Poster Sessions, pages 567-640 - ICOET

Poster Sessions 

Introduction 

Ecological Effects of Road Infrastructure on Herpetofauna: Understanding Biology and 

Increasing Communication 

Kimberly M. Andrews (803-725-0422, andrews@srel.edu) and J. Whitfield Gibbons (gibbons@srel. 

edu), Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia, Drawer E, Aiken, SC 29802, Fax: 

803-725-3309 USA 

Denim M. Jochimsen (208-885-6185, denimj@uidaho.edu), Department of Biological Sciences, 

University of Idaho, Room 252 Life Sciences Bldg., P.O. Box 443051, Moscow, ID 83844, Fax: 

208-885-7905 USA 

Abstract: Roads are the ultimate manifestation of urbanization, providing essential connectivity within and between 

rural and heavily populated areas. Roads permeate national forests and other established wilderness areas; consequently, 

no areas in the U.S. are protected from this expanding infrastructure. The ecological impacts roads have on 

herpetofauna across temporal and spatial scales are profound, beginning during the early stages of construction and 

progressing through to completion and daily use. Herpetofauna have the potential to be negatively influenced from 

roads as a consequence of urbanization, either directly from on-road mortality or indirectly as a result of a variety of 

ecological impacts and enabled human accessibility. The quantity and the potential severity of indirect impacts of 

roads and urban development on amphibians and reptiles far exceed those incurred from direct mortality of wildlife 

although our understanding of these indirect consequences is premature. Our objective for this presentation is to: 1) 

summarize the prevalence of data on direct mortality of herpetofauna, 2) to characterize the diversity of indirect effects 

from roads, 3) to suggest larger-scale impacts on population and community levels, and 4) to recommend areas 

of future research for impacts that are undocumented but for which herpetofauna are likely susceptible based on their 

ecological strategies. Lastly, we present approaches for resolving and preventing conflicts between wildlife and roads. 

While some on-road mortality can be minimized in some instances for some species with road crossings, the mitigation 

of indirect effects such as pollution cannot be accomplished with these measures. In light of the many indirect effects 

that have been identified and the many more that remain to be documented, proactive transportation planning, public 

education, and communication among the professional sectors of society are the most effective way to minimize and 

mitigate road impacts and the only effective mechanism for avoidance of road impacts. 

Human societies, whether urban or rural in population density, depend on transportation networks to establish conduits 

for people and products. Mass production of vehicles in the 1900s created demand for expansion and efficiency 

of the road network, particularly in the United States (U.S.); currently, approximately 6.4 million km of public roads span 

the U.S. (Forman et al. 2003). Roads generate an array of ecological effects that disrupt ecosystem processes and 

wildlife movement. Road placement within the surrounding landscape is possibly the most important factor determining 

the severity of road impacts on wildlife because it influences roadkill locations and rates and the observed presence 

or absence of species. 

The combined environmental effects generated by roads (e.g., thermal, hydrological, pollutants, noise, light, invasive 

species, human access), referred to as the “road-effect zone” (Forman 2000), extend outward from 100 m to 800 m 

beyond the road edge (e.g., Reijnen et al. 1995). Considered independently, each factor influences the surrounding 

ecosystem to varying extents and is further augmented by road type and environmental processes, including wind, 

water, and behavior (Forman et al. 2003). Based on a conservative assumption that effects permeate 100-150 m 

from the road edge, an estimated 15-22% of the nation’s land area is projected to be ecologically impacted by roads 

(Forman and Alexander 1998), an area about 10 times the size of Florida (Smith et al. 2005). However, some effects 

appear to extend to 810 m (i.e., 0.5 mi), resulting in 73% of U.S. land area that would be susceptible to impacts (Riitters 

and Wickham 2003). 

Roads enhance connectivity between rural and heavily populated areas, and consequently are the ultimate manifestation 

of urbanization, which occurs in progressive stages across multiple temporal and spatial scales. Between 1950 

and 1990, urban land area increased more than twice as fast as population growth (White and Ernst 2003). As development 

sprawls outward from the city core, existing transportation corridors are supplemented to support increased 

traffic volumes (Forman et al. 2003). Alternatively, roads may facilitate future development of an area, increasing use 

of surrounding habitats by humans for hunting, collection, and observation of wildlife (Andrews 1990; White and Ernst 

2003). The extension of the U.S. road system permits vehicle access to most areas, as evidenced by the fact that 82% 

of all land lies within only 1 km of a road (Riitters and Wickham 2003). The USBTS (2004) defines an urban area as “a 

municipality . . . with a population of 5,000 or more.” By this definition, many national parks and wildlife refuges have 

daily visitation levels equivalent to populations of small urban areas and during months of peak visitation have traffic 

volumes comparable to some cities (National Park Service 2004). Therefore, recreational activities in these natural 

areas may detrimentally impact species that should otherwise be protected (Seigel 1986). 

Bridging the Gaps, Naturally 567 Posters

Conflicts continually arise due to the interconnectedness of issues related to roads, wildlife, and adjacent habitats. 

These conflicts have led experts from multiple fields (e.g., transportation planners, federal, state, and local governments, 

land managers, consultants, non-profit organizations, environmental action groups, engineers, landscape and 

wildlife ecologists) to contribute their knowledge in an effort to explain the “complex interactions between organisms 

and the environment linked to roads and vehicles” in the field of road ecology (Forman et al. 2003). The field continues 

to grow, as evidenced by the increase in scientific publication (herpetofauna; fig. 1) of reviews, bibliographies, and texts 

that focus on the general effects of roads on natural systems (e.g., Andrews 1990; Forman et al. 1997; Forman and 

Alexander 1998; Spellerberg 1998; Spellerberg and Morrison 1998; Trombulak and Frissell 2000; Forman et al. 2003; 

White and Ernst 2003; NRC 2005). Further, there are also brief reviews that elaborate on the specific effects that roads 

have on wildlife. These reviews are published online (FHWA [Federal Highway Administration] 2000), in conference 

proceedings (Jackson 1999; Jackson 2000), as unpublished reports (Noss 1995; Watson 2005), and in a peer-reviewed 

journal (Trombulak and Frissell 2000). Additionally, some of these focused reviews have dealt specifically with herpetofauna 

(Maxell and Hokit 1999; Ovaska et al. 2004; Smith et al. 2005); further comprehensive presentations of this 

information are now available (Jochimsen et al. 2004; Andrews et al. 2006 [www.parcplace.org]; Andrews et al. 2007). 

