy or structure.

glossaryEcosystem: is a dynamic complex of plant, animal andmicroorganism communities and their abiotic environment,all interacting as a functional unit.Ecosystem conversion: replacement of natural communitieswith human-dominated systems (e.g., intensive agriculture)or physical works (e.g., mines, urban areas).Ecosystem degradation: direct change to the structure ofnatural systems (e.g., through forest harvesting or waterdiversion).Ecotype: a distinct entity of an organism that is closely linked(in its characteristics) to the ecological surroundings itinhabits.Ectomycorrhizal: see Mycorrhizae.Effective population size [N e]: a quantity that estimatesthe number of individuals contributing genes to futuregenerations.Endemic: found only in a specified geographic region.Endomycorrhizal: see Mycorrhizae.Environmental contamination: occurs when substancesare released intentionally, accidentally or as a by-product,into natural systems.Enzyme: a protein molecule produced in living cells thataccelerates the rate of reactions without being consumedin that reaction.Ephemeral: lasting for a brief period of time (e.g., a seasonalpond).Estuary: a partially enclosed body of coastal water, where saltwater is measurably diluted by mixing with river runoff.Eutrophication: a process by which a water body becomesrich in dissolved nutrients, often leading to algal blooms,low dissolved oxygen and changes in communitycomposition. Occurs naturally, but can be acceleratedby human activities that increase nutrient inputs to thewater body.Evolutionarily significant unit: a population within a speciesthat has very different behavioural and phenologicaltraits based on genetic uniqueness.Extinct: no longer living.Extirpation: the elimination of a species or subspecies froma specified area, but not from its entire global range.Fen: a nutrient-medium peatland ecosystem dominatedby sedges and brown mosses, where mineral-bearinggroundwater is within the rooting zone of plants.Fire regime: the way in which fire interacts in anenvironment.Function[s]: the result of ecological and evolutionaryprocesses (e.g. nutrient cycling is a function that involvesprocesses such as photosynthesis, herbivory, predationand decomposition).Fungi: single-celled, multinucleate or multicellular organismsthat lack chlorophyll and vascular tissues; includes yeasts,moulds, smuts and mushrooms.Gene: the functional unit of heredity; the part of the DNAmolecule that encodes a single enzyme or structuralprotein unit.Gene flow: the transfer of genes from one population orlocality to another.Genetic drift: a change in the genetic composition of apopulation resulting from random events.Genetic variability: the number and relative abundance ofgenes within a species or population.Genotype: genetic basis of a trait in an organism.Geographically marginal: a species or population that is atthe edge of its range. Also known as peripheral.Georgia Basin: the geographical area that encompasses theStraits of Georgia and Juan de Fuca and the land aroundthem (i.e., eastern Vancouver Island, the lower mainlandand the Pacific mountain ranges).Groundwater: water in the soil and underlying geologicalstrata.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaHabitat: the natural environment in which an organismnormally lives.Herbivore: an organism that obtains nutrition and energyby eating plants.Herbivory: plant-feeding.Holocene: an epoch of the Quaternary period, spanning theinterval after the last glaciation, typically from 10,000 yearsago to the present.Hybrid suture zone: geographic zone where hybridizationoccurs.Hybridization: crossing of individuals from geneticallydifferent strains, populations or species.Hyphae: fine, threadlike, tubular and often branchedfilaments of fungal cells that make up the mycelium, orfruiting body, of a fungus.Hyporheic zone: the saturated sediment zone betweengroundwater and surface waters.Impervious surface [impervious area]: an area covered byimpenetrable materials such as asphalt, concrete, brickand stone, which seal surfaces, repel water and preventprecipitation and meltwater from infiltrating soils.Impervious areas are usually constructed surfaces (e.g.,rooftops, sidewalks, roads, parking lots). Compacted soilscan also be highly impervious.Impoundment: the confinement of water by a dam.Intertidal: the area between the mean high tide line and themean low tide line, or zero tide, where the benthic substrateis regularly exposed through tidal action.Invasive alien species: alien species that threaten biodiversitydue to their ability to spread and out-compete or otherwiseimpact native species.Invertebrate: an animal without a backbone.Karst: landscapes derived from soluble bedrock; typicallylimestone, but also dolomite, marble and gypsum.Key element: organisms, groups of organisms, and ecologicalprocesses known to play essential and/or disproportionatelylarge roles in the functioning of ecosystems.Keystone species: a species with an effect on its environmentand associated species disproportionate to its relativeabundance and biomass.Large woody debris [LWD]: see Coarse woody debris.Lichen: an organism consisting of an outer fungal bodyenclosing photosynthetic algae.Liverwort: any of a class (Hepaticae) of bryophytic plantscharacterized by a thalloid gametophyte or sometimes anupright leafy gametophyte that resembles a moss.Macroalgae: macroscopic algae, commonly known asseaweed.Macrophyte: a large aquatic plant.Major Drainage Area [MDA]: an area that drains all precipitationreceived as either runoff or base flow (groundwater sources)into a particular river or set of rivers. Also known as adrainage basin, catchment area or watershed.Marl: soft calcium carbonate usually mixed with varyingamounts of clay and other impurities.Megafauna: a general term for the large terrestrial vertebratesinhabiting a specified region.Migration: movement from one place of residence to anotheron a regular basis.Mollusc: a taxonomic group of invertebrate organisms thatincludes clams, mussels, snails and slugs.Monocot [monocotyledon]: a flowering, vascular plantthat has a single cotyledon (primary embryonic leaf) inits seed.Morphological: relating to the form and structure of livingorganisms.Mutation: changes to the DNA sequence of the geneticmaterial of an organism.

glossaryMycorrhizae: mutually beneficial associations betweenthe hyphae of a fungus and the roots of a plant. Inectomycorrhizal associations, the fungus grows on theouter surface of the plant roots. In endomycorrhizalassociations, the fungus penetrates the roots.Native species: a species that naturally occurs in an area asa result of its own movements (unaided by direct humanactions allowing it to move past a natural barrier).Natural disturbance: a natural event that directly alters thestructure of ecosystems (e.g., fire, flood, insect outbreak,landslide).Natural selection: the process by which favorable heritabletraits become more common in successive generations ofa population of reproducing organisms, and unfavorableheritable traits become less common, due to the differentialcontribution of offspring to the next generation by variousgenetic types within populations.Nematodes: non-segmented roundworms in the phylumNematoda.Non-vascular plant: a plant without specialized tissues forconducting water and nutrients.Nutrient cycling: circulation or exchange of elements, suchas nitrogen and carbon dioxide, between non-living andliving parts of the environment.Obligate: restricted to a particular set of environmentalconditions, without which an organism cannot survive.Patch: in landscape ecology, a particular unit with identifiableboundaries that differs from its surroundings in one ormore ways.Pelagic: pertaining to the open ocean.Peripheral: See Geographically marginal.Phenotype: physical manifestation of a trait in an organism,determined by genotype and environment.Phenotypic: relating to phenotype.Photosynthesis: the conversion of light energy into chemicalenergy by living organisms.Pleistocene: the first epoch of the Quaternary period afterthe Tertiary period and Pliocene epoch and before theHolocene epoch, spanning the interval from 1.7 millionyears ago to 10,000 years ago.Pollination: the process in which pollen is transferred froman anther of male plant to a receptive stigma of a femaleplant.Population: a group of individuals with common ancestrythat are much more likely to mate with one another thanwith individuals from another such group.Predator-prey system: a system involving interactionsbetween predators and their prey. An intact predatorpreysystem is one in which all of the native species arepresent, and with no alien species that plays a role aseither predator or prey relative to the others. A relativelyintact predator-prey system is one that is missing only onespecies, and with no alien species that plays a role as eitherpredator or prey relative to the others, and where the lossof the species has not substantially altered the importanceof predator-prey interactions to the populations of theremaining species.Primary consumer: an organism that gets its energy fromprimary producers (e.g., plants, algae).Primary production: the production of organic compoundsfrom atmospheric or aquatic CO 2, primarily through theprocess of photosynthesis.Processes: actions or events that shape ecosystems, such asdisturbances, predation and competition.Refugium [pl. refugia]: an area that remained unchangedwhile areas surrounding it changed markedly (e.g., anarea that remained ice-free while surrounding areas wereglaciated).Relict species: the remnants of a formerly widespread species,typically now found in very restricted or isolated areas.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaRiparian: a zone of transition from an aquatic to a terrestrialsystem, dependent upon surface or subsurface water.Riparian areas may be located adjacent to lakes, estuaries,rivers, or ephemeral, intermittent or perennial streams.Salmonid: a fish belonging to the family Salmonidae.Seral stages: in a forestry context, the series of plantcommunity conditions that develop during ecologicalsuccession from bare ground (or major disturbances) to theclimax stage. Three main stages are typically recognized:early-seral, mid-seral and late-seral.Special element: elements of biodiversity that are of globalsignificance either because they are important habitat forseasonal concentrations of species or because they areuncommon or even unique on a global scale owing to theirunusual ecological characteristics.Speciation: the formation of new species.Species: in most living organisms, each species representsa complete, self-generating, unique ensemble of geneticvariation, capable of interbreeding and producing fertileoffspring.Species disturbance: the alteration of the behaviour ofspecies due to human activities.Species mortality: the direct killing of individual orgasms.Species richness: the number of species within a specifiedarea.Steppe: vegetation dominated by grasses and occurringwhere the climate is too dry to support tree growth.Structure: the physical organization or pattern of a system(e.g., the size and spacing of trees in a landscape).Subspecies: a geographically defined aggregate of localpopulations that differs from other such subdivisionsof a species; the lowest taxonomic rank given a formalscientific name.Succession: a series of dynamic, non-seasonal changes inecosystem structure, function, and species compositionin a given area over time.Taxon [pl. taxa]: any one of the categories used in namingand classifying organisms (e.g., phylum, class, order, family,genus, species, subspecies, variety).Taxonomic group: a group of organisms at the same level oforganization in biological classification.Topography: the shape of the surface of the earth.Transpiration: the evaporation of water from the aerialparts of plants, especially the leaves, but also stems,flowers and roots.Trophic: pertaining to food or eating.Tundra: a level or rolling treeless plain characteristic of Arcticand subarctic regions; consists of black, mucky soil witha permanently frozen subsoil, and a dominant vegetationof mosses, lichens, herbs and dwarf shrubs. Also, a similarregion confined to mountainous areas above timberline.Ungulate: a hoofed mammal.Vascular plant: a plant with specialized tissues for conductingwater and nutrients.Vertebrate: an animal with a backbone.

appendicesAppendix A.historic species in b.c.SPECIES GROUP scientiFIC name cOMMON NAMEMammals Lepus townsendii White-tailed jackrabbitNon-Marine Molluscs Deroceras hesperium Evening fieldslugFisherola nuttalliShortface lanxFluminicola fuscusAshy pebblesnailFossaria vancouverensis[no common name]Musculium partumeiumSwamp fingernailclamPlanorbella columbiensisCaribou rams-hornSphaerium occidentaleHerrington fingernailclamValvata humeralisGlossy valvataValvata tricarinataThreeridge valvataVertigo elatiorTapered vertigoVascular Plants Atriplex alaskensis Alaskan oracheEpilobium pygmaeumSmooth spike-primroseEricameria bloomeriRabbitbrush goldenweedEriogonum pauciflorumSmall-flower wild buckwheatGilia sinuataShy giliaLeucanthemum arcticumArctic daisyParrya nudicaulisNorthern parryaPleuricospora fimbriolataFringed pinesapPrenanthes racemosaGlaucous rattlesnake-rootRanunculus lobbiiLobb’s water-buttercupSenecio hydrophilusAlkali-marsh butterweedPolypodium sibiricumSiberian polypodyElymus virginicusVirginia wild ryePiptatherum canadenseCanada ryegrassPoa laxaMt. Washington bluegrassPoa nervosaCoastal bluegrassNon-vascular Plants Bryum tenuisetum [no common name]source: Prepared for this report with data from the B.C. Conservation Data Centre.note: Historic species are those for which there is no verified record of their presence in B.C. in the past 40 years. They are possiblyextinct or extirpated.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaAppendix B.major taxa of extant, native, free-living terrestrial and freshwater organisms in b.c.,with tabular summary of the availability of up-to-date species checklists, handbooksor systematic monographs, computerized geo-referenced distributional databases,and local (british columbia) taxonomic/systematic expertise.TAXa cOMMON name uP-TO-DATE HANDBOOK OR Computerized LOCALcHECKList sYSTEMATIC geo-referenced Taxonomic/OF species monograph distributional SYSTEMatICDATABASE expertiseSuperkingdom PROKARYAprokaryotesKingdom BACTERIA bacteria, blue-green algae blue-green bacteria(Cyanobacteria) onlySuperkingdom EUKARYAeukaryotesKingdom PROTOCTISTA protozoans, diatoms, algae, green algaeslime molds(Chlorophyta) onlyKingdom ANIMALIAanimalsPhylum PORIFERA sponges xPhylum CNIDARIA hydras xPhylum platyhelminthes flatworms xPhylum NEMERTINAribbon wormsPhylum NEMATODAroundwormsPhylum NEMATOMORPHAhorsehair wormsPhylum ROTIFERArotifersPhylum GASTROTRICHAgastrotrichsPhylum CHELICERATAClass ARACHNIDAOrder SOLPUGIDA sun spiders x xOrder SCORPIONIDA scorpions x x xOrder ARANEAE spiders x part part xOrder PSEUDOSCORPIONIDA pseudoscorpionsOrder OPILIONESharvestmenSubclass ACARI mites, ticks partPhylum MANDIBULATASubphylum MYRIAPODAcontinued on page 233

appendicesappendix b. continuedTAXa cOMMON name uP-TO-DATE HANDBOOK OR Computerized LOCALcHECKList sYSTEMATIC geo-referenced Taxonomic/OF species monograph distributional SYSTEMatICDATABASE expertiseClass DIPLOPODA millipedes xClass CHILOPODAcentipedesClass PAUROPODA pauropods xClass SYMPHYLA symphylans xSubphylum HEXAPODAClass PROTURA proturans xClass COLLEMBOLA springtails xClass DIPLURAdipluransClass INSECTAinsectsOrder MICROCORYPHIAbristletailsOrder EPHEMEROPTERA mayflies x xOrder ODONATA dragonflies, damselflies x x x xOrder PLECOPTERA stoneflies x x xOrder MANTODEA mantids x x x xOrder NOTOPTERA grylloblattids x x xOrder ORTHOPTERA grasshoppers & allies x xOrder PSOCOPTERA book & bark lice x xOrder HEMIPTERA true bugs x part Heteroptera only xOrder THYSANOPTERA thrips xOrder MEGALOPTERA alder & dobson flies x xOrder RAPHIDIOPTERA snakeflies x x xOrder NEUROPTERA lacewing & allies x x xOrder COLEOPTERA beetles x part Carabidae only Carabidae andaquatics onlyOrder MECOPTERA scorpionflies x x xOrder DIPTERA true flies a few families part Asilidae,Ceratopogonidae,Chaoboridae,Culicidae, Dixidaeonlycontinued on page 234

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaappendix b. continuedTAXa cOMMON name uP-TO-DATE HANDBOOK OR Computerized LOCALcHECKList sYSTEMATIC geo-referenced Taxonomic/OF species monograph distributional SYSTEMATICDATABASE expertiseOrder LEPIDOPTERA butterflies & moths x butterflies only butterflies only xOrder TRICHOPTERA caddisflies xOrder HYMENOPTERA bees, wasps, ants & allies a few families ants only ants onlyPhylum CRUSTACEAClass BRANCHIOPODA fairy shrimps & water fleas part Cladocera onlyClass OSTRACODA seed shrimps xClass COPEPODA copepods part part diaptomids onlyClass MALACOSTRACAOrder AMPHIPODA scuds xOrder ISOPODAisopodsOrder DECAPODA crayfish xPhylum ANNELIDAannelid wormsClass POLYCHAETApolychaete wormsClass OLIGOCHAETA earth worms xClass HIRUDINEA leeches xPhylum MOLLUSCAmolluscsClass BIVALVIA clams xClass GASTROPODA snails, slugs part partPhylum TARDIGRADAwater bearsPhylum BRYOZOAmoss animalsPhylum CRANIATAvertebratesClass CYCLOSTOMATA lamprey x x x xClass OSTEICHTHYES bony fishes x x x xClass AMPHIBIA amphibians x x x xClass REPTILIA reptiles x x x xClass AVES birds x x passerines only xClass MAMMALIA mammals x x x xKingdom FUNGIfungicontinued on page 235

appendicesappendix b. continuedTAXa cOMMON name uP-TO-DATE HANDBOOK OR Computerized LOCALcHECKList sYSTEMATIC geo-referenced Taxonomic/OF species monograph distributional SYSTEMatICDATABASE expertisePhylum ZYGOMYCOTAzygomycetesPhylum BASIDIOMYCOTA smuts, rusts, jelly fungi, part part partmushrooms, etc.(basidiomycetes)Phylum ASCOMYCOTA yeasts, truffles, lichens (ascomycetes) part lichens only part xKingdom PLANTAEplantsPhylum BRYOPHYTA mosses x x part xPhylum HEPATOPHYTA liverworts x part xPhylum ANTHOCEROPHYTA hornworts xPhylum LYCOPHYTA *(= LYCOPODIOPHYTA) club mosses x x x xPhylum SPHENOPHYTA *(= EQUISETOPHYTA) horsetails x x x xPhylum FILICINOPHYTA *(= PTERIDOPHYTA) ferns x x xPhylum CONIFEROPHYTA * conifers (gymnosperms) x x x xPhylum ANTHOPHYTA *(ANGIOSPERMOPHYTA) flowering plants (angiosperms) x x x xsource: Prepared for this report.notes: Major classification follows Margulis, L. and K.V. Schwartz. 1998. Five Kingdoms. An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth. Third Edition. W.H. Freeman andCo., New York, NY. 520pp. The classification is detailed in some phyla to show the differing extent of knowledge in the larger taxa. Non-vascular plant phyla are marked with anasterisk (*).

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaNotes1 Canadian Endangered Species Conservation Council.2006. Wild Species 2005: The General Status ofSpecies in Canada. Minister of Public Works andGovernment Services Canada, Ottawa, ON.2 B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks.2000. Mountain Goat in British Columbia:Ecology, Conservation and Management.6pp. Available at: www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/mtngoat.pdf.3 Mountain Caribou Technical Advisory Committee.2002. A Strategy for the Recovery of MountainCaribou in British Columbia. B.C. Ministry ofWater, Land and Air Protection, Victoria, BC. 73pp.Available at: wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/mtcaribou_rcvrystrat02.pdf.4 Hatfield, T. 1999. Stickleback Species Pairs. B.C.Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks,Conservation Data Centre, Victoria, BC. Wildlifeat Risk brochure. 6pp.5 Molnar, J., M. Marvier and P. Kareiva. 2004. Thesum is greater than the parts. ConservationBiology 18: 1670-1671.6 Environment Canada. 2005. CanadianBiodiversity Strategy: Canada’s Response to theConvention on Biological Diversity. BiodiversityConvention Office, Hull, PQ. 85pp. Available at:www.cbin.ec.gc.ca/strategy/default.cfm?lang=e.7 Vold, T. 2008. Ecological Concepts, Principlesand Application to Conservation. BiodiversityBC, Victoria, BC. 24pp. Available at: www.biodiversitybc.org.8 See endnote 5.9 Peterson, G., C.R. Allen and C.S. Holling. 1998.Ecological resilience, biodiversity and scale.Ecosystems 1: 6-18.10 See endnote 7.11 World Resources Institute. 2003. Ecosystemsand Human Well-Being: A Framework ForAssessment. Millennium Ecosystem Assessmentand Island Press, Washington, DC. 212pp.Available at: www.millenniumassessment.org/en/Framework.aspx.12 Hilborn, R., T.P. Quinn, D.E. Schindler andD.E. Rogers. 2003. Biocomplexity and fisheriessustainability. Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences 100(11): 6564-6568.13 Haas, G.R. 2001. The evolution through naturalhybridization of the Umatilla dace (Pisces:Rhinichthys umatilla), and their associatedecology and systematics. PhD thesis, Universityof British Columbia, Vancouver, BC.14 Rieseberg, L.H. and J.H. Willis. 2007. Plantspeciation. Science 317: 910-914.15 Carroll, A.L., J. Régnière, J.A. Logan, S.W. Taylor,B.J. Bentz and J.A. Powell. 2006. Impacts ofclimate change on range expansion by themountain pine beetle. Natural ResourcesCanada, Canadian Forest Service, PacificForestry Centre, Victoria, BC. Mountain PineBeetle Initiative Working Paper 2006-14.16 Rooney, T.P. 2001. Deer impacts on forestecosystems: a North American perspective.Forestry 74: 201-208.17 McShea, W.J. and J.H. Rappole. 1992. White-taileddeer as keystone species within forested habitatsin Virginia. Virginia Journal of Science 43: 177-186.18 McShea, W.J. and J.H. Rappole. 1997. Herbivoresand the ecology of forest understory birds.Pp. 398-309 in W.J. McShea, H.B. Underwoodand J.H. Rappole (eds.). Smithsonian Press,Washington, DC. 402pp.19 D. Fraser, B.C. Ministry of Forests and Range,ppersonal communication.20 Daily, G. (ed.). 1997. Nature’s Services: SocietalDependence on Natural Ecosystems. IslandPress, Washington, DC. 412pp.21 Costanza, R., R. d’Arge, R. de Groot, S. Farber, M.Grasso, B. Hannon, K. Limburg, S. Naeem, R.V.O’Neill, J. Paruelo, R.G. Raskin, P. Sutton and M. vanden Belt. 1997. The value of the world’s ecosystemservices and natural capital. Nature 387: 253-260.22 Hågvar, S. 1998. Nature as an arena for thequality of life: psycho-spiritual values – thenext main focus in nature conservation? TheEnvironmentalist 19: 163-169.23 Gobster, P.H. and R.B. Hull (eds.). 2000. RestoringNature: Perspectives from the Social Sciences andHumanities. Island Press, Washington, DC. 322pp.24 Garibaldi, A. and N. Turner. 2004. Culturalkeystone species: implications for ecologicalconservation and restoration. Ecologyand Society 9(3): 1-18. Available at: www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss3/art1.25 Hennon, P.E., D.V. D’Amore, S. Zeglen and M.Grainger. 2005. Yellow-cedar decline in theNorth Coast Forest District of British Columbia.U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,Pacific Northwest Research Station, Juneau, AK.Research Note PNW-RN-549. 16pp.26 Hebda, R.J. 2006. Silviculture and climate change.Canadian Silviculture November 2006: 6-8.27 Buchmann, S.L. and G.P. Nabhan. 1996. TheForgotten Pollinators. Island Press, Washington,DC. 292pp.28 United Nations. 1997. United NationsConference on Environment and Development(1992). U.N. Department of Public Information.Available at: www.un.org/geninfo/bp/enviro.html.29 Environment Canada. no date. CanadianBiodiversity Information Network. Available at:www.cbin.ec.gc.ca/strategy/prov.cfm?lang=e.30 Turner, N.J., H.V. Kuhnlein and K.N. Egger.1985. The cottonwood mushroom (Tricholomapopulinum Lange): a food resource of theInterior Salish Indian Peoples of BritishColumbia. 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notes35 Hunn, E.S., N.J. Turner and D.H. French. 1998.Ethnobiology and subsistence. Pp. 525-545 inD.E. Walker (ed.). Plateau, Vol. 12, Handbookof North American Indians. SmithsonianInstitution, Washington, DC. 808pp.36 Alestine, A., A. Karst and N.J. Turner. 2006.Arctic and subarctic plants. Pp. 222-235 inD.H. Ubelaker, D. Stanford, B. Smith and E.J.E.Szathmary (eds.). Environment, Origins andPopulation, Vol. 3, Handbook of North AmericanIndians. Smithsonian Institution, Washington,DC. 1160pp.37 Turner, N.J. and F.H. Chambers. 2006. Northwestcoast and plateau plants. Pp. 251-262 in D.H.Ubelaker, D. Stanford, B. Smith and E.J.E.Szathmary (eds.). Environment, Origins andPopulation, Vol. 3, Handbook of North AmericanIndians. Smithsonian Institution, Washington,DC. 1160pp.38 Turner, N.J. 1988. “The importance of a rose”:evaluating the cultural significance of plantsin Thompson and Lillooet Interior Salish.American Anthropologist 90(2): 272-290.39 Turner, N.J. 2005. 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taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia71 Fedje, D.W. and R.W. Mathewes (eds.). 2005.Haida Gwaii: Human History and Environmentfrom the Time of the Loon to the Time of theIron People. UBC Press, Vancouver, BC. 448pp.72 Harington, C.R. (ed.). 2001. AnnotatedBibliography of Quaternary Vertebrates ofNorthern North America with RadiocarbonDates. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, ON.360pp.73 Zazula, G.D., C.E. Schweger, A.B. Beaudoin andG.H. McCourt. 2006. Macrofossil and pollenevidence for full glacial steppe within andecological mosaic along the Bluefish River,eastern Beringia. Quaternary International142-143: 2-19.74 R. Hebda, Royal British Columbia Museum,personal communication.75 Mathewes, R.W. 1979. A paleoecological analysisof Quadra Sand at Point Grey, British Columbia,based on indicator pollen. Canadian Journal ofEarth Sciences 16: 847-858.76 Lian, O.B., R.W. Mathewes and S.R. Hicock.2001. Paleoenvironmental reconstruction of thePort Moody Interstade, a non-glacial intervalin southwestern British Columbia about 18,00014C years BP. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences38: 943-952.77 Carlson, C.C. and K. Klein. 1996. Late Pleistocenesalmon of Kamloops Lake. Pp. 274-280 inR. Ludvigsen (ed.). Life in Stone: A NaturalHistory of British Columbia’s Fossils. UBC Press,Vancouver, BC. 310pp.78 Marr, K.L., G.A. Allen and R.J. Hebda. In press.Refugia in the Cordilleran ice sheet of westernNorth America: chloroplast DNA diversity in theArctic-alpine plant Oxyria digyna. Journal ofBiogeography. OnlineEarly version available at:www.blackwell-synergy.com/toc/jbi/0/0.79 Hebda, R.J. and J.C. Haggarty (eds.). 1997. BrooksPeninsula: An Ice Age Refugium on VancouverIsland. B.C. Parks, Victoria, BC. Occasional PaperNo. 5. 461pp.80 See endnote 71.81 See endnote 78.82 Heinrichs, M.L., R.J. Hebda and I. Walker, I. 2001.Holocene vegetation and natural disturbancein the Engelmann Spruce–Subalpine Firbiogeoclimatic zone at Mt. Kobau, BritishColumbia. Canadian Journal of Forest Research31: 2183-2199.83 Heinrichs, M.L., R.J. Hebda, I. Walker andS.L. Palmer. 2002. Postglacial paleoecologyand inferred paleoclimate intervals in theEngelmann Spruce–Subalpine Fir forest ofsouth-central British Columbia, Canada.Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology 148: 347-369.84 See endnote 62.85 See endnote 71.86 See endnote 62.87 Cannings, R. and S. Cannings. 1996. BritishColumbia: A Natural History. Greystone Books,Vancouver, BC. 310pp.88 See endnote 62.89 See endnote 82.90 Walker, I.R. and M.G. Pellatt. 2003. Climatechange in coastal British Columbia – apaleoenvironmental perspective. CanadianWater Resources Journal 28: 531-566.91 See endnote 72.92 Wagner, F.J.E. 1959. Palaeoecology of the marinePleistocene faunas of southwestern BritishColumbia. Geological Survey of Canada Bulletin52. 67pp.93 Mathewes, R.W., L.E. Heusser and R.T. Patterson.1993. Evidence for a Younger Dryas-like coolingevent on the British Columbia coast. Geology 21:101-104.94 R. Hebda, Royal British Columbia Museum,unpublished data.95 See endnote 93.96 Lundelius, E.L. Jr., R.W. Graham, E. Anderson,J. Guilday, J.A. Holman, D. Steadman and S.D.Webb. 1983. Terrestrial vertebrate faunas. Pp.311-353 in S.C. Porter (ed.). Late QuaternaryEnvironments of the United States: Vol. 1, TheLate Pleistocene. University of Minnesota,Minneapolis, MN.97 Martin, P.S. and R.G. Klein. 1984. QuaternaryExtinctions: A Prehistoric Revolution. Universityof Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. 892pp.98 Hebda, R.J. 1995. British Columbia vegetationand climate history with focus on 6 KA BP.Géographie Physique et Quaternaire 49: 55-79.99 Brown, K.J. and R.J. Hebda. 2002. Origin,development, and dynamics of coastaltemperate conifer rainforests of southernVancouver Island, Canada. Canadian Journal ofForest Research 32: 353-372.100 See endnote 79.101 See endnote 82.102 Pellatt, M., R.J. Hebda and R.W. Mathewes. 2001.High resolution Holocene vegetation history andclimate from Hole 1034B, ODP Leg 169S, SaanichInlet, Canada. Marine Geology 174: 211-226.103 Brown, K.J. and R.J. Hebda. 2002. Ancient fireson southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia,Canada: a change in causal mechanisms atabout 2,000 ybp. Environmental Archaeology 7:1-12.104 See endnote 98.105 See endnote 82.106 Clague, J.J., J.R. Harper, R.J. Hebda and D.E.Howes. 1982. Late Quaternary sea levels andcrustal movements, coastal British Columbia.Canadian Journal of Earth Science 19: 597-618.107 See endnote 98.108 Mathewes, R.W. and M. King. 1989. Holocenevegetation, climate and lake level changes in theInterior Douglas-fir biogeoclimatic zone, BritishColumbia. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences26: 1811-1825.109 See endnote 71.110 See endnote 98.111 See endnote 102.112 Heinrichs, M.L., M.G. Evans, R.J. Hebda, I.Walker, S. L. Palmer and S.M. Rosenberg. 2004.Holocene climatic change and landscaperesponse at Cathedral Provincial Park, BritishColumbia, Canada. Geographie Physique etQuaternaire 58: 123-139.113 See endnote 98.