Figure 1. The number of published studies represented within this document that involve herpetofauna and road 

issues displayed in 10-year increments. Literature includes publications specifically on herpetofauna and road 

issues, vertebrate studies on roads that include herpetofauna, and herpetofaunal research that includes roads. 

Note that the final decade (2001-2010) includes only 6 years, yet greatly surpasses the publication rate on roads 

in previous decades. Figure taken from Andrews et al. (2006). 

The extent to which roads are linked to the widespread decline of amphibian and reptile populations (Gibbons et al. 

2000; Stuart et al. 2004) is unresolved. Nonetheless, the prospect of mitigating and, even more ideally, reducing the 

adverse effects that can be attributed to roads seems attainable. A better understanding of how roads affect herpetofauna 

and the subsequent application of this knowledge will minimize detrimental effects on these taxa. Our objective 

here is to discuss how roads and vehicles directly and indirectly affect amphibian and reptile individuals, populations, 

and communities through direct mortality, habitat loss, fragmentation, and ecosystem alterations. We present effects 

for which there are data in addition to identifying biological characteristics of herpetofauna that increase their 

susceptibility to roads and are areas in need of research. In a sister paper in this volume (Jochimsen and Andrews), we 

provide examples of post-construction mitigation and long-term solutions of pre-construction transportation planning 

and public awareness. 

Direct Mortality 

Researchers have conducted surveys along roads in an effort to quantify the most conspicuous effect that roads impose 

on wildlife--mortality inflicted by vehicles. Direct effects involve injury or mortality that occurs during road construction 

(e.g., inadvertent burial or death from blasting and earth moving), or subsequent contact with vehicles associated with 

increased development. Direct mortality of herpetofauna has been documented since the beginning of the 20th century, 

the some effects of roadkill were not observed until decades later (e.g., amphibians, Puky 2006; snakes, Fitch 1999). 

While urban areas present obvious concerns for roadkills, road mortality has been considered the greatest non-natural 

source of vertebrate death in protected areas (Bernardino and Dalrymple 1992; Kline and Swann 1998). 

Amphibians (Salamanders and Anurans) 

Studies investigating road effects specifically on amphibians have been conducted in Europe perhaps longer than 

in any other region, and mitigation efforts have been in place since the 1960s (Puky 2004; Schmidt and Zumbach 

2007). The highest rates of road mortality for amphibians occur where roads located in the vicinity of a wetland or 

pond disrupting the spatial connectivity of essential resources and habitats across the landscape (e.g., Ashley and 

Robinson 1996; Smith and Dodd 2003). Mass movements triggered by rainfall and warm weather may result in excessive 

rates of road mortality for salamanders and anurans (e.g., Turner 1955; Clevenger et al. 2001; Ervin et al. 2001). 

Many species fall victim to roads in great numbers during mass migrations of breeding adults and later as emerging 

Posters 568 ICOET 2007 Proceedings

metamorphs. Road mortality is likely substantially higher for some species of anurans relative to most salamanders due 

to higher reproductive output and tendency to breed in roadside habitats. In addition, anurans possess a delicate body 

structure that may make them more vulnerable to the high pressure wave created by a passing vehicle, which researcher 

Dietrich Hummel found can result in death even without experiencing a direct hit from a vehicle (Holden 2002). 

Several studies have focused strictly on the probability of individual amphibians being killed on the road. The estimated 

survival rate of toads crossing roads in Germany with traffic densities of 24-40 cars per hour varied from zero (Heine 

1987) to 50% (Kuhn 1987). Hels and Buchwald (2001) calculated that the probability of individual mortality while 

crossing a road ranged from 0.34 to 0.98 across traffic volumes, depending on various attributes of a given species. 

Their model has been adapted to assess mortality probabilities for turtles (Gibbs and Shriver 2002; Aresco 2005a) and 

snakes (Andrews and Gibbons 2005). However, all are based on individual deaths presented as proportions, so the 

extrapolations to true population levels are equivocal. 

Reptiles (Crocodilians, Lizards, Turtles, and Snakes) 

Few road surveys have documented mortality of crocodilians and lizards, and most observations have been recorded 

incidentally (e.g., Klauber 1939; Fitch 1949; Dodd et al. 1989). Traffic deaths have been suggested as the major known 

source of mortality for some large, endangered species, including the American Crocodile (Crocodylus acutus; Gaby 

1987; Kushlan 1988; Harris and Gallagher 1989). Crocodilians also present a safety concern for drivers and can result 

in human death (Associated Press 2005). Lack of evidence for high mortality of lizards could be a detection issue due 

to small size and rapid deterioration of road-killed specimens of many species (e.g., Kline and Swann 1998), or a lower 

mortality rate due to their ability to cross roads faster than other reptiles (but see Kline et al. 2001). Also, most species 

of lizards do not migrate seasonally and exhibit high site-fidelity within small home ranges, potentially limiting their 

encounters with roads (Rutherford and Gregory 2003). 

Slow-moving turtles, especially species that retreat into their shells when vehicles pass, are long-lived species that 

likely experience irreparable population impacts when adult females are killed (Congdon et al. 1993). Studies report 

seasonal peaks in road mortality correlated with the migration of nesting females and hatchling dispersal (e.g., Ashley 

and Robinson 1996; Fowle 1996; Haxton 2000). Spatial concentrations of turtle mortalities tend to be associated with 

movement between wetland habitats (Dodd et al. 1989). In a seven-year census (1989-1995), Wood and Herlands 

(1997) reported the roadkill deaths of 4,020 Diamond-backed Terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin) along a road that 

bisects a marsh in coastal New Jersey. Along a highway dividing Lake Jackson in Tallahassee, FL, Aresco (2005a) never 

observed a single individual survive a road crossing, and subsequently has documented the highest turtle road mortality 

rate yet reported (pre-fence data; n=343; 95% killed when entering highway, remaining 5% killed in first two lanes). 

The most thorough, long-term records of direct road mortality have been provided for snakes. Since the 1930s, herpetologists 

have driven U.S. roads to document snake occurrence and collect specimens (e.g., Klauber 1931; Scott 1938); 

therefore, documentation of traffic fatalities with this taxa are not novel. Reports in which the majority of specimens are 

already dead are not uncommon. The highest road mortality of snakes to our knowledge has been documented along 

U.S. Highway 441 in Paynes Prairie State Preserve in Florida (1.854 individuals/km surveyed, 623 snakes killed, 336 km 

surveyed, Smith and Dodd 2003). Episodic weather events may trigger mass movements of snakes that result in high 

levels of mortality over fine spatial and temporal scales (e.g., Hellman and Telford 1956). Movement patterns influenced 

by weather are not always exhibited immediately as evidenced by the summer flooding of the Mississippi River that later 

triggered a pulse in snake movement across a bordering highway in October (Tucker 1995). 