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taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia157 Erickson, W. 1993. Ecosystems at Risk in BritishColumbia: Garry Oak Ecosystems. B.C. Ministryof Environment, Land and Parks, Wildlife Branch,Victoria, BC. 6pp. Available at: wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/garryoak.pdf.158 See endnote 128.159 B.C. Ministry of Environment. 2007.Environmental Trends 2007. State of EnvironmentReporting Office, Victoria, BC. Available at: www.env.gov.bc.ca/soe/et07/index.html.160 See endnote 156.161 See endnote 157.162 Hebda, R. 2004. Paleoecology, climate changeand forecasting the future of species at risk. InT.D. Hooper (ed.). Proceedings of the Speciesat Risk 2004 Pathways to Recovery Conference.March 2-6, 2004, Victoria, BC.163 Ciruna, K.A., B. Butterfield, J.D. McPhail andB.C. Ministry of Environment. 2007. EAU BC:Ecological Aquatic Units of British Columbia.Nature Conservancy of Canada, Toronto, ON.200pp plus DVD-ROM.164 Environment Canada. No date. The world’swater supply. 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Biodiversity BC, Victoria, BC.70pp. Available at: www.biodiversitybc.org.391 Buchmann, S.L. and G.P. Nabhan. 1996. TheForgotten Pollinators. Island Press, Washington,DC. 312pp.392 Losey, J.E. and M. Vaughan. 2006. The economicvalue of ecological services provided by insects.Bioscience 56: 311-323.393 Larsen, T.H., N. Williams and C. Kremen.2005. Extinction order and altered communitystructure rapidly disrupt ecosystem functioning.Ecology Letters 8: 538-547.394 Black, S.H., N. Hodges, M. Vaughan andM. Shepherd. 2007. Pollinators in naturalareas: a primer on habitat management. TheXerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation,Portland, OR. 8pp. Available at: www.xerces.org/Pollinator_Insect_Conservation/Managing_Habitat_for_Pollinators.pdf.395 E. Elle, Garry Oak Ecosystem Recovery Team,personal communication.396 Garry Oak Recovery Team. 2006. ResearchColloquium 2006: Abstracts of Presentations.Available at: www.wnps.org/ecosystems/west_lowland_eco/documents/GOERTResearchColloquium2006Proceedings.pdf.397 National Research Council. 2006. Statusof Pollinators in North America. NationalAcademies Press, Washington, DC. 307pp.398 Kremen, C.N., M. Williams and R.W. Thorp. 2002Crop pollination from native bees at risk fromagricultural intensification. Proceedings of theNational Academy of Sciences 99: 16812-16816.399 Gates, J. 1995. Bees and pollination. Tree FruitLeader 4(1). Available at: www.agf.gov.bc.ca/treefrt/newslett/bees_pollination.htm.400 See endnote 398.401 See endnote 397.402 Terborgh, J., L. Lopez, P. Nuñez, M. Rao, G.Shahabuddin, G. Orihuela, M. Riveros, R.Ascanio, G.H. Adler, T.D. Lambert and L. Balbas.2001. Ecological meltdown in predator-freeforest fragments. Science 294: 1923-1926.403 Stolzenburg, W. 2008. Where the wild thingswere: life, death and ecological wreckage in aland of vanishing predators. 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notes415 Hobbs, N.T. 1996. Modification of ecosystems byungulates. Journal of Wildlife Management 60:695-713.416 Singer, F.J., L.C. Zeigenfuss and D.T. Barnett.2000. Elk, beaver and the persistence of willowsin national parks: response to Keigley (2000).Wildlife Society Bulletin 28: 451-453.417 Singer, F.J., L.C. Zeigenfus, R.G. Cates and D.T.Barnett. 1998. Elk, multiple factors, and thepersistence of willows in national parks. WildlifeSociety Bulletin 26: 419-428.418 Forman, R.T.T. 2000. Estimate of the areaaffected ecologically by the road system in theUnited States. Conservation Biology 14: 31-35.419 Wittmer, H.U., B.N. McLellan, R. Serrouyaand C.D. Apps. 2007. Changes in landscapecomposition influence the decline of athreatened woodland caribou population.Journal of Animal Ecology 76:568-579.420 B.C. Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection.2004. Accounts and Measures for ManagingIdentified Wildlife: Caribou – Version 2004.Biodiversity Branch, Victoria, BC. 29pp.421 Mountain Caribou Technical AdvisoryCommittee 2002. A Strategy for the Recoveryof Mountain Caribou in British Columbia. B.C.Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection,Victoria, BC. 73pp.422 See endnote 419.423 Dunster, J. and K. Dunster. 1996. Dictionaryof Natural Resource Management. UBC Press,Vancouver, BC.424 Polster, D.F. 1991. Natural Vegetation Successionand Sustainable Reclamation. Presentation tothe Canadian Land Reclamation Association/B.C. Technical and Research Committee onReclamation, Kamloops, B.C., June 24–28, 1991.Available at: www.for.gov.bc.ca/nursery/fnabc/Proceedings/NatVegSuccsn.htm.425 Pidwirny, M. and I.K. Barber. 2006.PhysicalGeography.net: Fundamentals (ofPhysical Geography) Online Textbook (2ndedition). University of British ColumbiaOkanagan. Available at: www.physicalgeography.net/about.html.426 Whittle, C.A., L.C. Duchesne and T. Needham.1997. The importance of buried seeds andvegetative propagation in the development ofpostfire plant communities. EnvironmentalReview 5: 79-87.427 Ryan, K.C. 2002. Dynamic interactions betweenforest structure and fire behavior in borealecosystems. Silva Fennica 36(1): 13-39.428 Campbell, E.M. and J.A. Antos. 2003. Postfiresuccession in Pinus albicaulis – Abies lasiocarpaforests of southern British Columbia. CanadianJournal of Botany 81: 383-397.429 Flannigan, M.D. and B.M. Wotton. 2007.Assessing Past, Current, and Future FireOccurrence and Fire Severity in BritishColumbia. Canadian Forest Service. Available at:feu.scf.rncan.gc.ca/research/climate_change/activites/nat_bc_e.htm.430 See endnote 426.431 See endnote 428.432 Keane, R.E., G.J. Cary, I.D. Davies, M.D. Flannigan,R.H. Gardner, S. Lavorel, J.M. Lenihan, C. Li andT.S. Rupp. 2004. A classification of landscape firesuccession models: spatial simulations of fire andvegetation dynamics. Ecological Modelling 179:3-27.433 Stoffels, D. 2000. Natural Disturbance and LargeScale Vegetation Succession Scenarios for theColumbia Forest District Columbia MountainsCaribou Project. B.C. Ministry of Forests,Research Branch, Prince Rupert, BC. 23pp.Available at: www.for.gov.bc.ca/hre/LACH/pdf/land/lachm01.pdf.434 Turner, J.S. and P.G. Krannitz. 2001. Coniferdensity increases in semi-desert habitatsof British Columbia in the absence of fire.Northwest Science 75: 176-182.435 See endnote 426.436 See endnote 428.437 DeLong, S.C. 1998. Natural disturbance rate andpatch size distribution of forests in northernBritish Columbia: implications for forestmanagement. Northwest Science 72: 35-48.438 Gavin, D.G., L.B. Brubaker and K.P Lertzman.2003. Holocene fire history of a coastaltemperate rain forest based on soil charcoalradiocarbon dates. Ecology 84(1): 186-201.439 Agee, J.K. 1994. Fire and weather disturbances interrestrial ecosystems of the eastern Cascades.USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest ResearchStation, Portland, OR. General TechnicalReport PNW-GTR-320. 52pp. Available at: www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/6225.440 See endnote 433.441 See endnote 429.442 Gayton, D.V. 2003. British Columbia grasslands:monitoring vegetation change. FORREX–ForestResearch Extension Partnership, Kamloops, BC.FORREX Series 7. Available at: www.forrex.org/publications/forrexseries/series.asp.443 Ibid.444 Parminter, J. (co-author and co-editor). 1995.Biodiversity Guidebook – Forest Practices Codeof British Columbia. B.C. Ministry of Forestsand B.C. Ministry of Environment, Victoria,BC. 99pp. Available at: www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcguide/biodiv/biotoc.htm.445 B.C. Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries.2004. Fire Effects on Rangeland. Fire Effects onRangeland Factsheet Series No. 1. 4pp. Availableat: www.agf.gov.bc.ca/range/publications/documents/fire1.pdf.446 See endnote 426.447 Keen, F.P. 1952. Insect enemies of westernforests. United States Department of AgricultureMiscellaneous Publication 273. 280pp.448 Ibid.449 See endnote 426.450 Parks Canada. 2000. Yoho National Park ofCanada Management Plan: Summary of theEnvironmental Assessment. Available at: www.pc.gc.ca/docs/v-g/yoho/plan1/sec11/page1_e.asp.451 See endnote 427.452 See endnote 450.453 McCullough, D.G., R.A. Werner and D. Neumann.1998. Fire and insects in northern and borealforest ecosystems of North America. AnnualReview of Entomology 43: 107-127.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia454 Drever, C.R., G. Peterson, C. Messier, Y. Bergeronand M. Flannigan. 2006. Can forest managementbased on natural disturbances maintainecological resilience? Canadian Journal of ForestResearch 36(9): 2285-2299.455 Spies, T.A., M.A. Hemstrom, A. Youngblood andS. Hummel. 2006. Conserving old-growth forestdiversity in disturbance-prone landscapes.Conservation Biology 20(2): 351-362.456 Keane, R.E., G.J. Cary, I.D. Davies, M.D.Flannigan, R.H. Gardner, S. Lavorel, J.M.Lenihan, C. Li and T. S. Rupp. 2004. Aclassification of landscape fire successionmodels: spatial simulations of fire andvegetation dynamics. Ecological Modelling 17:3-27.457 See endnote 15.458 Canadian Forest Service. 2007. Mountain PineBeetle Biology. Available at: mpb.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/biology/biology_e.html.459 See endnote 15.460 Safranyik, L. and A.L. Carroll. 2006. The biologyand epidemiology of the mountain pine beetlein lodgepole pine forests. The mountain pinebeetle: a synthesis of biology, management, andimpacts on lodgepole pine. Natural ResourcesCanada, Canadian Forest Service, PacificForestry Centre, Victoria, BC. 304pp.461 Unger, L. 1993. Mountain pine beetle. ForestPest Leaflet. Canada-BC Partnership Agreementon Forest Resource Development: FRDA II. Fo29-6/76-1993E.462 E. Lofroth, B.C. Ministry of Environment,personal communication. To date, no researchhas been done to investigate this possibleoutcome.463 Martin, K., A. Norris and M. Drever. 2006. Effectsof bark beetle outbreaks on avian biodiversityin the British Columbia interior: implicationsfor critical habitat management. B.C. Journal ofEcosystems and Management 7: 10-24. Availableat: www.forrex.org/publications/jem/ISS38/vol7_no3_art2.pdf.464 Anonymous. 2007. Beetle studies investigateeffects on forest hydrology. Natural ResourcesCanada. Information Forestry. 3pp.465 Bunnell, F.L., K.A. Squires and I. Houde. 2004.Evaluat ing the effects of large-scale salvagelogging for moun tain pine beetle on terrestrialand aquatic vertebrates. Natural ResourcesCanada, Canadian Forest Service, PacificForestry Centre, Victoria, BC. Mountain PineBeetle Initiative Working Paper 2004-2. Availableat: warehouse.pfc.forestry.ca/pfc/25154.pdf.466 Boon, S. 2006. Determining the impact of MPBkilledforest and elevated harvesting on snowaccumulation and the projected impacts on meltand peak flow. Forest Investment Account (FIA)Report, FIA Project M065006 (2005/06). Abstractavailable at: www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/fia/html/FIA2006MRunp001.htm.467 Forest Practices Board. 2007. The effect ofmountain pine beetle attack and salvageharvesting on streamflows. Special Investigation.FPB/SIR/16. 27pp. Available at: www.fpb.gov.bc.ca/s_investigations.htm.468 See endnote 463.469 See endnote 15.470 Wong, C., H. Sandmann and B. Dorner. 2004.Historical variability of natural disturbancesin British Columbia: a literature review.FORREX–Forest Research Extension Partnership,Kamloops, BC. FORREX Series 12. Available at:www.forrex.org/publications/forrexseries/series.asp.471 Ibid.472 Huggard, D.J, W. Klenner and A. Vyse. 2000.Identifying and managing fauna sensitiveto forest management: examples fromthe Sicamous Creek and Opax MountainSilvicultural Systems Sites. Pp. 235-239 in L.M.Darling (ed). Proceedings of a Conference onthe Biology and Management of Species andHabitats at Risk, Kamloops, B.C., Feb. 15-19,1999. Volume 1. B.C. Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks, Victoria, BC and UniversityCollege of the Cariboo, Kamloops, BC. 490pp.473 Nordyke, K.A. and S.W. Buskirk. 1991. Southernred-backed vole, Clethrionomys gapperi,populations in relation to stand successionand old-growth character in the central RockyMountains. Canadian Field-Naturalist 105:330-34.474 Maser, C. and Z. Maser. 1988. Mycophagy ofred-backed voles Clethrionomys californicus andClethrionomys gapperi. Great Basin Naturalist.48(2): 269-273.475 Holt, R. and T. Hatfield. 2007. Key Elementsof Biodiversity in British Columbia: SomeExamples From the Terrestrial and FreshwaterAquatic Realm. Biodiversity BC, Victoria, BC.70pp. Available at: www.biodiversitybc.org.476 Hayes, J.P. and S.P. Cross. 1987. Characteristicsof logs used by western red-backed voles,Clethrionomys californicus, and deer mice,Peromyscus maniculatus. Canadian Field-Naturalist 101: 543-46.477 Clarkson, D.A. and L.S. Mills. 1994. Hypogeoussporocarps in forest remnants and clearcuts insouthwest Oregon. Northwest Science 68:259-65.478 Ibid.479 See endnote 390.480 Fenger, M., T. Manning, J. Cooper, S. Guy andP. Bradford. 2006. Wildlife and Trees in BritishColumbia. Lone Pine Publishing, Edmonton, AB.336pp.481 Ibid.482 Martin, K. and J.M. Eadie. 1999. Nest webs: acommunity wide approach to the managementand conservation of cavity nesting birds. ForestEcology and Management 115: 243-257.483 See endnote 480.484 Ibid.485 Simard, S. and A. Vyse. 2006. Trade-offs betweencompetition and facilitation: a case study ofvegetation management in the interior cedarhemlockforests of southern British Columbia.Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36(10):2486-2496.486 Sachs, D.L. 1996. Simulation of the growth ofmixed stands of Douglas-fir and paper birchusing the FORECAST model. Pp. 152-158 in P.Comeau and K.D. Thomas (eds.). Silvicultureof Temperate and Boreal Broadleaved-coniferMixtures. B.C. Ministry of Forests, ResearchBranch, Victoria, BC. Land ManagementHandbook 36. 163pp.

notes487 Gerlach, J.P., P.B. Reich, K. Puettmann and T.Baker. 1997. Species, diversity, and density affecttree seedling mortality from Armillaria root rot.Canadian Journal of Forest Research 27: 1509-1512.488 Arsenault, A. and T. Goward. 1999. The dripzone effect: new insights into the distribution ofrare lichens. Pp. 767-768 in L.M. Darling (ed.).Proceedings of a Conference on the Biologyand Management of Species and Habitats atRisk, Kamloops, B.C., Feb. 15-19, 1999. Volume2. B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands andParks, Victoria, BC and University College of theCariboo, Kamloops, BC. 520pp.489 S. Simard, University of British Columbia,personal communication.490 See endnote 390.491 Holt, R.F. 2001. A Strategic EcologicalRestoration Assessment (SERA) in the ForestRegions of British Columbia. Summary:Ecological Restoration Priorities by Region.Unpublished report prepared for B.C. Ministry ofEnvironment, Habitat Branch, Victoria, BC.492 Holt, R.F., G. Utzig, M. Carver and J. Booth. 2003.Biodiversity Conservation in BC: An Assessmentof Threats and Gaps. Unpublished reportprepared for B.C. Ministry of Environment,Biodiversity Branch, Victoria, BC. Availableat: www.veridianecological.ca/publications/Veridian Bio Gaps_Report_final.pdf.493 B.C. Conservation Data Centre. 2007. BC Speciesand Ecosystems Explorer. Available at: www.env.gov.bc.ca/atrisk/toolintro.html.494 See endnote 129.495 See endnote 390.496 Lavkulich, L.M. and K.W.G. Valentine. 2007. TheSoil Landscapes of British Columbia: Soil AndSoil Processes. B.C. Ministry of Environment,Victoria, BC. Available at: www.env.gov.bc.ca/soils/landscape/2.2soil.html.497 Millar, C.E., L.M. Turk and H.D. Foth. 1965.Fundamentals of Soil Science, 4th edition. Wiley,New York, NY. 491pp.498 B.C. Ministry of Forests. 2002. Stand LevelComponents of Biodiversity: Module 3D – ForestFloor. Available at: www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/training/00001/module03/forest-floor.htm.499 Alberta Environment. 2008. Landcontamination. Available at: www.environment.alberta.ca/1015.html.500 Atwood, L.B. and P.G. Krannitz. 1999. Effectof the microbiotic crust of the antelope brush(Purshia tridentata) shrub-steppe on soilmoisture. Pp. 809-812 in L.M. Darling (ed.).Proceedings of a Conference on the Biologyand Management of Species and Habitats atRisk, Kamloops, B.C., Feb. 15-19, 1999. Volume2. B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands andParks, Victoria, BC and University College of theCariboo, Kamloops, BC. 520pp.501 Williston, P. 2000. A lust for crust: successionalmicrobiotic crusts in British Columbia. BotanicalElectronic News 251.502 See endnote 426.503 Harmon, M.E., J.F. Franklin, F.J. Swanson,P. Sollins, S.V. Gregory, J.D. Lattin, N.H.Anderson, S.P. Cline, N.G. Aumen, J.R. Sedell,G.W. Lienkaemper, K. Cromack Jr. and K.W.Cummins. 1986. Ecology of coarse woody debrisin temperate ecosystems. Advances in EcologicalResearch 15: 133-302.504 B.C. Ministry of Forests. No date. Module3: Stand Level Components of Biodiversity.Module 3C Coarse Woody Debris. Availableon the internet at: www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/training/00001/module03/cwd.htm. Accessdate: October 10, 2007.505 Caza, C.L. 1993. Woody debris in the forestsof B.C.: a review of the literature and currentresearch. B.C. Ministry of Forests, Victoria, BC.Land Management Report 78. 112pp.506 Maser, C. and J.R. Sedell (eds.). 1994. From theforest to the sea: the ecology of wood in streams,rivers, estuaries, and oceans. St. Lucie Press, FL.507 B.C. Ministry of Forests. 2007. State of Cutblocks:Resource Stewardship Monitoring for StandlevelBiodiversity 2005. Forest Practices Branch,Victoria, BC. FREP Report 7. 14pp. Available at:www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/frep/site_files/reports/FREP_Report_07.pdf.508 Densmore, N., J. Parminter and V. Stevens.2004. Coarse woody debris: inventory, decaymodelling, and management implicationsin three biogeoclimatic zones. BC Journal ofEcosystems and Management 5(2): 14-29.Available at: www.forrex.org/publications/jem/jem.asp?issue=26.509 Durst, J.D. and J. Ferguson. 2000. Large woodydebris: an annotated bibliography. AlaskaDepartment of Fish and Game, Habitat andRestoration Division. 60pp. Available at: forestry.alaska.gov/pdfs/3Lit-LWD8-11.pdf.510 Deil, U. 2005. A review on habitats, plant traitsand vegetation of ephemeral wetlands – a globalperspective. Phytocoenologia 35(2-3): 533-705.511 Meyer, J.L, L.A. Kaplan, D. Newbold, D.L.Strayer, C.J. Woltemade, J.B. Zedler, R. Beilfuss,Q. Carpenter, R. Semlitsch, M.C. Watzin andP.H. Zedler. 2003. Where Rivers Are Born: TheScientific Imperative for Defending SmallStreams and Wetlands. Sierra Club and AmericanRivers. 26pp. Available at: www.americanrivers.org/site/PageServer?pagename=AR7_Publications.512 Naugle, D.E., R.R. Johnson, M.E. Estey andK.F. Higgins. 2000. A landscape approach toconserving wetland bird habitat in the prairiepothole region of eastern South Dakota.Wetlands 20: 588-604.513 Maret, T.J., J.D. Snyder and J.P. Collins.2006. Altered drying regime controls distributionof endangered salamanders and introducedpredators. Biological Conservation 127: 129-138.514 Batzer, D.P. and S.A. Wissinger. 1996. Ecologyof insect communities in nontidal wetlands.Annual Review of Entomology 41: 75-100.515 Brock, M.A., D.L. Nielsen, D.L., R.L., Shiel, J.D.Green and J.D. Langley. 2003. Drought andaquatic community resilience: the role of eggsand seeds in sediments of temporary wetlands.Freshwater Biology 48: 1207-1218.516 B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks.1993. State of the Environment Report forBritish Columbia. B.C. Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks, Victoria, BC and EnvironmentCanada, Communications, Pacific and YukonRegion, North Vancouver, BC. 127pp. Availableat: www.env.gov.bc.ca/soe/.517 Ibid.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia518 Boyle, C.A., L. Lavkulich, H. Schreier and E. Kiss.1997. Changes in land cover and subsequent effectson Lower Fraser Basin ecosystems from 1827 to1990. Environmental Management 21(2): 185-196.519 Moore, K. and K. Roger. 2003. Urban andAgricultural Encroachment onto Fraser LowlandWetlands – 1989 to 1999. In Proceedings of the2003 Georgia Basin/Puget Sound ResearchConference. Puget Sound Action Team, Olympia,WA.520 Prentice, A.C. and W.S. Boyd. 1988. Intertidal andAdjacent Upland Habitat in Estuaries Locatedon the East Coast of Vancouver Island: A PilotAssessment of Their Historical Changes. CanadianWildlife Service, Pacific and Yukon Region, Delta,BC. Technical Report Series No. 38.521 Axys Environmental Consulting Ltd. 2005.Redigitizing of Sensitive Ecosystems InventoryPolygons to Exclude Disturbance Areas: ASummary Report. 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taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia594 See endnote 584.595 Pearson, M.P., T. Hatfield, J.D. McPhail, J.S.Richardson, J.S. Rosenfeld, H. Schreier, D.Schluter, D.J. Sneep, M. Stejpovic, E.B. Taylor andP.M. Wood. 2006. Recovery Strategy for NooksackDace (Rhinichthys cataractae) in Canada[Proposed]. Species at Risk Act Recovery StrategySeries. Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Vancouver,BC. 31pp.596 Hyatt, K., M.S. Johannes and M. Stockwell. 2006.Appendix I: Pacific Salmon. In B.G. Lucas, S.Verrin, and R. Brown (eds.). Ecosystem Overview:Pacific North Coast Integrated ManagementArea (PNCIMA). Canadian Technical Report ofFisheries and Aquatic Science 2667. 101pp.597 Cederholm, C.J., D.H. Johnson, R.E. Bilby, L.G.Dominguez, A.M. Garrett, W.H. Graeber, E.L.Greda, M.D. Kunze, B.G. Marcot, J.F. Palmisano,R.W. Plotnikoff, W.G. Pearcy, C.A. Simenstadand P.C. Trotter. 2000. Pacific Salmon andWildlife—Ecological Contexts, Relationships,and Implications for Management. 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notes621 Irvine, J.R. 2002. COSEWIC status report on thecoho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch (InteriorFraser population) in Canada, in COSEWICassessment and status report on the coho salmonOncorhynchus kisutch (Interior Fraser population)in Canada. Committee on the Status of EndangeredWildlife in Canada, Ottawa, ON. 34pp.622 COSEWIC. 2003. COSEWIC assessmentand status report on the sockeye salmonOncorhynchus nerka (Cultus population) inCanada. Committee on the Status of EndangeredWildlife in Canada, Ottawa, ON. 57pp.623 COSEWIC. 2003. COSEWIC assessmentand status report on the Sockeye SalmonOncorhynchus nerka (Sakinaw population) inCanada. Committee on the Status of EndangeredWildlife in Canada, Ottawa, ON. 35pp.624 Krkošek, M., J.S. Ford, A. Morton, S. Lele, R.A.Myers and M.A. Lewis. 2007. Declining wildsalmon populations in relation to parasites fromfarm salmon. Science 318: 1772-1775.625 See endnote 596.626 Ibid.627 Brayshaw, T.C. 1996. Catkin-bearing Plantsof British Columbia. 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notes690 See endnote 687.691 See endnote 684.692 See endnote 688.693 See endnote 689.694 Ibid.695 See endnote 687.696 See endnote 685.697 Thomson, R.E. 1981. Oceanography of theBritish Columbia Coast. Canadian SpecialPublication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 56.Ministry of Supply and Services Canada. 291pp.698 See endnote 525.699 Hubertz, J., X. Huang, V. Kolluru and J. Edinger.2005. Physical Processes Affecting EstuarineHealth. Pp. 19-32 in S.A. Bortone (ed.). EstuarineIndicators. CRC Press, New York, NY. 531pp.700 Kjerfve, B. 1989. Estuarine Geomorphology andPhysical Oceanography. Pp. 47-78 in J.W. DayJr, C.A. Hall, W.M. Kemp and A. Yaez-Arancibia(eds.). Estuary Ecology. John Wiley and Sons,New York, NY. 582pp.701 Emmett, R., R. Llanso, J. Newton, R. Thom, M.Hornberger, C. Morgan, C. Levings, A. Coppingand P. Fishman. 2000. Geographic signatures ofNorth American west coast estuaries. Estuaries23: 765-792.702 See endnote 697.703 Ricklefs, R.E. 1990. Ecology (3rd edition). W.H.Freeman and Company, New York, NY. 896pp.704 Fox, I.K. and J.P. Nowlan. 1978. The managementof estuarine resources in Canada. CanadianEnvironment Advisory Council, Ottawa, ON.Report No. 6. 54pp.705 Simenstad, C.A. 1983. The Ecology of EstuarineChannels of the Pacific Northwest Coast: ACommunity Profile. U.S. Fish and WildlifeService Biological Services Program, NationalWetlands Research Center, Lafayette, LA. FWS/OBS-83/05. 181pp.706 Beck, M.W., K.L. Heck, K.W. Able, D.L. Childers,D.B. Eggleston, B.M. Gillanders, B. Halpern,C.G. Hays, K. Hoshino, T.J. Minello, R.J. Orth,P.F. Sheridan and M.P. Weinstein. 2001. Theidentification, conservation, and managementof estuarine and marine nurseries for fish andinvertebrates. Bioscience 51(8): 633-641.707 Butler, R.W., N.K. Dawe and D.E. Trethewey.1989. The Birds of Estuaries and Beaches inthe Strait of Georgia. Pp. 142-147 in K. Vermeerand R.W. Butler (eds.). The Ecology and Statusof Marine and Shoreline Birds in the Strait ofGeorgia, British Columbia. Canadian WildlifeService, Ottawa, ON. Special Publication. 186pp.708 Butler, R.W. and R.W. Campbell. 1987. The birdsof the Fraser River Delta: populations, ecologyand international significance. CanadianWildlife Service, Delta, BC. Occasional Paper No.65. 73pp.709 Butler, R. 2003. The Jade Coast: The Ecologyof the North Pacific Ocean. Key Porter Books,Toronto, ON. 176pp.710 British Columbia Nearshore Habitat Loss WorkGroup. 2001. A Strategy to Prevent CoastalHabitat Loss and Degradation in the GeorgiaBasin. Unpublished report. 56pp. Available at:www.env.gov.bc.ca/spd/ecc/docs/coastal.pdf.711 See endnote 701.712 Fraser River Estuary Study Steering Committee.1978. Fraser River Estuary Study: Summary.B.C. Ministry of Environment, Victoria, BC andFisheries and Environment Canada.713 Campbell-Prentice, A. and W.S. Boyd. 1988.Intertidal and Adjacent Upland Habitatin Estuaries Located on the East Coast ofVancouver Island: A Pilot Assessment of theirHistorical Changes. Canadian Wildlife Service,Pacific and Yukon Region, Delta, BC. TechnicalReport Series No. 38. 75pp.714 B.C. Ministry of Environment. 2006. Ecosystemsat Risk: Estuaries in British Columbia. Availableat: www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/Estuaries06_20.pdf.715 Hagen, M.E. 1984. British Columbia EstuarineInformation Catalogue. Vol. 1 - Vancouver Island– East. Lands Directorate, Environnent Canada,Vancouver BC. 146pp.716 Hagen, M.E. 1984. British Columbia EstuarineInformation Catalogue. Vol. 2 - LowerMainland – Sunshine Coast. Lands Directorate,Environnent Canada, Vancouver BC. 215pp.717 Remington, D. 1993. Coastal Wetlands HabitatAssessment and Classification for NorthwesternB.C. Pacific Estuary Conservation Program.Unpublished report.718 MacKenzie, W., D. Remington and J. Shaw.2000. Estuaries on the North Coast of BritishColumbia: A Reconnaissance Survey of SelectedSites. B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands andParks, and Ministry of Forests, Research Branch.Unpublished Report.719 Hunter, R.A., K.R. Summers and R.G. Davies.1985. A Rating Scheme for British Columbia’sMajor Coastal Wetlands. Unpublished reportprepared for B.C. Ministry of Environment. 29pp.720 Ryder, J.L., J.K. Kenyon, D. Buffett, K. Moore,M. Ceh and K. Stipec. 2007. An IntegratedBiophysical Assessment of Estuarine Habitatsin British Columbia to Assist RegionalConservation Planning. Canadian WildlifeService, Pacific and Yukon Region, Delta, BC.Technical Report Series No. 476. 141pp.721 Howes. D., M. Morris and M. Zacharias. 1999.British Columbia Estuary Mapping System.Version 1.0. Resources Inventory Committee,B.C. Ministry of Sustainable ResourceManagement, Victoria, BC. 62pp. Available at:ilmbwww.gov.bc.ca/risc/pubs/coastal/estuary/index.htm.722 Holt, R. 2007. Special Elements of Biodiversity inBritish Columbia. Biodiversity BC, Victoria, BC.30pp. Available at: www.biodiversitybc.org.723 IBA Canada. 2004. Important Bird Areas ofCanada. Available at: www.ibacanada.com/.724 R. Hebda, Royal British Columbia Museum,personal communication.725 IBA Canada. 2003. Scott Islands ExecutiveSummary. Available at: www.ibacanada.com/cpm_scott03.html.726 Ban, S. and A.W. Trites. 2007. Quantification ofterrestrial haul-out and rookery characteristicsof Steller sea lions. Marine Mammal Science 23:496-507.727 COSEWIC. 2003. COSEWIC assessment andupdate status report on the Steller sea lionEumatopia jubatus in Canada. Committee onthe Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada,Ottawa, ON. www.sararegistry.gc.ca/virtual_sara/files/cosewic/sr_steller_sea_lion_e.pdf.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia728 B.C. Conservation Data Centre. 2008.Occurrences For Steller Sea Lion Rookeries. B.C.Ministry of Environment, Victoria, BC. 5pp.729 See endnote 727.730 D. Biffard, B.C. Ministry of Environment,personal communication.731 See endnote 727.732 See endnote 596.733 Ibid.734 B. Holtby, Fisheries and Oceans Canada,personal communication.735 K. Hyatt, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, personalcommunication.736 B. Holtby, Fisheries and Oceans Canada,personal communication.737 Harper, D., P. Slaney and G. Wilson. 2007. LowerCheakamus River Habitat Compensation: PilotReach Bank-secured Large Wood Restoration.Report prepared for the Canadian NationalRailway Company. Report No. HR-CHEAK-BCK-CN-2007. 25pp. Available at: www.bccanoe.com/newsflash/Cheakamus_2007_LWD_restoration_Backgrounder_from_BCCF.pdf.738 Arsenault, A. and T. Goward. 2000. Ecologicalcharacteristics of inland rain forests. Pp.437-439 in L.M. Darling (ed.). Proceedings of aConference on the Biology and Management ofSpecies and Habitats at Risk, Kamloops, B.C.,Feb. 15-19, 1999. Volume 1. B.C. Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, BC andUniversity College of the Cariboo, Kamloops, BC.490pp.739 Utzig, G. 2005. Inland temperate rainforestregion. Map prepared for ForestEthics, Wildsightand Northwest Ecosystem Alliance. Available at:forestethics.org/img/original/intrain_final.jpg.740 See endnote 738.741 See endnote 438.742 Brown, K.J. and R.J. Hebda. 2002. Origin,development, and dynamics of coastaltemperate conifer rainforests of southernVancouver Island, Canada. Canadian Journal ofForest Research 32: 353-372.743 Holt, R.F. and D.J. MacKillop. 2006. EndangeredForests of the Inland Temperate Rainforest: AnInventory of Old-growth in Trout Lake and theIncomappleux. Prepared for the Columbia BasinFish and Wildlife Compensation Program andForestEthics. 47pp. Available at: www.fwcp.ca/version2/reports/pdfs/Endangered_Forests_of_the_Inland_Temperate_Rainforest.pdf.744 B.C. Ministry of Environment. 2006. Register ofBig Trees of British Columbia. Conservation DataCentre, Victoria, BC. Available at: www.env.gov.bc.ca/bigtree/docs/BigTreeRegistry.pdf.745 Winchester, N. 1998. Severing the web: changingbiodiversity in converted northern temperateancient coastal rainforests. Northwest Science72 (Special Issue No. 2): 124-126.746 Lindo, Z. and N.N. Winchester. 2006. Acomparison of microarthropod assemblages withemphasis on oribatid mites in canopy suspendedsoils and forest floors associated with ancientwestern redcedar trees. Pedobiologia 15(1): 31-41.747 Arsenault, A. and T. Goward. 1998. Patternsof lichen diversity and distribution in old andyoung forests of the Interior Cedar-HemlockZone of British Columbia. Pp. 21-22 inEcosystem Dynamics and Silviculture Systemsin Interior Wet-belt ESSF and ICH Forests:Workshop Proceedings, June 10-12, 1997.University of Northern British Columbia, PrinceGeorge, BC. Available at: www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/RSI/FSP/Kamloops/Misc020.pdf.748 Arsenault, A. and T. Goward. 2000. Inland oldgrowthrain forests: Safe havens for rare lichens.Pp. 759-766 in L.M. Darling (ed.). Proceedings ofa Conference on the Biology and Managementof Species and Habitats at Risk, Kamloops, B.C.,Feb. 15-19, 1999. Volume 2. B.C. Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, BC andUniversity College of the Cariboo, Kamloops, BC.520pp.749 Smith, W. and P. Lee (eds.). 2000. Canada’sForests at a Crossroads: An Assessment inthe Year 2000. World Resources Institute,Washington, DC. 114pp.750 B.C. Parks. Kitlope Heritage ConservancyProtected Area. No date. B.C. Ministry ofEnvironment, Victoria, BC. Available at: www.env.gov.bc.ca/bcparks/explore/parkpgs/kitlope.html.751 See endnote 749.752 Holt, R.F. 2004. Environmental ConditionsReport for the Haida Gwaii / Queen CharlotteIslands Land Use Plan. Integrated LandManagement Bureau, Victoria, BC. Available at:http://ilmbwww.gov.bc.ca/slrp/lrmp/nanaimo/qci/news/envconditionreport.html.753 Holt, R.F. and G. Sutherland. 2003.Environmental Risk Assessment: BaseCase: Coarse Filter Biodiversity – FinalReport. Prepared for North Coast Land andResources Management Plan, Integrated LandManagement Bureau, Victoria, BC. 44pp.Available at: http://ilmbwww.gov.bc.ca/citbc/b-CoFiltFull-Holt-Mar03.pdf .754 Holt, R.F. and A. MacKinnon. 2007. CentralCoast LUP Environmental Risk Assessment:Ecosystem Protection, Condition and Trends.Unpublished report prepared for IntegratedLand Management Bureau, Victoria, BC.755 See endnote 748.756 See endnote 405.757 Morrison, J.C., W. Sechrest, E. Dinerstein, D.S.Wilcove and J.F. Lamoreux. 2007. Persistenceof large mammal faunas as indicators of globalhuman impacts. Journal of Mammalogy 88(6):1363-1380.758 Ibid.759 Ibid.760 See endnote 404.761 McTaggart Cowan, I. 1987. Science and theConservation of Wildlife in British Columbia.Pp. 85-106 in A. Murray (ed.). Our WildlifeHeritage: 100 Years of Wildlife Management. TheCentennial Wildlife Society of British Columbia,Victoria, BC. 192pp.762 See endnote 757.763 See endnote 528.764 Rydin, H. and J. Jeglum. 2006. The Biology ofPeatlands. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UKand New York, NY.765 R. Hebda, Royal British Columbia Museum,personal communication.