Summary 

Ample evidence suggests that road mortality of herpetofauna results in significant loss of individuals and in some 

situations threatens the sustainability of populations. Reed et al. (2004) concluded that road mortality is substantial, 

exceeding the damage incurred by other anthropogenic sources such as illegal collection for trade. Quantitative effects 

on populations have mainly been estimated using models or based on mean mortality rates determined by surveys 

(e.g., Rosen and Lowe 1994), estimates that must be interpreted with caution due to biases associated with road 

sampling (see Table 1 in Andrews et al. 2006). As the research on road impacts has been disproportionately focused 

on mammals and birds, we are still learning about some of the more straightforward direct effects of roads on herpetofauna. 

However, it is apparent that roads are unequivocally a major source of mortality for many amphibians and 

reptiles in many areas, and likely pose risks to population viability. 

Indirect Effects 

The manifold effects of roads extend far beyond encounters between wildlife and vehicles (Andrews 1990; Forman 

et al. 2003); multiple effects occur across various spatial scales that extend beyond the road. Roads are designed to 

serve as travel corridors for humans, usually without regard for the environmental needs of wildlife. Therefore, problems 

may arise when wildlife use road systems for their own movement. Unlike natural corridors, roads frequently cross 

topographic and environmental contours, thereby fragmenting a range of habitat types (Bennett 1991) and affecting 

many wildlife groups that possess a diversity of ecological and life history strategies. The transformation of physical 

conditions on and adjacent to roads eliminates areas of continuous habitat while simultaneously creating long-lasting 

edge effects (Forman and Alexander 1998). When discussing indirect road effects on herpetofauna, the information 

Bridging the Gaps, Naturally 569 Posters

ase becomes sparse because indirect effects are more pervasive and more difficult to quantify than direct effects, 

and documenting indirect effects due to roads often requires extensive and long-term monitoring. 

The Road Zone as Habitat: For Better or Worse 

Reproduction 

Roads and roadside areas can provide habitat for reproductive behaviors. Amphibians, especially frogs, are known to 

breed in roadside ditches, but successful egg and larval development may be rare (Richter 1997), as ditches often dry 

before larvae can metamorphose. Some anurans use water-filled tire ruts for breeding and moisture when traversing 

long distances (e.g., Reh and Seitz 1990), which can lead to adult and larval mortality (D. M. Jochimsen, pers. obs.). 

The road zone can also serve as an attractant for reproductive behaviors for reptiles (Hódar et al. 2000), an occurrence 

that can result in high mortality when reproductive activities coincide with peak traffic densities (Caletrio et al. 1996). 

Lastly, these behaviors result in differential mortality due to increased roadside exposure, as seen with roadside nesting 

by turtles that may result in reduced survivorship of both adult females and hatchlings (Guyot and Kuchling 1998; 

Aresco 2005b; Szerlag and McRobert 2006; Brisbin et al. 2007). 

Thermoregulation 

Research suggests that roadsides and road surfaces attract some reptiles for thermoregulatory purposes. Amazonian 

lizards may benefit from open patches created by roads, due to increased access to basking sites, which consequently 

improves foraging efficiency (e.g., Sartorius et al. 1999), and some snakes may be attracted to roads that serve as 

basking sites (e.g., Klauber 1939; Brattstrom 1965; Sullivan 1981a; but see Andrews and Gibbons 2005). Further 

research is needed to explore variables (e.g., species, season, and environmental conditions) that would likely be 

involved if thermal conditions serve to attract reptile species to roadsides and road surfaces. 

Foraging 

Secondary impacts of roads on herpetofauna can also occur when roads attract prey or predators (e.g., small mammals, 

Getz et al. 1978; nesting birds, Ortega and Capen 2002). Prey concentrations in roadside ditches (Franz and 

Scudder 1977), on shoulders, (Leighton 1903; Smith 1969), and forest edges, (Sullivan 1981b; Wells et al. 1996) can 

trigger an increased presence of predatory species. Terrestrial Garter Snakes (Thamnophis elegans) were observed 

foraging on Western Toad (Bufo boreas) tadpoles in ruts on a road in Idaho (D. M. Jochimsen, pers. obs.). Roads 

also provide simplified foraging opportunities for predators as they increase exposure to animals crossing the road 

(Vandermast, 1999). Also, dead animals attract frog, turtle, snake scavengers (e.g., Guarisco 1985; Jackson and 

Ostertag 1999; Jensen 1999; Morey 2005). 

Clearly, some species benefit from roadside edge habitat under certain circumstances and the disturbance of urbanization 

in general, but ultimately this may incur increased risks. Perhaps more commonly, many herpetofaunal populations 

are intolerant of edge conditions generated by roads and may decrease directly, or indirectly, because of reduced prey 

levels resulting from reduced habitat quality surrounding roads (e.g., Haskell 2000). Therefore, assessments of indirect 

road impacts as a consequence of predator-prey relationships must be conducted in the context of individual species 

and the ecological requirements of predators and prey. 

Landscape Pollution 

Hydrological and Microhabitat 

Hydrological changes occur beyond the immediate vicinity of roads (e.g., Jones et al. 2000). The impervious nature 

of roads elevates precipitation runoff, fluctuations in flow velocities, and flooding in adjacent wetlands, diminishing 

suitable habitat for amphibian breeding, foraging, and development (Richter 1997). Abnormal flooding cycles can lower 

amphibian species richness (Richter and Azous 1995) and increase the likelihood of recolonization by predatory fish in 

formerly fish-free isolated wetlands. 

Skin permeability and vulnerability to water loss also make it difficult for amphibians to maintain optimal moisture 

levels. Desiccation rates increase during dispersal, particularly in altered environments that do not retain natural 

moisture levels (e.g., Rothermel and Semlitsch 2002) and may also be accelerated for some species when they must 

traverse roads in urban areas. Changes in microhabitat surrounding the road can result in reduced cover and leaf litter 

and therefore drier soils, which could influence the abundances of some amphibian species, particularly woodland 

salamanders (e.g., Marsh and Beckman 2004). These microhabitat changes are compounded by problems of chemical 

run-off, erosion, sedimentation, and siltation (Orser and Shure 1972; Welsh and Ollivier 1998; Semlitsch 2000; 

Semlitsch et al. 2007). 