notes766 See endnote 284.767 See endnote 764.768 Whitfield, P.H., R.J. Hebda, J.K. Jeglum and S.A.Howie. 2006. Restoring the natural hydrologyof Burns Bog, Delta, British Columbia: thekey to the bog’s ecological recovery. Pp. 58-70in A. Chantler (ed.). Water Under Pressure.Proceedings of the Canadian Water ResourcesAssociation B.C. Branch Conference, October25-27, 2006, Vancouver, BC.769 B.C. Ministry of Forests. 2003. Karst managementhandbook for British Columbia. B.C. Ministry ofForests, Victoria, BC. 69pp. Available at: www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/publications/00189/Karst-Mgmt-Handbook-web.pdf.770 B.C. Ministry of Forests. 2002. Karst ImpactAnalysis – Provincial Analysis. Unpublishedreport prepared for the Chief Forester.771 See endnote 769.772 Shaw, P. and M. Davis. 2000. Invertebrates fromcaves on Vancouver Island. Pp. 121-124 in L.M.Darling (ed.). Proceedings of a Conference onthe Biology and Management of Species andHabitats at Risk, Kamloops, B.C., Feb. 15-19,1999. Volume 1. B.C. Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks, Victoria, BC and UniversityCollege of the Cariboo, Kamloops, BC. 490pp.773 Houde, I., S. Leech, F.L. Bunnell, T. Spribille andC. Björk. 2007. Old forest remnants contributeto sustaining biodiversity: the case of the AlbertRiver Valley. BC Journal of Ecosystems andManagement 8(3): 43-52.774 Lewis T. and A. Inselberg. 2001. Survey oflimestone species in the Holberg Operation.Prepared for Western Forest Products, CampbellRiver Office. Campbell River, BC.775 Harding, K.A. and D.C. Ford. 1993. Impacts ofprimary deforestation upon limestone slopes innorthern Vancouver Island, British Columbia.Environmental Geology 21: 137-143.776 Baichtal, J.F. 1995. Evolution of KarstManagement on the Ketchikan Area of theTongass National forest: Development of anEcologically Sound Approach. Pp. 190-202in Proceedings of the 1993 National CaveManagement Symposium, Carlsbad, NM.777 Davis, M. 1995. Weymer/Green Creeks Cave/Karst Inventory. Unpublished report preparedby Island Karst Research for Pacific ForestsProducts Ltd., Duncan, BC.778 Gascoyne, M., D.C. Ford and H.P. Schwarz. 1981.Late Pleistocene chronology and paleoclimateof Vancouver Island determined from cavedeposits. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences18(11): 1643-1652779 Lean, C.B., A.J. Latham and J. Shaw. 1995.Palaeosecular variation from a Vancouver-Island stalagmite and comparison withcontemporary North American records. Journalof Geomagnetism and Geoelectricity 47(1): 71-87.780 Forest Practices Board. 2007. Protecting karstin coastal B.C. Special Report FPB/SR/31. 10pp.Available at: www.fpb.gov.bc.ca/special/reports/SR31/Protecting_Karst_in_Coastal_BC.pdf.781 See endnote 770.782 See endnote 780.783 Lee, J.S. and J.D. Ackerman. 2000. FreshwaterMolluscs at Risk in British Columbia: ThreeExamples of “Risk”. Pp. 67-73 in L.M. Darling(ed.). Proceedings of a Conference on theBiology and Management of Species andHabitats at Risk, Kamloops, B.C., Feb. 15-19,1999. Volume 1. B.C. Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks, Victoria, BC and UniversityCollege of the Cariboo, Kamloops, BC. 490pp.784 Stahl. K. and R.D. Moore. 2006. Influence ofbasin glacier coverage on trends in summerstreamflow in British Columbia, Canada.Geophysical Research Abstracts 8: 1.785 S. Bertram, Consultant, personalcommunication. See map at: http://tree.discovery.mala.bc.ca/student_pages/2005_fall/glacial_watersheds/bc_parks.html.786 B.C. Ministry of Environment. 2002. ClimateChange and Freshwater Ecosystems – Glaciers.In Indicators of Climate Change for BritishColumbia 2002. Environment ProtectionDivision, Victoria, BC. Available at: www.env.gov.bc.ca/air/climate/indicat/glacier_id1.html.787 Parks Canada. 2003. Time for Nature: Reservoirsof the Rockies. Available at: www.pc.gc.ca/canada/pn-tfn/itm2-/2003/au/index_e.asp.788 See endnote 786.789 See endnote 784.790 Kruckeberg, A.R. 1969. Soil diversity and thedistribution of plants, with examples fromwestern North America. Madrono 20: 129-154.Cited in Ogilvie, R.T. 1998. Vascular Plants.In G.G.E. Scudder and I.M. Smith (eds.).Assessment of Species Diversity in the MontaneCordillera Ecozone. Ecological Monitoring andAssessment Network, Burlington, ON. Availableat: www.naturewatch.ca/eman/reports/publications/99_montane/intro.html.791 Overmann, J., K.J. Hall, T.G. Northcote andJ.T. Beatty. 1999. Grazing of the copepodDiaptomus connexus on purple sulphur bacteriain a meromictic salt lake. EnvironmentalMicrobiology 1: 213-221.792 Bahls, P.F. 1992. The status of fish populations andmanagement of high mountain lakes in WesternUnited States. Northwest Science 66: 183-193.793 McGarvie Hirner, J.L. 1998. Relationship betweentrout stocking and amphibians in BritishColumbia’s southern interior lakes. University ofVictoria, School of Resource and EnvironmentalManagement, Victoria, BC. Report No. 406.794 Rae, R. and D. Biffard. 2003. Are BC’s ProtectedAreas Representing Freshwater Ecosystems?5th International Science and Managementof Protected Areas Association Conference.Available at: www.sampaa.org/PDF/ch7/7.1.pdf.795 McPhail, J.D. and R. Carveth. 1993. A Foundationfor Conservation: The Nature and Origin of theFreshwater Fish Fauna of British Columbia.B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks,Fisheries Branch, Victoria, BC. 39pp. Available at:wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/techpub/rn323.pdf.796 Laval, B., S.L. Cady, J.C. Pollack, C.P. McKay, J.S.Bird, J. P. Grotzinger, D.C. Ford and H.R. Bohm.2000. Modern freshwater microbialite analoguesfor ancient dendritic reef structures. Nature 407:626-629.797 Ibid.798 Ferris, F.G., J.B. Thompson and T.J. Beveridge. 1997.Modern freshwater microbialites from Kelly Lake,British Columbia, Canada. Palaios 12: 213-219.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia799 Pike, W., D.S.S. Lim, B. Laval, G. Slater, D. Reidand C.P. McKay. 2008. Kelly Lake microbialites,another discovery in the Pavilion Lakeregion. Oral presentation at the AstrobiologyScience Conference 2008, Santa Clara, CA, April15-17, 2008.800 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005.Ecosystems and Human Well-being: BiodiversitySynthesis. World Resources Institute,Washington, DC. 85pp. Available at: www.maweb.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf.801 United Nations Environment Programme. 2001.Global biodiversity outlook. United Nations.Secretariat of the Convention on BiologicalDiversity. Available at: www.cbd.int/gbo1/gbopdf.shtml.802 Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlifein Canada. 2007. Canadian Species at Risk.Available at: www.cosewic.gc.ca/eng/sct0/rpt/dsp_booklet_e.htm.803 World Conservation Union (IUCN). 2006. TheIUCN Red List of Threatened Species: IUCN-CMP: The Conservation Measures Partnership.Available at: www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/sis/classification.htm.804 Long, G. 2007. Biodiversity Safety Net GapAnalysis Biodiversity BC, Victoria, BC. 66pp.Available at: www.biodiversitybc.org.805 Holt, R.F., G. Utzig, M. Carver, and J. Booth. 2003.Biodiversity Conservation in B.C. : An Assessmentof Threats and Gaps. Veridian EcologicalConsulting. South Slocan, B.C. pp. 55-56.806 See endnote 145.807 Didham, R.K., J.M. Tylianakis, M.A. Hutchison,R.M. Ewers and N.J. Gemmell. 2005. Are invasivespecies the drivers of ecological change? Trendsin Ecology and Evolution 20:470-474.808 MacDougall, A.S. and R. Turkington. 2005. Areinvasive species the drivers or passengers of changein degraded ecosystems? Ecology 86:42-55.809 Gayton, D. 2004. Native and non-native plantspecies in grazed grasslands of British Columbia’ssouthern interior. BC Journal of Ecosystems andManagement 5(1): 51-59. Available at: www.forrex.org/jem/2004/vol5/no1/art6.pdf.810 See endnote 159.811 Ibid.812 Venter, O., N.N. Brodeur, L. Nemiroff, B. Belland,I.J. Dolinsek and J.W.A. Grant. 2006. Threats toendangered species in Canada. Bioscience 56:903-910.813 Stein, B.A., L.S. Kutner and J.S. Adams(eds.). 2000. Precious Heritage: The Statusof Biodiversity in the United States. OxfordUniversity Press, New York, NY. 399pp.814 Noss, R.F. and R.L. Peters. 1995. EndangeredEcosystems: A Status Report on America’sVanishing Habitat and Wildlife. Defenders ofWildlife, Washington DC.815 Baillie, J.E.M., C. Hilton-Taylor and S.N. Stuart(eds.). 2004. A Global Species Assessment.IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK..Available at: www.iucn.org/bookstore/HTMLbooks/RedList 2004/completed/cover.html.816 Vitousek, P.M., H.J.A. Mooney, J. Lubchneco andJ.M. Melillo. 1977. Human domination of Earth’secosystems. Science 277: 494-499.817 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC). 2001. Climate Change 2001: TheScientific Basis. (Contribution of WorkingGroup I). In J.T. Houghton, Y. Ding, D.J.Griggs, M. Noguer, P.J. van der Linden, X. Dai,K. Maskell and C.A. Johnson (eds.). ThirdAssessment Report of the IPCC. CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge, UK and New York,NY. 881pp.818 Bunnell, F.L., K.A. Squires, M.I Preston and R.W.Campbell. 2005. Towards a general model ofavian response to climate change. Pp. 59-70in Implications of Climate Change in B.C.’sSouthern Interior Forests. 2005 Workshop,Columbia Mountains Institute of AppliedEcology, Revelstoke, BC. 166pp. Available at:www.cmiae.org/pdf/ImpofCCinforestsfinal.pdf.819 See endnote 524.820 See endnote 159.821 See endnote 804.822 See endnote 518.823 See endnote 516.824 See endnote 434.825 C. Rankin and Associates. 2004. Invasive AlienSpecies Framework for BC: Identifying andAddressing Threats to Biodiversity. B.C. Ministryof Water, Land and Air Protection, BiodiversityBranch, Victoria, BC. 109pp. Available at:wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/alien_species_framework_BC_0205.pdf.826 B.C. Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection.2002. Trends in Water Allocation Restrictionsacross British Columbia. In EnvironmentalTrends in British Columbia 2002. State ofthe Environment Reporting Office, Victoria,BC. Available at: www.env.gov.bc.ca/soerpt/8surfacewateruse/allocations.html.827 Blackman, B.G., D.A. Jesson, D. Ablesonand T. Down. 1990. Williston Lake FisheriesCompensation Program Management Plan.Peace/Williston Fish and Wildlife CompensationProgram. Report No. 58. 38pp. Available at: www.bchydro.com/pwcp/pdfs/reports/pwfwcp_report_no_058.pdf.828 Northcote, T.G. 1993. A Review of Managementand Enhancement Options for the ArcticGrayling (Thymallus arcticus) With SpecialReference to Williston Reservoir Watershed inBritish Columbia. Peace/Williston Fish andWildlife Compensation Program, Prince George,BC. PWFWCP Report No. 78. 69pp. Available at:www.bchydro.com/pwcp/pdfs/reports/pwfwcp_report_no_078.pdf.829 Keddy, P.A. 2000. Wetland Ecology: Principlesand Conservation. Cambridge University Press,Cambridge, UK. 628pp.830 Summit Environmental Consultants Ltd. 2007.Nicola River Watershed Present and FutureWater Demand Study. Nicola WatershedCommunity Round Table, Merritt, BC. Project466-01.02. Available at: www.nicolawump.ca/downloads/4660102FinalReportJune1907.pdf.831 See endnote 805.832 Department of Fisheries and Oceans. 1998.Strategic Review of Fisheries Resources for theThompson Nicola Habitat Management Area.Fraser River Action Plan, Vancouver, BC. 128pp.833 Walthers, L.C. and J.C. Nener. 1997. ContinuousWater Temperature Monitoring in the NicolaRiver, BC, 1994: Implications of High MeasuredTemperatures for Anadromous Salmonids.

notesDepartment of Fisheries and Oceans, Vancouver,BC. Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries andAquatic Sciences 2158. 59pp.834 Lauzier, R., T.J. Brown, I.V. Williams and L.C.Walthers. 1995. Water Temperature at Selected Sitesin the Fraser River Basin During the Summers of1993 and 1994. Canadian Data Report of Fisheriesand Aquatic Sciences 956. 81pp.835 Department of Fisheries and Oceans. 1999.Fraser River Basin Strategic Water Quality Plan –Thompson River Sub-Basin. Fraser River ActionPlan, Vancouver, BC. Water Quality Series 02.836 See endnote 830.837 See endnote 833.838 Walthers, L.C. and J.C. Nener. 1998. WaterTemperature Monitoring in the Nicola River , BC,1995: Implications of Measured Temperaturesfor Anadromous Salmonids. Department ofFisheries and Oceans, Vancouver , BC . CanadianManuscript Report of Fisheries and AquaticSciences 2443. 58pp.839 Walthers, L.C. and J.C. Nener. 2000. WaterTemperature Monitoring in Selected ThompsonRiver Tributaries, BC, 1996: Implications ofMeasured Temperatures for AnadromousSalmonids. Department of Fisheries and Oceans,Habitat and Enhancement Branch, Vancouver ,BC . Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries andAquatic Sciences 2306. 69pp.840 See endnote 832.841 Boeckh, I., V.S. Christie, A.H.J. Dorcey and H.J.Rueggeberg. 1991. Water use in the Fraser Basin.Pp. 181-200 in A. Dorcey and J.R. Griggs (eds.).Water in Sustainable Development: ExploringOur Common Future in the Fraser River Basin.Westwater Research Centre, University of BritishColumbia, Vancouver, BC.842 B.C. Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection.2002. Trends in Water Allocation Restrictions inBritish Columbia. In Environmental Trends inBritish Columbia 2002. State of the EnvironmentReporting Office, Victoria, BC. Available at:www.env.gov.bc.ca/soerpt/8surfacewateruse/gallocations.html.843 See endnote 825.844 Ibid.845 Menge, B.A. and G.M. Branch. 2001. Rockyintertidal communities. Pp. 221-250 in M.D.Bertness, S.D. Gaines and M.E. Hay (eds.).Marine Community Ecology. Sinaurer AssociatesInc., Sunderland, MA.846 R. Hebda, Royal British Columbia Museum,personal communication.847 Ciruna, K., L.A. Meyerson, A.T. Gutierrez andE. Watson. 2004. The Ecological and Socio-Economic Impacts of Invasive Alien Specieson Inland Water Ecosystems. Report to theConvention on Biological Diversity. Conventionon Biological Diversity. Available at: www.cbd.int/doc/ref/alien/ias-inland-waters-en.pdf.848 Gayton. D. 2007. Major impacts to Biodiversityin British Columbia (excluding climate change).Biodiversity BC, Victoria, BC. 28pp. Available at:www.biodiversitybc.org.849 Wind, E. 2005. Effects of non-native predatorson aquatic ecosystems. Biodiversity Branch,B.C. Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection,Victoria, BC. 118pp.850 See endnote 825.851 Voller, J. and R.S. McNay. 2007. Problem analysis:effects of invasive species on species at risk inBritish Columbia. FORREX Series 20. Availableat: www.forrex.org/publications/forrexseries/series.asp.852 See endnote 825.853 See endnote 148.854 Bosquet, Y. (ed.). 1991. Checklist of Beetlesof Canada and Alaska. Research Branch,Agriculture Canada. Publication 1861/E:430.855 Maw, H.E.L., R.G. Foottit, K.G.A. Hamilton andG.G.E. Scudder. 2000. Checklist of the Hemipteraof Canada and Alaska. NRC Research Press,Ottawa, ON. 220pp.856 Foottit, R.G., S.E. Halberd, G.L. Miller, E. Mawand L.M. Russell. 2006. Adventive aphids(Hemiptera: Aphididae) of America north ofMexico. Proceedings of the EntomologicalSociety of Washington 108: 583-610.857 B.C. Ministry of Environment. 2007.Species Conservation. Technical paperfor Environmental Trends 2007. State ofEnvironment Reporting Office, Victoria, BC.Available at: www.env.gov.bc.ca/soe/et07/07_species_conserv/technical_paper/species_conservation.pdf.858 Hatfield, T. and S. Pollard. 2007. NonnativeFreshwater Fish Species in BritishColumbia: Biology, Biotic Effects, andPotential Management Actions. FreshwaterFisheries Society of B.C. and B.C. Ministry ofEnvironment, Victoria, BC.859 D. McPhail, University of British Columbia,Emeritus, personal communication.860 See endnote 858.861 Biodiversity BC. 2008. The Biodiversity Atlas ofBC. Available at: www.biodiversitybc.org.862 See endnote 805.863 Bourne, N. 1982. Distribution, reproduction andgrowth of Manila clam, Tapes philippinarum(Adams and Reeve) in British Columbia. Journalof Shellfish Research 2: 47-54.864 Hempel, P. (ed.). 2000. High altitude POPs andalpine predators. Environment Canada. Scienceand the Environment Bulletin. Nov./Dec. 2000.Available at: www.ec.gc.ca/science/sandenov00/article1_e.html.865 Chandler, T. 2005. Maintaining BritishColumbia’s Biological Diversity: Issues andOpportunities For Coordinated Action.Unpublished report prepared for B.C. Ministry ofWater, Land and Air Protection.866 B.C. Ministry of Environment. 2006. BritishColumbia’s Coastal Environment: 2006. State ofEnvironment Reporting Office, Victoria, BC. 57pp.Available at: www.env.gov.bc.ca/soe/bcce/.867 Ibid.868 Ibid.869 Ibid.870 Ibid.871 Ryan, J.J., B. Patry, P. Mills and G. Beaudoin.2002. Body burdens and food exposure inCanada for polybrominated diphenyl ethers(PBDEs). Organohalogen Compounds 51:226-229.872 See endnote 866.873 See endnote 865.874 Ibid.875 See endnote 805.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia876 See endnote 582.877 Martin, T., E. Nygren, N. Dawe and G. Jamieson.1996. Effects of disturbances of spring stagingbrant (Branta bernicula nigricans) in theParksville-Qualicum Beach area of south-eastVancouver Island, B.C. Unpublished reportprepared for Canadian Wildlife Service, Pacificand Yukon Region, Delta, BC.878 See endnote 582.879 B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks.1996. Ecoregions of British Columbia. WildlifeBranch, Victoria, BC.880 See endnote 805.881 See endnote 145.882 See endnote 159.883 See endnote 804.884 See endnote 814.885 Murdock, T.Q., A.T. Werner and D. Bronaugh.2007. Preliminary Analysis of BC Climate Trendsfor Biodiversity. Biodiversity BC, Victoria, BC.24pp. Available at: www.biodiversitybc.org.886 Compass Resource Management. 2007.Major Impacts: Climate Change. BiodiversityBC, Victoria, BC. 41pp. Available at: www.biodiversitybc.org.887 See endnote 138.888 See endnote 817.889 See endnote 98.890 Zhang, Q-B. and R.J. Hebda. 2004. Radial growthpatterns of Pseudotsuga menziesii along anelevational gradient on the central coast ofBritish Columbia, Canada. Canadian Journal ofForest Research 34: 1946-1954.891 See endnote 886.892 See endnote 817.893 Fischlin, A., G.F. Midgely, J.T. Price, R. Leemans,B. Gopal, C. Turley, M.D.A. Rounsevell, O.P. Dube,J. Tarazona and A.A. Velichko. 2007. Ecosystems,their properties, goods and services. Pp. 211-272 inM.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van derLinden and C.E. Hanson (eds.). Climate Change2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.Contribution of Working Group II to the FourthAssessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panelon Climate Change. Cambridge University Press,Cambridge, UK. 973pp.894 Field, C.B., L.D. Mortsch, M. Brklacich, D.L.Forbes, P. Kovacs, J.A. Patz, S.W. Running andM.J. Scott. 2007. North America. Pp. 617-652 inM.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van derLinden and C.E. Hanson (eds.). Climate Change2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.Contribution of Working Group II to the FourthAssessment Report of the IntergovernmentalPanel on Climate Change. Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge, UK. 973pp.895 See endnote 805.896 See endnote 192.897 See endnote 146.898 See endnote 893.899 Ibid.900 See endnote 894.901 See endnote 524.902 See endnote 616.903 See endnote 894.904 Wilson, R.J., Z.G. Davies and C.D. Thomas. 2007.Insects and climate change: Process, patternsand implications for conservation. Pp. 245-279in A.J.A. Stewart, T.R. New and O.T. Lewis (eds.).Insect Conservation Biology. CAB International,Wallingford, UK. 464pp.905 Parmesan, C. 2005. Detection at multiple levels:Euphydryas editha and climate change. Pp.56-60 in T.E. Lovejoy and L. Hannah (eds.).Climate Change and Biodiversity. Yale UniversityPress, New Haven, CT. 440pp.906 See endnote 15.907 See endnote 818.908 Bunnell, F.L. and K.A. Squires. 2005. EvaluatingPotential Influence of Climate Change onHistorical Trends in Bird Species. B.C. Ministryof Water, Land and Air Protection, Victoria, BC.Unpublished report. 48pp.909 Hyatt, K.D., M.M. Stockwell and D.P. Rankin. 2003.Impact and adaptation response of Okanagan Riversockeye salmon (Onchorhynchus nerka) to climatevariation and change during freshwater migration:stock restoration and fisheries managementimplications. Canadian Water Resources Journal 28:689-713.910 Idler, D.R. and W.A. Clemens. 1959. The energyexpenditures of Fraser River sockeye duringthe spawning migration to Chilko and Stuartlakes. International Pacific Salmon FisheriesCommission Progress Report 6. 80pp.911 Gilhousen, P. 1980. Energy sources andexpenditures in Fraser River sockeye salmon duringtheir spawning migration. International PacificSalmon Fisheries Commission Bulletin 23. 51pp.912 Groot, C., W.C. Clarke and L. Margolis (eds.).1995. Physiology of Pacific Salmon. UBC Press,Vancouver, BC. 515pp.913 Quinn, T.P. and D.J. Adams.1996. Environmentalchanges affecting the migratory timing ofAmerican shad and sockeye salmon. Ecology 77:1151-1162.914 See endnote 244.915 See endnote 582.916 See endnote 866.917 See endnote 582.918 See endnote 866.919 See endnote 885.920 See endnote 893.921 See endnote 886.922 See endnote 817.923 Pacific Climate Impacts Consortium (PCIC). Nodate. Royal B.C. Museum maps. PCIC, Victoria,BC. Available at: www.pacificclimate.org/impacts/rbcmuseum/.924 See endnote 885.925 See endnote 886.926 Pacific Climate Impacts Consortium (PCIC).No date. Climate Overview. PCIC, Victoria, BC.Available at: www.pacificclimate.org/resources/climateimpacts/overview/.927 See endnote 817.928 See endnote 926.929 See endnote 893.930 See endnote 192.931 Hebda, R.J. 1998. Atmospheric change, forestsand biodiversity. Environmental Monitoring andAssessment 49: 195-212.932 See endnote 146.933 See endnote 886934 Pacific Climate Impacts Consortium (PCIC). Nodate. Royal B.C. Museum maps and unpublisheddata. PCIC, Victoria, BC. Available at: www.pacificclimate.org/impacts/rbcmuseum/.

notes935 See endnote 931.936 See endnote 524.937 See endnote 146.938 T. Lea, B.C. Ministry of Environment, personalcommunication.939 See endnote 931.940 See endnote 893.941 Nelitz M., K. Wieckowski, D. Pickard, K. Pawleyand D.R. Marmorek. 2007. Helping PacificSalmon Survive the Impact of Climate Changeon Freshwater Habitats: Pursuing Proactive andReactive Adaptive Strategies. Pacific FisheriesResource Conservation Council, Vancouver,BC. 122pp. Available at: fish.bc.ca/files/PFRCC-ClimateChange-Adaptation.pdf.942 Tyedmers, P. and B. Ward. 2001. A Review of theImpacts of Climate Change on BC’s FreshwaterFish Resources and Possible ManagementResponses. Fisheries Centre, University of BritishColumbia, Vancouver, BC. Research Report 9(7).Available at: www.fisheries.ubc.ca/publications/reports/report9_7.php.943 See endnote 886.944 B.C. Ministry of Environment. 2002. Salmonin the River. In Indicators of Climate Changefor British Columbia 2002. EnvironmentalProtection Division, Victoria, BC. Availableat: www.env.gov.bc.ca/air/climate/indicat/salmonriv_id1.html.945 Murdock, T., J. Fraser and C. Pearce. 2006.Preliminary Analysis of Climate Variability andChange in the Canadian Columbia River Basin:Focus on Water Resources. Pacific Climate ImpactsConsortium, University of Victoria, Victoria,BC. 57pp. Available at: www.pacificclimate.org/publications/CBT.Assessment.pdf.946 Nicholls, R.J., P.P. Wong, V.R. Burkett,J.O. Codignotto, J.E. Hay, R.F. McLean, S.Ragoonaden and C.D. Woodroffe. 2007. Coastalsystems and low-lying areas. Pp. 315-356 in M.L.Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van derLinden and C.E. Hanson (eds.). Climate Change2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.Contribution of Working Group II to the FourthAssessment Report of the IntergovernmentalPanel on Climate Change. Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge, UK. 973pp.947 See endnote 942.948 See endnote 886.949 Palmer, S.L., I.R. Walker, M.L.. Henrichs, R.Hebda and G.G.E. Scudder. 2002. Postglacialmidge community change and Holocenepaleotemperature reconstructions near treeline,southern British Columbia (Canada). Journal ofPaleolimnology 28: 469-490.950 See endnote 98.951 See endnote 192.952 See endnote 98.953 Rahmstorf, S., A. Cazenave, J.A. Church, J.E.Hansen, R.F. Keeting, D.E. Parker and R.C.J.Somerville. 2007. Recent climate observationscompared to projections. Science 316: 709.954 See endnote 886.955 See endnote 524.956 Clarke, A. 1993. Temperature and extinction inthe sea: a physiologist’s view. Paleobiology 19(4):499-518.957 See endnote 931.958 See endnote 98.959 See endnote 146.960 Ibid.961 Ibid.962 Ibid.963 See endnote 893.964 See endnote 83.965 See endnote 146.966 See endnote 98.967 Ibid.968 See endnote 146.969 See endnote 923.970 See endnote 99.971 See endnote 98.972 See endnote 102.973 See endnote 146.974 See endnote 121.975 See endnote 146.976 See endnote 923.977 See endnote 98.978 Rosenberg, S.M., I.R. Walker and R.W. Mathewes.2003. Postglacial spread of hemlock (Tsuga) andvegetation history in Mount Revelstoke NationalPark, British Columbia, Canada. CanadianJournal of Botany 81: 139-151.979 See endnote 82.980 See endnote 146.981 See endnote 121.982 J. Pojar, Consultant, personal communication.983 Mooney, H.A. and R.J. Hobbs (eds.). 2000.Invasive Species in a Changing World. IslandPress, Washington, DC.984 McNeely, J.A., H.A. Mooney, L.E. Neville, P. Scheiand J.K. Waage (eds.). 2001. A Global Strategy onInvasive Alien Species. IUCN Gland, Switzerland,and Cambridge, UK. 50pp. Available at: www.gisp.org/publications/brochures/globalstrategy.pdf.985 See endnote 886.986 See endnote 848.987 Ibid.988 Lee, M. and M. Hovorka. 2003. Invasive AlienSpecies in Canada. Canadian Wildlife Service,Ottawa, ON. Available at: www.hww.ca/hww2p.asp?id=220&cid=0.989 See endnote 825.990 B.C. Ministry of Forests and Range. 2007. State ofBritish Columbia’s Forests, 2006. Forest PracticesBranch, Victoria, BC. 182pp. Available at: www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/sof/2006/pdf/sof.pdf.991 See endnote 848.992 Guynn, Jr., D.C., S.T. Guynn, T. Bently Wigley andD.A. Miller. 2004. Herbicides and forest biodiversity:what do we know and where do we go from here?Wildlife Society Bulletin 32(4): 1085-1092.993 See endnote 990.994 Newmaster, S.G., R.J. Belland, A. Arsenault andD.H. Vitt. 2003. Patterns of bryophyte diversity inhumid coastal and inland cedar hemlock forestsof British Columbia. Environmental Reviews11(1): 159-185.995 Winchester, N.N. 2006. Ancient temperaterainforest research in British Columbia: a tributeto Dr. Richard A. Ring. Canadian Entomologist138: 72-83.996 Blood, D.A. 1998. Marbled Murrelet. B.C.Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks,Wildlife Branch, Victoria, BC. 6pp.997 Winchester, N.N. and L.L. Fagan. 2000. Canopyarthropods of montane forests on VancouverIsland, British Columbia, Canada. Journal ofSustainable Forestry 10: 355-361.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbia998 See endnote 159.999 See endnote 866.1000 McPhee, M., P. Ward, J. Kirkby, L. Wolfe, N. Page,K. Dunster, N.K. Dawe and I. Nykwist. 2000.Sensitive Ecosystems Inventory: East VancouverIsland and Gulf Islands 1993 – 1997. Volume 2:Conservation Manual. Canadian Wildlife Service,Pacific and Yukon Region, Delta, BC. 284pp.1001 See endnote 379.1002 See endnote 848.1003 Stanton-Kennedy, T. 2005. CalculatingImpermeable Surface Area in the Prince George“Bowl.” University of Northern British Columbia,Prince George, BC. Available at: www.gis.unbc.ca/courses/geog300/projects/2005/stanton/index.php.1004 Olewiler, N. 2004. The Value of Natural Capitalin Settled Areas of Canada. Ducks UnlimitedCanada and Nature Conservancy of Canada.36pp.1005 B.C. Stats. 2007. British Columbia Population1867 to 2007. Available at: www.bcstats.gov.bc.ca/DATA/pop/pop/bc1867on.csv.1006 Sightline Institute. 2007. Cascadia Scorecard:Seven Key Trends Shaping the Northwest.Sightline Institute, Seattle, WA. 68pp. Availableat: www.sightline.org/research/cascadia_scorecard/.1007 B.C. Stats. 1997. First 1996 Census Release –Population and Dwellings. Ministry of Financeand Corporate Relations, Victoria, BC. Infoline97-16. 5pp. Available at: www.bcstats.gov.bc.ca/releases/info1997/in9716.pdf.1008 B.C. Stats. 2003. 2001 Census Profile. 18pp.Available at: www.bcstats.gov.bc.ca/data/cen01/profiles/59000000.pdf.1009 Greater Vancouver Sewerage and DrainageDistrict. 2002. Interim Report on Effectivenessof Stormwater Source Control. 44pp. Availableat: www.gvrd.bc.ca/sewerage/stormwater_reports_1997_2002/sc_assessment_interim/report_interim_mar02(2).pdf.1010 Guthrie, R. and J. Deniseger. 2001. ImperviousSurfaces in French Creek. Ministry of Water,Land and Air Protection, Nanaimo, BC. 25pp.Available at: wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/vir/es/pdf/Impervious Surfaces technical document.pdf.1011 Jeffrey, M. 2002. Identification of Eco-IndustrialNetworking Opportunities in Greater Vancouver:Demand Side Management Benefits. GreaterVancouver Regional District, Policy and PlanningDivision, Vancouver, BC. 48pp. Available at:www.drsociety.bc.ca/TEIP/documents/ein_opportunities_study.pdf.1012 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Nodate. Puget Sound Georgia Basin EcosystemIndicator Report: Executive Summary. 2pp.Available at: www.epa.gov/region10/psgb/indicators/urbaniz_forest_change/media/pdf/Urbanization and Forest Change IndicatorSummary.pdf.1013 Davis, C. No date. Synthesis of data and methodsacross scales to connect local policy decisionsto regional environmental conditions: the caseof the Cascadia Scorecard. 20pp. Available at:ma.caudillweb.com/documents/bridging/papers/davis.chris.pdf.1014 Haskell, D.G. 2000. Effects of forest roads onmacroinvertebrate soil fauna of the southernAppalachian Mountains. Conservation Biology14: 57-63.1015 Reed, R.A., J. Johnson-Barnard and W.L.Baker. 1996. Contribution of roads to forestfragmentation in the Rocky Mountains.Conservation Biology 10: 1098-1106.1016 Ito, T.Y., N. Miura, B. Lhagvasuren, D. Enkhbileg,S. Takatsuki, A. Tsunekawa and Z. Jiang. 2005.Preliminary evidence of a barrier effect of arailroad on the migration of Mongolian gazelles.Conservation Biology 19: 945-948.1017 Marsh, D.M., G.S. Milam, N.P. Gorham andN.G. Beckman. 2005. Forest roads as partialbarriers to terrestrial salamander movement.Conservation Biology 19: 2004-2008.1018 Epps, C.W., P.J. Palsbøll, J.D. Wehausen, G.K.Roderick, R.R. Ramey III and D.R. McCullough.2005. Highways block gene flow and causea rapid decline in genetic diversity of desertbighorn sheep. Ecology Letters 8: 1029-1038.1019 See endnote 848.1020 Trombulak, S.C. and C.A. Frissell. 2000. Reviewof ecological effects of roads on terrestrial andaquatic communities. Conservation Biology 14:18-30.1021 Forman, R.T.T. 2000. Estimate of the areaaffected ecologically by the road system in theUnited States. Conservation Biology 14: 31-35.1022 See endnote 159.1023 See endnote 145.1024 Westcoast Environmental Law. 2003. Pump itOut: The Environmental Costs of BC’s UpstreamOil and Gas Industry. 109pp. Available at: www.wcel.org/wcelpub/2003/14028.pdf.1025 See endnote 159.1026 See endnote 805.1027 See endnote 848.1028 Hatfield, T., A. Lewis and D. Ohlson. 2002. BritishColumbia Instream Flow Standards for FishPhase 1 – Initial Review and Consultation. B.C.Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection,Victoria, BC.1029 Hatfield, T., A. Lewis, D. Ohlson and M. Bradford.2003. Development of instream flow thresholdsas guidelines for reviewing proposed wateruses. B.C. Ministry of Sustainable ResourceManagement and B.C. Ministry of Water, Landand Air Protection, Victoria, BC.1030 See endnote 170.1031 Ibid.1032 See endnote 848.1033 B.C. Hydro. 2008. Generation System.Available at: www.bchydro.com/info/system/system15240.html.1034 See endnote 848.1035 B.C. Hydro. 2008. Our Facilities. Available at:www.bchydro.com/info/system/system15274.html.1036 See endnote 848.1037 Northcote, T.G. 1998. Inland waters and aquatichabitats. In G.G.E. Scudder and I.M. Smith (eds.).Assessment of Species Diversity in the MontaneCordillera Ecozone. Ecological Monitoring and