Chemical 

Vehicular by-products and compounds associated with road degradation contribute to deposition of pollutants on 

and around roads (Hautala et al. 1995; Croteau et al. 2007). Exposure to toxic compounds may alter reproduction 

and have long-term lethal effects on wildlife (Lodé 2000), including endocrine disruption in amphibians that reduces 


eproductive abilities and survivorship (e.g., Hayes et al. 2006; Rohr et al. 2006). Mahaney (1994) found that water 

treatments with high petroleum contamination inhibited tadpole growth and prevented metamorphosis. Physiological 

(i.e., respiratory) and behavioral alterations were observed in lizards and frogs exposed to ozone (Mautz and Dohm 

2004). Acid precipitation resulting from automobiles acts as an immune disruptor in adult frogs (Vatnick et al. 2006). 

Lead levels in soil and vegetation are negatively correlated with distance from roads (e.g., Scanlon 1979), and concentrations 

are positively correlated with traffic density (e.g., Goldsmith et al. 1976). Chloride from de-icing salt runoff 

contaminates fresh waters peripheral to road systems (Environment Canada 2001; Kaushal et al. 2005) and can be 

an agent in reduced survival and reproductive effort (Turtle 2000; Sanzo and Hecnar 2006; Karraker 2007). Forman 

and Deblinger (2000) suggested that road salts altered aquatic habitats up to 200 - 1500 m from a busy suburban 

highway corridor. Additionally, research has demonstrated compromised water quality and reduced amphibian survival 

from herbicides and dust-control agents (Kohl et al. 1994; deMaynadier and Hunter 1995; Wood 2001). Less is known 

about physiological effects of road-associated pollutants on reptiles. However, it is reasonable that similar issues exist 

with the uptake of pollutants directly from the environment or from prey items where transferred concentrations vary 

between sexes and among body sizes (e.g., Rainwater et al. 2005). Scanlon (1979) found higher levels of heavy metals 

in invertebrate-eating shrews than plant-eating rodents, suggesting that bioaccumulation could be road-related. 

Pheromonal 

Microhabitat changes may obscure olfactory or pheromonal cues. Olfaction plays a primary role in amphibian migration 

and orientation (e.g., Duellman and Trueb 1986), and some snakes rely extensively on scent for directional movement 

cues to locate mates (e.g., LeMaster et al. 2001), prey items (e.g., Chiszar et al. 1990), and ambush sites (e.g., Clark 

2004). Some naïve neonate snakes trail conspecific adults to hibernacula (e.g., Cobb et al. 2005). Pheromone scent 

trailing, observed in a variety of species, could conceivably be altered by some contaminants, such as oil residues on 

roads (Klauber 1931) or road substrate type (Shine et al. 2004). 

Noise 

Vehicular traffic alters environmental conditions of habitats adjacent to roads via vibration and noise, which can 

modify animal behavioral and movement patterns (Bennett 1991). Effects of traffic noise and vibrations on vertebrates 

include hearing loss, increase in stress hormones, altered behaviors, and interference of breeding communications 

(Dufour 1980; Brattstrom and Bondello 1983; Forman and Alexander 1998). Road noise and ground vibration may 

disrupt cues necessary for orientation and navigation during migratory movements of some amphibians (e.g., breeding 

frogs and salamanders, Dimmitt and Ruibal 1980). Sun and Narins (2004) found that airplane and motorcycle noise 

reduced the calling frequency of some anuran species but increased the frequency of other species. Background 

noise from off-road vehicles often results in modification of calling behavior in male anurans and may impair the 

ability of females to discriminate among call types and to discern locations of calling males during breeding migrations 

(Schwartz and Wells 1983; Schwartz et al. 2001). Impacts observed in off-road environments would be exaggerated in 

urban environments, which present even greater noise interference. 

Light 

Artificial lighting along roads and urban areas alters foraging, reproductive, and defensive behaviors of herpetofauna 

(Buchanan 2006; Wise and Buchanan 2006). Exposure to artificial light can cause nocturnal frogs to suspend normal 

behaviors and remain motionless long after light has been removed (Buchanan 1993). More research is needed to 

assess the overall impacts of lighting in urban areas before informed recommendations can be made (Perry et al. 2007). 

Spatial Complexity 

Dispersal 

Roads can serve as dispersal corridors, facilitating species expansion, an occurrence that is particularly problematic 

with invasive species. Roads and trail systems facilitated the expansion across Australia of introduced Cane Toads 

(Bufo marinus, Seabrook and Dettmann 1996), which have been estimated to invade new areas at a rate of over 50 

km a year (Phillips et al. 2006). Phillips et al. (2003) estimated that B. marinus could pose a threat to as many as 

30% of terrestrial Australian snake species. Additionally, fire ants (Solenopsis invicta) proliferate in roadside areas in 

the United States (Stiles and Jones 1998) and have been identified as a problematic predator on egg-laying reptiles 

(e.g., Allen et al. 1997; Buhlmann and Coffman 2001; Parris et al. 2002), reducing reproductive output and hatchling 

survivorship. Lastly, roads can enable the spread of exotic plant species that subsequently eliminate native flora and 

fauna (Wester and Juvik 1983; Parendes and Jones 2000) and compromise the quality and availability of habitat and 

prey bases (e.g., Zink et al. 1995; Maerz et al. 2005). Jochimsen (2006) found a correlation between Gopher Snakes 

(Pituophis catenifer) mortality and cover of an invasive grass species along roadsides in Idaho. 

Fragmentation 

As road density increases, species that depend on a non-fragmented landscape to complete their life cycles (e.g., Pope 

et al. 2000) will be in greatest jeopardy. Resources associated with refugia, mates, and prey tend to be concentrated in 

distinct habitats that are patchily distributed and seasonally available. When roads bisect these habitats, mortality may 

become concentrated spatially and seasonally (e.g., Carpenter and Delzell 1951). Landscape permeability and mainte- 


nance of movement corridors are critical to ensure metapopulation dynamics of amphibians and reptiles (Marsh and 

Trenham 2001). Many herpetofaunal species require not only the terrestrial habitat peripheral to wetlands, but corridor 

linkages with other isolated water bodies (Gibbons 2003). Depending on the mechanisms driving migratory patterns 

(e.g., genetic, behavioral), deterministic movement patterns and philopatric behaviors may inhibit an individual’s ability 

to readily adapt to a road that interferes with the animal’s migratory route In a modeling assessment by Jaeger and 

colleagues (2006), population persistence was higher if roads were spatially clustered as opposed to evenly distributed 

across the landscape. 

Behavioral Responses 

As landscape features that alter and fragment natural habitats, roads may impede movements of amphibians and 

reptiles via alteration of size, shape, or spatial arrangement of habitat patches (e.g., Fahrig and Merriam 1994). Barrier 

effects are defined as occurrences when 1) animals are killed on roads in numbers that functionally prevent genetic 

exchange between populations; 2) surrounding habitat quality is reduced such that animals cannot persist; or 3) animals 

behaviorally avoid roads, contributing to isolation and habitat fragmentation. Vehicles can force wildlife to adapt 

their behavior either by posing an impenetrable barrier, in which animals selectively avoid the road due to awareness of 

traffic as suggested by Klauber (1931) or through other little-understood influences on crossing behavior (Andrews and 

Gibbons 2005). 

Road Avoidance 

Behavioral avoidance of roads by herpetofauna is poorly documented, and species differences are less understood 

than is species-specific mortality on roads. Road avoidance may occur as a result of several road characteristics, such 

as traffic, noise, road substrate, openness, and others not yet determined. Models show that differing catalysts for 

avoidance can influence differing levels of vulnerability at the population level (Jaeger et al. 2005), therefore indicating 

a need for species-level considerations. Roads can hinder amphibian movement (e.g., Gibbs 1998), and reduced permeability 

can even occur on low-use forest roads (e.g., Marsh et al. 2005). Barrier effects from roads may vary depending 

upon the specific type of movement being made. For example, a greater proportion of natal dispersal movements 

occurred across roads in Maine (22.1%) than either migratory (17.0%) or home-range movements (9.2%; deMaynadier 

and Hunter 2000). Road avoidance has also been documented in salamanders (Madison and Farrand 1998), lizards 

(Klingenböck et al. 2000; Koenig et al. 2001), and tortoises (Boarman and Sazaki 1996). 

A variety of researchers have noted road avoidance by snakes (e.g., Weatherhead and Prior 1992; Fitch 1999; Goode 

and Wall 2002; Sealy 2002; Laidig and Golden 2004; Shine et al. 2004; Plummer and Mills 2006). Avoidance rates can 

vary with road substrate where paved roads have typically catalyzed higher resistance (Hyslop et al. 2006). Andrews 

and Gibbons (2005) performed experiments that revealed significant levels of variation among species in road avoidance 

rates where a positive correlation was found between crossing frequency and body length, likely due to natural 

behaviors of smaller snakes to avoid open spaces (e.g., Klauber 1931; Dodd et al. 1989; Fitch 1999; Enge and Wood 

2002). The propensity to cross roads can also vary within a species where juveniles and adults do not cross proportionately 

to ratios in the surrounding environment (Seigel and Pilgrim 2002) Some snakes attempt to cross, but deter and 

retreat (Andrews and Gibbons 2005), ultimately not crossing, a behavior that has been observed in the field (Holman 

and Hill 1961; Franz and Scudder 1977). Individuals that enter a road but do not cross are exposed to both direct 

mortality and road fragmentation. 

Increasing awareness of the prevalence of behavioral avoidance of roads within and among species suggests a topic 

of interest from both ecological and evolutionary perspectives. Beyond considerations of road avoidance as a learned 

behavior, genetically-inherited avoidance of roads has not been directly documented, but if a genetic component for 

response to roads and traffic exists within species, behaviors that increase survival would be under selection. For 

instance, in areas of greater habitat connectivity, organisms that tend to avoid roads would survive and breed successfully, 

whereas in fragmented landscapes, organisms that risk crossing roads might be the effective breeders. 

In-Road Behaviors 

Behaviors such as movement speed and predator responses influence susceptibility to road mortality and fragmentation. 

Slow-moving animals, or those that cross the road at a wide angle, increase their mortality risk. Slow movements 

of amphibians (Hels and Buchwald 2001), turtles (Gibbs and Shriver 2002; Aresco 2005a), and snakes (Andrews and 

Gibbons 2005) while crossing roads have been documented. While road-crossing speeds of amphibians and turtles 

may be fairly consistent within and among species in each group (but see Finkler et al. 2003), crossing speeds of 

snakes vary significantly among species, suggesting that snakes may suffer a greater range of road mortality rates 

than other taxa (Andrews and Gibbons 2005). Although correlations of age, reproductive condition, or sex with road 

crossing speed have not been documented or studied, natural differences in speed exist (Plummer 1997). Lastly, little 

is published regarding crossing angles for herpetofauna. Two studies on snakes found that individuals consistently 

move perpendicularly across the road, taking the shortest route possible (Shine et al. 2004; Andrews and Gibbons 

2005) suggesting that the road is an area that animals are simply passing through and not a selected habitat. 

Immobilization behaviors that are likely derived from predator responses (Andrews and Gibbons 2005) may lead to responses 

to oncoming or passing vehicles that could significantly influence crossing time. Mazerolle et al. (2005) found 


that the strongest stimuli for immobilization behavior across six amphibian species were a combination of headlights 

and vibration. Andrews and Gibbons (2005) found high rates of immobilization in response to a passing vehicle among 

snake species that would greatly jeopardize some from successfully crossing a busy highway. 

Summary 

In summary, indirect impacts from roads on herpetofauna vary considerably within and among taxonomic groups. Many 

indirect effects of roads are poorly understood and some have yet to be considered, posing unknown challenges for 

investigators to determine their ultimate impacts on herpetofauna. Potential discoveries of the indirect effects of roads 

on amphibian and reptile biology promise a wealth of opportunities to conduct meaningful behavioral and ecological 

research applicable to herpetofaunal conservation on a global scale. 