notesAssessment Network, Burlington, ON. Availableat: www.naturewatch.ca/eman/reports/publications/99_montane/intro.html.1038 Fearnside, P.M. 2004. Greenhouse gas emissionsfrom hydroeclectric dams: controversies providea springboard for rethinking a supposedly ‘cleanenergy source’ – an editorial comment. ClimaticChange 66: 1-8.1039 See endnote 1035.1040 Ibid.1041 The Energy and Biodiversity Initiative. 2003.Integrating Biodiversity Conservation intoOil and Gas Development. 58pp. Available at:www.celb.org/ImageCache/CELB/content/energy_2dmining/ebi_2epdf/v1/ebi.pdf.1042 See endnote 805.1043 M. Winfield, B.C. Ministry of Environment,personal communication.1044 See endnote 805.1045 Lions Gate Consulting Inc. 2003. TourismOpportunity Strategy: Bonnington SustainableResource Management Zone. Report for theMinistry of Sustainable Resource Management.195pp. Available at: www.taskbc.bc.ca/documents/Bonnington_TOS_000.pdf.1046 Marlyn Chisholm and Associates. 2002.Shuswap Tourism Opportunity Study. Preparedfor the Salmon Arm Economic DevelopmentCorporation and the Columbia ShuswapRegional District. 183pp. Available at: ilmbwww.gov.bc.ca/cis/initiatives/tourism/tos/Shuswap/finalreport.pdf.1047 UBC Interactive Digital EnvironmentalAssessment Laboratory (IDEAL). 2006.Motorized Recreation Perspectives for TFL 38.13pp. Available at: www.ideal.forestry.ubc.ca/cons481/Labs/MRG..pdf.1048 Bleich, V.C., R.T. Bowyer, A.M. Pauli, M.C.Nicholson and R.W. Anthes. 1994. Mountainsheep Ovis canadensis and helicopter surveys:ramifications for the conservation of largemammals. Biological Conservation 70: 1-7.1049 Simpson, K. and E. Terry. 2000. Impacts ofBackcountry Recreation Activities on MountainCaribou – Management Concerns, InterimManagement Guidelines and Research Needs.B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks,Wildlife Branch, Victoria, BC. Wildlife WorkingReport No. WR-99. 11pp.1050 Harper, W.L. and D. Eastman. 2000. Wildlife andCommercial Backcountry Recreation in BritishColumbia: Assessment of Impacts and InterimGuidelines for Mitigation. B.C. Ministry ofEnvironment, Victoria, BC.1051 Bergerud, A.T. 1996. Evolving perspectives oncaribou population dynamics: have we got itright yet? Rangifer Special Issue No. 9: 95-116.1052 Goldstein, M.I., A.J. Poe, E. Cooper, D. Youkey,B.A. Brown and T.L. McDonald. 2005. Mountaingoat response to helicopter overflights in Alaska.Wildlife Society Bulletin 33: 688–699.1053 Stokowski, P.A., and C.B. LaPointe. 2000.Environmental and Social Effects of ATVsand ORVs: An Annotated Bibliography andResearch Assessment. University of Vermont,School of Natural Resources. Available at:bluewaternetwork.org/reports/rep_atv_socialeffects.pdf.1054 Acoustic Ecology Institute. 2001. MotorizedVehicle Management. Available at: www.acousticecology.org/wildlandvehicles.html.1055 See endnote 1047.1056 Orchard, S.A. 1991. Provincial status report forthe tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum.B.C. Ministry of Environment, Wildlife Branch,Victoria, BC. Unpublished report. 31pp.1057 Sarell, M.J. 1996. Status of the tiger salamander(Ambystoma tigrinum) in British Columbia.B.C. Ministry of Environment, Wildlife Branch,Victoria, BC. 18pp.1058 Knapp, R.A., K.R. Matthews and O. Sarnelle.2000. Resistance and resilience of alpinelake fauna to fish introductions. EcologicalMonographs 71(3): 401-421.1059 Pilliod, D.S. and C.R. Peterson. 2001. Localand landscape effects of introduced trout onamphibians in historically fishless watersheds.Ecosystems 4: 322-333.1060 Pierce, C.L. and B.D. Hinrichs. 1997. Response oflittoral invertebrates to reduction of fish density:simultaneous experiments in ponds withdifferent fish assemblages. Freshwater Biology37: 397-408.1061 Bechara, J.A., G. Moreau and D. Planas. 1992.Top-down effects of brook trout (Salvelinusfontinalis) in a boreal forest stream. CanadianJournal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 49:2093-2103.1062 See endnote 244.1063 Grasslands Conservation Council of B.C.2004. BC Grasslands Mapping Project – AConservation Risk Assessment: Final Report.Available at: www.bcgrasslands.org/projects/conservation/mapping.htm.1064 R. Doucette, Grasslands Conservation Council ofB.C., personal communication.1065 See endnote 804.1066 See endnote 848.1067 See endnote 1063.1068 See endnote 804.1069 See endnote 848.1070 See endnote 159.1071 See endnote 804.1072 See endnote 848.1073 Ibid.1074 B.C. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands. No date.Fisheries and Aquaculture - Frequently AskedQuestions: Non-salmon Species. Availableat: www.env.gov.bc.ca/omfd/fishstats/aqua/species.html.1075 See endnote 804.

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaIndexPage numbers in boldface type refer to figures, mapsor tables.agriculture 1, 13, 30, 39, 40, 47, 96, 108, 110, 112, 114,115, 116, 124, 132, 137, 157, 160, 164, 165, 172-4,193-4, 201, 221, 222alien species 3, 30, 39, 40, 48, 78, 99, 101, 124, 131, 134,144, 156-9, 157, 162, 165-8, 172, 173, 174, 176, 186,187, 191, 192, 193, 196, 199, 200, 203, 205, 207, 210,216, 221, 222, 223alpine 17, 18, 20, 25, 25, 26, 27, 38, 49, 100, 103, 125,188, 190-1, 205, 207, 211, 215,aquaculture 30, 124, 157, 173, 174, 210, 221biogeoclimatic zones 26-7, 28, 29-37, 215Alpine Tundra 35, 103, 125, 188Boreal Altai Fescue Alpine 27Boreal White and Black Spruce 26, 30, 35, 178,191, 192, 205, 216, 222Bunchgrass 27, 29, 31, 33, 39, 50, 159, 178, 187,200, 216, 222, 223Coastal Douglas-fir 26, 29, 31, 33, 35, 36, 40, 50,159, 166, 178, 187, 192, 195, 200, 215, 216,22, 223Coastal Mountain-heather Alpine 27Coastal Western Hemlock 26, 30, 35, 39, 141, 143,166, 192, 216Engelmann Spruce–Subalpine Fir 20, 26, 30, 35,191Interior Cedar–Hemlock 27, 35, 36, 141, 143, 187,191, 192, 216Interior Douglas-fir 27, 31, 33, 37, 39, 50, 166,187, 191, 196, 200, 215, 216, 222, 223Interior Mountain-heather Alpine 27Montane Spruce 27, 36, 196, 216Mountain Hemlock 27, 36, 141, 143, 192, 216Ponderosa Pine 27, 29, 31, 33, 39, 40, 50, 159,178, 187, 191, 200, 215, 216, 222, 223Spruce–Willow–Birch 27, 191Sub-Boreal Pine–Spruce 27, 35, 36, 37, 191, 216Sub-Boreal Spruce 27, 35, 36, 37, 191, 196, 216broadleaf trees 109-11climate change 3, 6, 10, 40, 42, 47, 49, 60, 66, 70, 72, 73,85, 92, 104, 105, 112, 113, 116, 117, 120, 121, 124,125, 127, 129, 132, 133, 134, 139, 140, 141, 144, 147,148, 150, 152, 156, 157, 158, 163, 164, 168, 172,173, 174-192, 179-183, 185, 187, 188, 203, 211,213, 215, 216, 217, 219, 220, 221, 223, 224coarse woody debris 90, 107, 108, 113-4, 143, 194, 222connectivity 79, 90, 92-94, 93, 134, 158, 189, 219, 223-4crustaceans 91, 123, 130, 132, 134, 153, 168, 190decomposition 9, 90, 97-99, 107, 111, 113, 116, 133,155, 213direct mortality, see species mortalityecological communities 37-39, 38, 49, 96, 100, 110,155, 187, 194, 215, 216Idaho fescue–bluebunch wheatgrass 38, 39, 40antelope-brush / needle-and-thread grass 39,39, 40, 193water birch / roses 40, 96, 96black cottonwood / water birch 40, 96, 110, 110ecosystem conversion 3, 39, 40, 43, 47, 48, 54, 70, 92,96, 101, 112, 114, 115, 116, 124, 132, 134, 140, 146,156, 157, 157, 158, 159-60, 159, 160, 161, 172, 173,174, 193, 196, 199, 200, 203, 204, 207, 209, 210,216, 221, 222, 223ecosystem degradation 3, 47, 48, 70, 85, 92, 99, 115,124, 130, 132, 134, 139, 140, 156, 157, 157, 158,159, 162-3, 165, 172, 173, 174, 193, 194, 196, 199,200, 203, 204, 207, 209, 210, 217, 221, 222, 223environmental contamination 3, 48, 112, 134, 156,157, 158, 159, 169-74, 193, 196, 200, 204, 205, 209,210, 221, 223estuaries 24, 43, 45-48, 46, 48, 69, 91, 94, 115, 123,130-4, 137, 150, 156, 160, 190, 203, 210, 217, 221forestry (includes harvesting, logging, silviculture)30, 101, 102, 105, 107, 109, 110, 112, 113, 124, 132,143-4, 148, 156, 157, 162, 164, 165, 172, 173, 173,174, 174, 194-6, 195, 196, 197, 216, 221, 222forests 1, 5, 7, 8, 15-22, 25, 25, 26-7, 88, 92, 97, 101,102-11, 105, 106, 113, 114, 115, 125, 132, 148, 155,157, 159, 162, 175, 191-2, 194-5, 198, 199, 207, 215,216, 219-20, 222temperate rainforests 1, 135, 141-4, 142, 147,192, 220glaciers and glaciation 15-22, 25, 25, 64, 71-2, 85, 132,148, 174, 189, 220glacially influenced watersheds 136, 142, 149-50, 189,220glacial refugia 17-8, 51, 72, 74, 75, 77, 78-81, 86grasslands 3, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 25, 26, 27, 38, 39, 39,40, 96, 100, 102, 104, 107, 108, 112, 137, 155, 156,158, 159, 162, 165, 173, 191, 192, 193, 207, 209, 215,216grazing 39, 101, 112, 144, 156, 157, 162, 164, 165, 173,174, 193, 207, 216, 221groundwater 91, 92, 94, 114, 117, 119-21, 126, 146, 219headwater streams 91, 118-9hot springs 50, 136, 142, 149important bird areas 135, 137, 138, 139,industrial operations 157, 209intertidal 45-7, 45, 46, 70, 91, 127-34, 137, 139, 156,168-9, 171, 190, 210karst 73, 136, 147-8lakes 21, 22, 24, 25, 42, 47, 49, 66, 79, 80, 94, 119, 121,123, 137, 139, 145, 149, 154, 155, 163, 169, 189, 198,201, 203, 205, 207, 210, 219, 222fishless 136, 153, 205saline 136, 142, 151-3lake-level patterns 90, 116-8large woody debris 45, 91, 95, 110, 113-4, 118, 119,122, 131-3, 203linear development features 2, 3, 31, 157,199-200,201, 202, 216, 222, 223, see also transportation andutility corridors, roadsmacroalgae 91, 123, 127, 134Major Drainage Areas 26, 42-43, 43, 44, 155, 201, 204,204, 215, 217microbialites 136, 138, 153-4mining 30, 112, 119, 124, 157, 174, 201, 209-10, 221mycorrhizae 98, 107, 109, 110

indexnatural disturbance 90, 102-4, 103, 107, 219-20, 223nutrient cycling 9, 10, 10, 88, 91, 97-9, 101, 107, 111,121, 124, 132, 165, 189, 220, 222oil and gas 30, 112, 116, 157, 172, 173, 173, 174, 174,200, 201, 204-5, 205, 208, 221, 222wetlands 1, 13, 17, 20, 21, 22, 25, 25, 27, 42, 70, 90, 94,96, 96, 108, 111, 114-5, 119, 125, 126, 127, 131, 133,134, 135, 137, 142, 145-7, 159, 160, 163, 165, 172,190, 193, 205, 207, 215, 216, 217, 219, 221wildlife trees 8, 90, 108-9, 110, 194, 222pollination 9, 10, 10, 90, 99-100, 155, 159predator-prey systems / dynamics 85, 90, 100-1, 135,138, 144-5, 200, 220-1recreation 10, 10, 30, 146, 157, 171, 172, 173, 174, 174,205, 216, 221riparian 8, 42, 90, 94-7, 95, 101, 108, 109, 110, 110, 111,112, 113, 115, 117, 118, 120, 122, 124, 125, 126,131, 132, 134, 141, 143, 150, 164, 172, 193, 201, 203,204, 207,roads 112, 119, 125, 132, 143, 144, 172, 193, 194, 196,198, 199-200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 216, 221, 223, seealso linear development featuressalmon, see Species Index for species referencesand nutrient cycling 91, 121-4major spawning sites 135, 138, 140-1seagrass meadows 91, 131, 134soils 10, 97, 111-3, 148, 187, 193, 220serpentine 136, 150-1species disturbance 3, 156, 157, 158, 159, 171, 174,199, 204, 205, 221species mortality 3, 92, 101, 141, 145, 156, 157, 158,159, 171-2, 174, 176, 196, 209, 210, 221, 223succession 90, 102-4, 115, 116, 126, 147transportation and utility corridors 30, 157, 159, 171,173, 173, 174, 174, 199-200, 204, 221, 222, see alsolinear development featuresupland sediments 45, 91, 131-3urban (and rural) development 1, 30, 39, 43, 92, 112,113, 114, 120, 124, 132, 156, 157, 172, 173, 173,174, 174, 196, 198, 221, 222water development (including diversion, dams) 30,42, 43, 114, 117, 121, 124, 132, 133, 144, 156, 157,162, 172, 173, 173, 174, 174, 193, 201, 203-4, 204,219, 221waterfowl herbivory 91, 126-7, 134