Effects on the Higher Levels of Ecological Organization 

Population-Level Impacts 

The difficulty in monitoring road impacts at the population and community levels is reflected in the lack of available 

data, although larger scale repercussions of road impacts on herpetofauna are probably underestimated (Vos and 

Chardon 1998). Roads may affect population size and demography of amphibians and reptiles in a variety of ways, 

but understanding the full effect of roads on herpetofaunal populations may be delayed and could take decades to 

elucidate (Patla and Peterson 1999; Findlay and Bourdages 2000). Despite early evidence by Klauber (1939) that a 

California highway resulted in the local decline of snakes, documentation of amphibian and reptile population declines 

as a result of roads, directly or indirectly, has been limited and often speculative. In many instances, effects on population 

density and structure from traffic-related mortality and continued loss of individuals can only be inferred. However, 

declines and lower population estimates associated with increased road densities and traffic levels have been documented 

in frogs (e.g., Fahrig et al. 1995), turtles (Boarman and Sazaki 1996; Fowle 1996; von Seckendorff Hoff and 

Marlow 2002), and snakes (e.g., Rudolph et al. 1999; but see Mazerolle [2004] for amphibians and Sullivan [2000] for 

snakes]). Gibbs and Shriver (2002) simulated movement patterns for pond and terrestrial turtles against road density 

and traffic volumes that indicated mortality of >5% of the populations of land and large-bodied pond turtles, a percentage 

that they suggest is likely unsustainable for long-lived species. 

Many amphibians and reptiles exhibit intraspecific variation in ecological requirements and strategies between sexes, 

across life history stages, and seasons. Variation in movement patterns and abundances may consequently result in 

differential road mortality rates (e.g., Rudolph and Burgdorf 1997; Titus 2006); often, mortality rates are highest in 

species and individuals that exhibit the greatest vagility (Bonnet et al. 1999; Carr and Fahrig 2001; Brito and Álvares 

2004; Roe et al. 2006). This attribute can lead to skewed population structure in amphibians and reptiles via altered 

sex ratios and composition of age classes (Fukumoto and Herrero 1998). Female turtles are more likely to be killed on 

roads (Wood and Herlands 1997; Marchand and Litvaitis 2004; Steen and Gibbs 2004; Aresco 2005b), due in part to 

nesting activities (e.g., Gibbs and Steen 2005; Steen et al. 2006). Conversely, a higher proportion of male lizards (e.g., 

Rodda 1990) and snakes (Bonnet et al. 1999; Sealy 2002; Jochimsen 2006; Andrews and Gibbons 2007) die on roads 

because males disperse further than females in some species. Further, sex bias in road captures can be seasonally 

variable (Sherbrooke 2002; Moeller et al. 2005). Intraspecific variation in road impacts can often be linked to spatial 

and temporal attributes of dispersion, which can most often be correlated with mating systems. For instance, males 

of polygynous species are often the more risk-prone sex as they are responsible for courting and defending multiple 

females within a territory (Goodman et al. 2005). Further studies designed to explore the variation of sex bias in road 

captures driven by ecological behaviors are needed to investigate influences on population sustainability. Some longdistance 

movers, such as Eastern Indigo Snakes (Drymarchon couperi) are particularly sensitive to edge effects and 

therefore could be an ideal umbrella species to look at the effects of landscape fragmentation (Breininger et al. 2004). 

Many herpetologists still consider road surveys valuable for monitoring amphibian and reptile occurrence despite 

obvious biases with this survey method (e.g., Case 1978; Enge and Wood 2002; Steen and Smith 2006). Road surveys 

are occasionally used to monitor the status of populations (Seigel et al. 2002; Weir and Mossman 2005); however, we 

urge caution in the interpretation of these data as status cannot be considered independent of the myriad impacts of 

roads on herpetofauna. 

Genetic Effects on Populations 

Amphibian and reptile species often have restricted or patchy distributions and small effective population sizes. Roads 

may serve as barriers that restrict gene flow and decrease genetic diversity through a combination of direct mortality 

and inbreeding. In functionally-small populations, these effects may significantly increase the probability of local extinction 

(Rodriguez et al. 1996). Few studies have empirically documented genetic effects on herpetofauna due to roads, 

but those that have support the hypothesis that roads reduce gene flow and decrease genetic diversity in amphibians 

(e.g., Reh and Seitz 1990; Hitchings and Beebee 1998; Lesbarrès et al. 2003), especially when populations are 

constrained within urban areas (Hitchings and Beebee 1997; Rowe et al. 2000; Scribner et al. 2001; Vos et al. 2001). 

Virtually all genetic studies of road impacts on herpetofauna heretofore have focused on amphibians, although reptiles 

could sustain comparable genetic impacts from roads. Further, the same life history traits such as long-life spans, 


low reproductive rates, and delayed maturity of many reptile species that could result in more severe genetic effects 

from roads than that observed with amphibians also increase the difficulty in discerning the role that road and urban 

fragmentation has on genetic isolation. Nonetheless, modern genetic approaches offer great potential for providing insight 

into how roads affect populations of both amphibians and reptiles and future research should be informative. For 

instance, landscape genetics is a new discipline that aims to assess population substructure at fine taxonomic levels 

across varying geographic scales, which is achieved by detecting genetic discontinuities (i.e., distinct genetic change 

within a geographic zone) as they are correlated with environmental features, including barriers such as mountains, 

temperature gradients, or as applicable in this discussion, roads (Manel et al. 2003). This increase in technological 

ability will allow for more accurate genetic investigations of populations surrounding roads, thereby permitting impact 

assessments within populations as applicable to an evolutionary time scale. 

Community-Level Impacts 

Data on community-level impacts on herpetofauna are lacking in general, although in some instances lower species 

richness is correlated with road density (Dickman 1987; Halley et al. 1996; Vos and Stumpel 1996; Findlay and 

Houlahan 1997; Knutson et al. 1999; Lehtinen et al. 1999; Kjoss and Litvaitis 2001). Analyses of road impacts on 

herpetofauna at ecological scales higher than the individual or species are inherently difficult, because larger, more 

significant impacts on populations and communities are not instantaneous. As with populations, cumulative effects 

on biodiversity may take decades to become apparent. Due to natural fluctuations across spatial and temporal scales, 

effective analyses require long-term research. Unfortunately, long-term initiatives are typically limited by logistics (e.g., 

time and funding), and trade-offs between ideal experimental designs and resource availability prohibit the larger-scale 

or longer-term projects. Ecological modeling offers one alternative using numbers collected from short-term surveys to 

predict long-term effects. However, only through data collection at population and community levels will the full extent 

of road impacts be realized. This challenge must be met in order for our understanding of road impacts to progress, 

and issues of scale (both spatial and temporal) should be addressed to enable biologically valid data extrapolations. 

The Road Ahead 

The formation of road ecology as a field has fostered action by scientists, conservation advocates, and agencies to 

design various measures to prevent, mitigate, or compensate for road impacts on surrounding habitats and wildlife 

(Forman et al. 2003). Many methods may be implemented once a conflict between wildlife and infrastructure is 

recognized, but the most common solution is the construction of crossing structures. The general function of a crossing 

structure is to provide safe passage for an animal across the road and to provide connectivity between habitats 

adjacent to the road (Forman et al. 2003). The synthesis by Jochimsen et al. (2004) provides a composite summary 

of the various mitigation structures based on descriptions provided by Jackson (1996), Forman et al. (2003), and the 

USFS website - Wildlife Crossings Toolkit (www.wildlifecrossings.info). Further, Andrews et al. (2006) present pre-construction 

solution assessments and a tabular presentation of post-construction mitigation projects. For a synopsis of 

this information, see Jochimsen and Andrews in these proceedings. 

Ecologists, engineers, government officials, and the general public are increasingly aware that roads create ecological 

disturbances and destruction at multiple levels. The approach in the U.S. has been to alleviate traffic problems by 

building new roads, an action that is rarely effective, often generating new traffic instead of reducing existing volumes 

(e.g., Pfleiderer and Dieterich 1995). As in North America, herpetofauna throughout the world have the potential to be 

negatively influenced by roads as a consequence of urbanization, either directly from on-road mortality or indirectly as 

a result of a variety of ecological impacts, particularly increased human accessibility to the landscape. 

Knowledge of road impacts on herpetofauna no longer consists only of on-road mortality. The range, quantity and, 

potentially, the severity of indirect impacts of roads and urban development on amphibians and reptiles far exceed 

those incurred from direct mortality of wildlife. Huge gaps exist in our knowledge of secondary environmental effects 

on wildlife. Designing controlled and replicated experiments in urban and suburban settings is challenging due to the 

complex spatial mosaic and political divisions of ownership and occupancy. Scientists must accept the challenge and 

proceed with the understanding of the complexity of road impacts and the seemingly immeasurable amount of variation 

inherent in diagnosing the problem and developing the solution. 

Post-construction mitigation measures are being developed globally. Since the construction of the first amphibian 

tunnels in 1969 near Zurich, Switzerland (Puky 2004), many structures have become viable alternatives for reducing 

direct effects of roads for some amphibian and reptile species (Jochimsen et al. 2004). However, the minimization of 

indirect effects, such as pollution, cannot be accomplished with mitigation structures. Additionally, few studies adequately 

monitor the efficacy of road-crossing structures in reestablishing connectivity (but see Clevenger and McGuire 

2001; Dodd et al. 2004), which is most often the purpose of construction. In light of the many indirect effects that have 

been identified and many more that remain to be documented, proactive transportation planning to maintain habitat 

connectivity, public education, and communication among professional sectors of society are the most effective way to 

minimize and mitigate road impacts and the only effective mechanism for avoidance of road impacts. 

Acknowledgements: We would like to thank Palmetto Bluff Conservancy and the ICOET Conference Program for travel support to the 2007 

meetings along with the SREL Education for educational support. We thank the Federal Highway Administration for their financial support 

in gathering this information and for an increasing interest in the effects of roads on herps. Kudos to Robin Jung and Joe Mitchell for the 


hectic and substantial task of creating a much-needed volume on Urban Herpetology and including a manuscript from which this paper is a 

synopsis. Preparation was aided by Federal Highway Administration Cooperative Agreement DTFH61-04-H-00036 between the University 

of Georgia and U.S. Department of Transportation and by the Environmental Remediation Sciences Division of the Office of Biological and 

Environmental Research, U.S. Department of Energy through Financial Assistance Award no. DE-FC09-07SR22506 to the University of 

Georgia Research Foundation. Lastly, we thank all of the scientists and members of society that are gaining ground on the understanding 

of road impacts on herpetofauna. This research supports the goals of Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation (PARC). 

Biographical Sketches: Kimberly M. Andrews, a doctoral candidate in the Institute of Ecology at the University of Georgia, conducts 

research on road ecology, impacts of development, and herpetology at the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory. One of her primary goals is 

to contribute to reptile and amphibian conservation by conducting ecological research on movement patterns and behavior in fragmented 

habitats and by promoting a greater understanding and appreciation of herpetofaunal ecology through public outreach and education. 

Denim M. Jochimsen is currently a lecturer of the non-major’s biology course at the University of Idaho and remains actively involved in 

environmental education throughout the Palouse region. Her education includes a B.S. in natural science (wildlife ecology major) from the 

University of Wisconsin–Madison (1999) and M.S. in biology from Idaho State University (2006). She has nine years of research experience 

with reptiles and amphibians, including survey and laboratory work. Her hope is to place road effects on herpetofauna into a broader 

context in terms of landscapes and communities. 

Dr. J. Whitfield Gibbons, Professor of Ecology at the University of Georgia and Head of the Environmental Outreach and Education program 

at the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, conducts research on life history and ecology of reptiles and amphibians. His primary research 

focus is to document and explain the distribution and abundance patterns of herpetofauna at the ecological and evolutionary levels, with 

an emphasis on conservation issues. 

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Wood, R. C., and R. Herlands. 1997. Turtles and Tires: the impact of roadkills on northern diamondback terrapin, Malaclemys terrapin 

terrapin, populations on the Cape May Peninsula, Southern New Jersey, USA. In J. Van Abbema, Proceedings of the Conservation, 

Restoration and Management of Tortoises and Turtles – An International Conference, pp. 46-53. New York Turtle and Tortoise Society, 

New York, NY. 

Wood, T. M. 2001. Herbicide use in the management of roadside vegetation, western Oregon, 1999-2000: effects on the water quality of 

nearby streams. Water-Resources Investigation Report 01-4065. U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of the Interior, and Oregon 

Department of Transportation, Portland, OR. 34 pp. 

Zink, T. A., M. F. Allen, B. Heindl-Tenhunen, and E. B. Allen. 1995. The effect of a disturbance corridor on an ecological reserve. Restoration 

Ecology 3:304-310. 


Abstract 

Assessing the Stone Marten’s Patch Occupancy in Fragmented Landscapes and its Relation to 

Road-Killing Occurrences 

Fernando Ascensão (963805043, fernandoascensao@yahoo.com), 

Clara Grilo, and Margarida Santos-Reis, Centro de Biologia Ambiental, Faculdade de Ciências da 

Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande 1749-018, Lisboa, Portugal 

Habitat loss and fragmentation is generally considered to be the greatest threat worldwide to the survival of species. 