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiaSpecies IndexPage numbers in boldface type refer to figures, mapsor tables.African elephant (Loxodonta africana) 78African forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis) 78Alaskan orache (Atriplex alaskensis) 67, 231alder (Alnus spp.) 19, 99red (Alnus rubra) 26, 109alkali saltgrass (Distichlis spicata var. stricta) 151altai fescue (Festuca altaica) 27Amanita muscaria 98American avocet (Recurvirostra americana) 146American beaver (Castor canadensis) 124, 125-6, 125,165, 91American beech (Fagus grandifolia) 9American bistort (Polygonum bistortoides) 17American shad (Alosa sapidissima) 176American white pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos)61antelope-brush (Purshia tirdentata) 39, 39, 40, 193arbutus (Arbutus menziesii) 26Arctic grayling (Thymallus arcticus) 76, 81, 163Armillaria ostoyae 109arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata) 1aspen (Populus spp.) 99, 209trembling (Populus tremuloides) 26, 27, 100,109-10, 109bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) 109, 131Bankia setacea 131barnacle (Balanus spp.) 47, 130, 130Barrow’s goldeneye (Bucephala islandica) 67bat 70, 86, 99, 108, 147hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus) 70bear 8, 105, 122, 189American black (Ursus americanus) 6, 7, 45, 75,108, 109, 144carlottae subspecies (Ursus americana carlottae)77grizzly (Ursus arctos) 23, 92, 101, 123, 144, 171Behr’s hairstreak (Satyrium behrii) 75bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) 144, 207bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum) 98, 109birch (Betula spp.) 99paper (Betula papyrifera) 109scrub (Betula nana) 27water (Betula occidentalis) 40, 96, 96, 110, 110bison 209plains (Bos bison bison) 84, 144, 145wood (Bos bison athabascae) 144, 145bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva) 13black turnstone (Arenaria melanocephala) 69blue mud shrimp (Upogebia pugettensis) 130blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) 27bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata) 27,38, 39, 40blue-eyed Mary (Collinsia spp.) 87Brachionus plicatilis 152brant (Branta bernicla) 130, 171black (Branta bernicla nigricans) 69brassy minnow (Hybognathus hankinsoni) 81brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) 151broad-leaved stonecrop (Sedum spathulifolium) 87brown bullhead (Ameiurus nebulosus) 207bull kelp (Nereocystis luetkeana) 127bull trout (Salvelinus confluentus) 64, 92, 119, 119, 150bulrush (Scirpus spp.) 19caribou 144, 145Dawson caribou (Rangifer tarandus dawsoni)76, 77, 84, 85, 145mountain (Rangifer tarandus caribou mountainecotype) 1, 23, 85, 85, 92, 101, 157, 171, 205woodland (Rangifer tarandus caribou) 85carp (Cyprinus carpio) 210Cassin’s auklet (Ptychoramphus aleuticus) 64, 67cattail (Typha spp.) 19, 40, 96cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) 165clover (Trifolium spp.) 14coastal strawberry (Fragaria chiloensis) 14common camas (Camassia quamash) 14cottonwood (Populus spp.) 99black (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa) 26,40, 96, 109-10, 110cougar (Puma concolor) 9, 85, 144crabs 129, 130, 168crowberry (Empetrum nigrum) 145dawn redwood (Metasequoia spp.) 15deer (Odocoileus spp.) 9, 23, 100, 101, 105, 165fallow (Dama dama) 101mule (Odocoileus hemionus) 144, 207Sitka black-tailed (Odocoileus hemionussitkensis) 9, 78, 101white-tailed (Odocoileus virginianus) 144, 207Diaptomus connexus 152Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) 19, 21, 21, 26, 27,191, 192dunlin (Calidris alpina) 69eastern pine elfin (Callophrys niphon) 75Edith’s checkerspot (Euphydryas editha taylori) 75,75, 176eel-grass (Zostera spp.) 130elk (Cervus canadensis) 92, 100, 101, 144, 145, 207Roosevelt (Cervus canadensis roosevelti) 145elm (Ulmus spp.) 15English ivy (Hedera helix) 40Eosalmo driftwoodensis 16ermine, haidarum subspecies (Mustela ermineahaidarum) 76, 77eulachon (Thaleichthys pacificus) 13, 66European honeybee (Apis mellifera) 99, 100European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) 165European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) 165fir (Abies spp.) 104amabilis (Abies amabilis) 21, 27grand (Abies grandis) 26subalpine (Abies lasiocarpa) 18, 26, 27fisher (Martes pennanti) 61flathead chub (Platygobio gracilis) 80, 81Galerucella calmariensis 165ghost shrimp (Callianassa californiensis) 130giant bison (Bison antiquus) 18, 19giant ground sloth (Megatherium americanum) 18giant helleborine (Epipactis gigantea) 30, 149gilded flicker (Colaptes chrysoides) 82ginkgo (Ginkgo spp.) 15goldeye (Hiodon alosoides) 80gorse (Ulex europaeus) 165great blue heron (Ardea herodias) 109, 131great sundew (Drosera anglica) 146, 147greater white-fronted goose (Anser albifrons) 145grey whale (Eschrichtius robustus) 130grouse 105

species indexgull (Larus spp.) 131Thayer’s (Larus thayeri) 69gunnel (Pholis spp.) 47Hammond’s flycatcher (Empidonax hammondii) 69harbour seal (Phoca vitulina) 66, 131hemlock (Tsuga spp.) 104, 192mountain (Tsuga mertensiana) 17, 18, 21, 27western (Tsuga heterophylla) 19, 21, 26, 27Himalayan blackberry (Rubus armeniacus) 40honey bee mite (Varroa jacobsoni) 99hotwater physa (Physella wrighti) 64, 149Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis spp. idahoensis) 38,39, 40isopod 130Idotea spp. 47Limnoria lignorum 131knapweed (Centaurea spp.) 166lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) 81lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis) 81lamprey (Lampetra spp.) 80Pacific (Lampetra tridentata) 79largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) 192Lemmon’s holly fern (Polystichum lemmonii) 150, 151long-billed curlew (Numenius americanus) 137long-billed dowitcher (Limnodromus scolopaceus) 69longnose dace (Rhinichthys cataractae) 79, 80MacGillivray’s warbler (Oporornis tolmiei) 69Macoun’s meadowfoam (Limnanthes macounii) 1, 40Manila clam (Tapes philippinarum) 168, 210marbled murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus) 59,66, 195maritime glasswort (Salicornia maritima) 151, 152marsh muhly (Muhlenbergia glomerata) 149mastodon (Mammut americanum) 18mink (Neovison vison) 137monarch (Danaus plexippus) 70moose (Alces americanus) 100, 101, 124, 144Mormon metalmark (Apodemia mormo) 74mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) 1, 144, 171mountain holly fern (Polystichum scopulinum) 151mountain sorrel (Oxyria digyna) 17, 79mountain-avens (Dryas spp.) 27muskox (Ovibos moschatus) 16mussel, freshwater 42, 92Rocky Mountain ridged (Gonidea angulata) 92mussel, marine (Mytilus spp.) 46, 47, 127-8California (Mytilus californianus) 91, 127-8, 127Nebria charlotte 87Nebria haida 87needle-and-thread grass (Hesperostipa comata) 27, 39,39, 40, 193Newcombe’s butterweed (Sinosenecio newcombei) 62,65Nooksack dace (Rhinichthys sp. 4) 78, 79, 80North American deermouse (Peromyscusmaniculatus) 77northern flicker (Colaptes auratus) 82northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens) 145northern pikeminnow (Ptychocheilus oregonensis) 80northwestern deermouse (Peromyscus keenii) 27oak (Quercus spp.) 9Garry (Quercus garryana) 20, 21, 23, 26, 40, 41, 73, 87,99, 158, 165, 173, 192, 216ochre sea star (Pisaster ochraceus) 46, 47, 129Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia) 20, 192owl 107, 109flammulated (Otus flammeolus) 108northern hawk (Surnia ulula) 108northern pygmy-owl (Glaucidium gnoma) 108swarthi subspecies (Glaucidium gnoma swarthi)75, 77northern saw-whet owl (Aegolius acadicus) 108brooksi subspecies (Aegolius acadicus brooksi)75, 77short-eared (Asio flammeus) 146spotted (Strix occidentalis) 92western screech (Megascops kennicottii) 108macfarlanei subspecies (Megascops kennicottiimacfarlanei) 96Pacific chorus frog (Pseudacris regilla) XXVIIPacific crab apple (Malus fusca) 12Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi) 130, 131, 132, 169Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) 168, 210painted lady (Vanessa cardui) 70passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) 24, 58peamouth (Mylocheilus caurinus) 80phalarope (Phalaropus spp.) 151Wilson’s (Phalaropus tricolour) 69phoebus parnassian (Parnassius phoebus) 75pine (Pinus spp.) 17, 20, 21, 105, 191lodgepole (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) 18, 26, 27ponderosa (Pinus ponderosa) 27pine beetle (Dendroctonus spp.) 104mountain (Dendroctonus ponderosae) 7, 96, 102,105, 105, 106, 176, 191, 195, 220pine grosbeak, carlottae subspecies (Pinicolaenucleator carlottae) 75, 77pink mountain-heather (Phyllodoce empetriformis) 27pink-footed shearwater (Puffinus creatopus) 67plover (Charadrius spp.) 151poplar and willow borer (Cryptorhynchus lapathi) 125porcelain crab (Petrolisthes spp.) 47prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus) 146propertius duskywing (Erynnis propertius) 75purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) 165purple martin (Progne subis) 131purple sulphur bacteria (Amoebobacter purpureus)152pygmy whitefish (Prosopium coulterii) 79raccoon (Procyon lotor) 137, 165rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), 210, see alsosteelheadred crossbill, stricklandi subspecies (Loxia curvirostrastricklandi) 105red laver seaweed (Porphyra abbottiae) 13rock sandpiper (Calidris ptilocnemis) 69rock sole (Lepidopsetta bilineata) 169Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum) 78rose (Rosa spp.) 40, 96, 96round whitefish (Prosopium cylindraceum) 81sage thrasher (Oreoscoptes montanus) 68, 74sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) 17, 18, 20big (Artemisia tridentata) 27, 40salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) 11, 15, 23, 42, 43, 45, 48,66, 70, 71, 80, 81, 119, 121-4, 122, 130, 133, 135,138, 139-40, 148, 162, 176, 189, 210, 219, 220, 221chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) 13, 119,121, 123, 139-40, 164chum (Oncorhynchus keta) 13, 121, 123, 139-40coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch) 13, 43, 80, 121, 123,139-40, 164pink (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) 13, 121, 123,139-40

taking nature’s pulse: the status of biodiversity in british columbiasockeye (Oncorhynchus nerka) 6, 13, 23, 67, 117,121, 123, 124, 139-40, 140, 176salmon lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) 124sand lance (Ammodytes spp.) 169sandhill crane (Grus canadensis) 69, 146-7Saskatoon (Amelanchier alnifolia) 14sassafras (Sassafras spp.) 15satin flower (Olsynium douglasii) XXIXScotch broom (Cytisus scoparius) 40, 41sea blush (Plectritis congesta) 87sea otter (Enhydra lutris) 91, 127, 128sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus spp.) 128, 129seaside juniper (Juniperus maritima) 78sedge (Carex spp.) 27, 45, 66few-flowered (Carex pauciflora) 146sharp-tailed snake (Contia tenuis) 40shore crab (Hemigrapsus spp.) 47short-tailed albatross (Phoebastria albatrus) 54shrew (Sorex spp.) 111Merriam’s (Sorex merriami) 59Pacific water (Sorex bendirii) 59, 64, 115Olympic [Rohwer’s] (Sorex rohweri) 79, 147signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) 210Sitka valerian (Valeriana sitchensis) 17smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu) 192smelt (Spirinchus spp.) 80longfin (Spirinchus thaleichthys) 79, 169snow goose (Chen caerulescens) 69snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) 124southern maiden hair (Adiantum capillus-veneris) 149southern red-backed vole (Myodes gapperi) 79, 90,107-8galei subspecies (Myodes gapperi galei) 107occidentalis subspecies (Myodes gapperioccidentalis) 107, 147Sphagnum spp. 90, 115-6, 146spruce (Picea spp.) 17, 20, 104, 191black (Picea mariana) 26, 191Engelmann (Picea engelmannii) 21, 26, 27hybrid (Picea engelmannii x glauca) 27Sitka (Picea sitchensis) 9, 19, 21, 74, 143white (Picea glauca) 26, 27steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) 13, 121, 123, 139,164, see also rainbow troutSteller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus) 61, 66, 66, 67,135, 138, 139, 139Steller’s jay, carlottae subspecies (Cyanocitta stellericarlottae) 8, 75, 77stickleback (Gasterosteus spp.) 1, 76, 79, 80, 84, 207sturgeon (Acipenser spp.) 80green (Acipenser medirostris) 70subarctic darner (Aeshna subarctica) 115sucker (Catostomus spp.) 80Salish (Catostomus sp. 4) 78, 79, 80white (Catostomus commersonii) 81surfbird (Aphriza virgata) 69surf-grass (Phyllospadix spp.) 130Swainson’s hawk (Buteo swainsoni) 69Swainson’s thrush (Catharus ustulatus) 82tamarack (Larix laricina) 26thinhorn sheep (Ovis dalli) 144tiger beetle (Cicindela spp.) 1tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) 153, 207tiger swallowtail (Papilio spp.) 82Canadian (Papilio canadensis) 82western (Papilio rutulus) 82tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) 210trumpeter swan (Cygnus buccinator) 69, 137Truncocolumella citrina 98tundra swan (Cygnus columbianus) 145Vancouver Island marmot (Marmota vancouverensis)1, 61, 64, 73, 77viceroy (Limenitis archippus) 24, 58wapato (Sagittaria latifolia var. latifolia) 13west coast lady (Vanessa annabella) 70western oxypolis (Oxypolis occidentalis) 9western pine elfin (Callophrys eryphon) 105western pond turtle (Actinemys marmorata) 24, 58western redcedar (Thuja plicata) 9, 10, 13, 13, 20, 21,26, 27, 98, 141, 191, 192western sandpiper (Calidris mauri) 69, 70, 70western spruce budworm (Choristoneura occidentalis)191western tanager (Piranga ludoviciana) 69white mountain-heather (Cassiope mertensiana var.mertensiana) 27white-tailed ptarmigan, saxatilis subspecies (Lagopusleucura saxatilis) 75, 77Williamson’s sapsucker (Sphyrapicus thyroideus) 108willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus) 124willow (Salix spp.) 27, 91, 101, 124-5, 133glabrous dwarf (Salix reticulata ssp.glabellicarpa) 125Wilson’s warbler (Wilsonia pusilla) 82winter wren (Troglodytes troglodytes) 78, 78wolf (Canis spp.) 9, 85, 100-1, 145, 171grey (Canis lupus) 100, 144, 145wolverine (Gulo gulo) 92, 171Vancouver Island (Gulo gulo vancouverensis)76, 77woodpecker 8, 105, 108, 109, 110American three-toed (Picoides dorsalis) 108black-backed (Picoides arcticus) 108hairy, picoideus subspecies (Picoides villosuspicoideus) 75, 77Lewis’s (Melanerpes lewis) 84, 94, 96, 108white-headed (Picoides albolarvatus) 108woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) 17, 17,18yellow perch (Perca flavescens) 165, 192yellow-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) 10, 27

“British Columbia’s biodiversity is globally significantbecause of its variety and integrity, but without immediateaction, it is vulnerable to rapid deterioration,especially in light of climate change.”Printed on 100% post-consumer recycled paper, processed chlorine freeDesign: Alaris Designwww.biodiversitybc.org

Taking Nature's Pulse - Biodiversity BC

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