Habitat fragmentation is a process generally regarded as comprising three major components: reduction in total 

area, increase in isolation, and reduction in average size of patches of remnant natural vegetation. Today’s land use 

practices and road network’s expansion strongly promote habitat fragmentation reducing the habitat availability and 

its connectivity, which is assumed to strongly influence species occurrence and population survival in fragmented 

landscapes. Although several studies demonstrated the negative impact of habitat fragmentation, few focused in 

carnivore species, and particularly in Mediterranean environments. Carnivores’ position in the top of the food webs and 

their vulnerability to different human activities make this group especially significant in conservation and management 

actions. Our goal in this study was to assess the influence of human-related variables on the carnivore’s probability of 

occurrence, according to habitat patch size and isolation, and road network characteristics. Stone marten Martes foina 

was selected as the model species to investigate the response to cork oak woodland fragmentation, considering that 

forest dependent species would show a stronger response. Marten species are known to be sensitive to forest fragmentation, 

although there is some evidence that their response is mainly determined by the level of forest fragmentation 

and the matrix quality, due to their preference for structurally complex forests to avoid competition and increase 

den availability. 

We compared the stone marten response to scent stations located in four large and continuous forest patches (mean 

36000 ha, 19 sampling sites) and in 25 smaller and isolated forest patches (mean 2.67 ha, one sampling site). For 

each sampling site a variable number of scent stations was used (average=11, min=7, max=17) depending on the 

patch size. Using the software PRESENCE we developed models that best fit stone marten probability of presence. 

This method parallels a closed-population mark–recapture model with an additional parameter (Phi) that represents 

the probability of species presence. Also, it enables the introduction of covariate information using a logistic model 

for Phi. Nine human and road related variables were used to develop models that best fit stone marten probability of 

occurrence in the smaller and isolated patches. The best models were selected using the Aikaike Information Criteria. 

Each variable importance was assessed by summing the AIC model weights (w) in which it was included. A data set of 

eighty stone marten road-kill locations and of eighty points randomly distributed along the sampled roads was used to 

evaluate if there were significant differences (one factor ANOVA), regarding the models’ most important variables on 

the road casualties locations. 

Results suggest that the probability of presence of stone marten in larger and continuous patches was 90%, while for 

the smaller and isolated patches it decreases to 60%. Nine significant models were retained. Models evidenced that 

the probability of presence of stone marten in isolated patches is related to cork oak density (+) (w=0.73), distance to 

nearest patch (-) (w=0.67), distance to nearest large patch (-) (w=0.56), distance to roads with medium/higher traffic 

volume (+) (w=0.37), and distance to riparian galleries (-) (w=0.12). Moreover, we detected that road kills were also 

significantly related to higher forest area surrounding the road (F=7.37, d.f.=1, P

Abstract 

Freshwater Mussel (Mollusca: Unionidae) Habitat Variability and Movement Patterns Following 

Relocation: A Case Study of Potamilus Capax (Green 1832) 

David R. Baldridge (417-252-0614, david.baldridge@smail.astate.edu) and Alan D. Christian, 

Department of Biological Sciences, Arkansas State University, P.O. Box 1054, State University, AR 

72467 USA 

Andrew J. Peck (870-243-0095, andrew.peck@smail.astate.edu), Department of Environmental 

Science, Arkansas State University, 3009 A Fairview Drive, Jonesboro, AR 72401 USA 

Relocation of freshwater mussel aggregates has been used as a mitigation strategy for nearly 30 years. Methodologies 

for relocation have been studied showing that identification of appropriate habitat characteristics are among the most 

important aspects when selecting a viable relocation site. Though relocation methodologies have been studied, little 

is known about the influence on behavioral patterns following relocation. This project is aimed at addressing information 

gaps regarding post-relocation monitoring activities which will be incorporated into the biological assessment of a 

proposed permit streamlining initiative between the US Fish and Wildlife Service, Federal Highway Administration, and 

Arkansas Transportation and Highway Department. 

The focus of this initiative is the fat pocketbook, Potamilus capax (Mollusca: Unionidae), which was designated as 

“Endangered” in June 1976 by the USFWS in the entire range of the species. The present general distribution of P. 

capax has been reported from the upper Mississippi River on the borders of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, and 

Missouri, the Ohio River System on the borders of Indiana, Illinois, and Kentucky, especially its tributary the Wabash 

River in Indiana and Illinois, the White River of Missouri and Arkansas, and the St. Francis River system in Arkansas. 

These systems typify mid-western Mississippi River drainages with areas of slow moving water and substrate ranging 

from shifting sand and gravel to sand, silt, and clay substrates, suitable habitat for P. capax. This species is further 

characterized as being a long-term breeder with fertilization occurring in spring and gravid females present from June 

to October and uses the freshwater drum (Aplodinotus grunnies) as its host. Though P. capax was at one time present 

in many of these systems, historical accounts indicate that it was never a predominate species within the assemblage. 

Though mussels, in general are considered relatively stationary, many species, including P. capax, have adopted a 

mobility trait which may yield inaccurate monitoring results. 

The objectives of this study are to 1) analyze seasonal movement patterns of resident and relocated individuals and 2) 

relate movement to sediment characteristics at the relocation site. We hypothesize that relocated P. capax will show a 

greater displacement than resident P. capax. We also expect this displacement to be associated with habitat selection 

and/or reproduction. We have examined movement patterns of resident and relocated P. capax within an agricultural 

drainage system of the Saint Francis River system of Arkansas and Missouri. Two treatment groups have been monitored 

with different monitoring intervals. The first group was fitted with radio transmitters and was monitored at a 

maximum of one month intervals from October, 2005 to January, 2006 and July, 2006 to November, 2006 using radio 

telemetry. The second treatment group was monitored using mark and recapture (shell etch) techniques and positions 

recorded once quarterly from May, 2005 through March, 2007. Substrate composition (sand, silt, and clay), water 

depth, and water velocity were determined using 65 meter bank to bank transects at 10 meter intervals for the length 

of the 200 meter relocation reach. Substrate, depth and velocity were interpolated using krieging and spatial data 

analysis in GIS. 

Initial movement results of the quarterly sampling show native individuals (n = 41) with a displacement range between 

0.88 m and 151.92 m while relocated animals (n = 13) have displacement range between 3.44 m and 18.87 m. At the 

alpha = 0.10, this difference is significant (p = 0.09). Data for the transmitter treatment group are still being collected, 

but preliminary indications from the October, 2005, to January, 2006, monitoring period contradict this trend. In this 

time period, resident individuals (n = 11) had a range of total displacement from 0.60 m to 9.12 m while relocated 

individuals (n = 10) had a range of total displacement from 2.67 m to 14.90 m with a significantly greater average 

range as well (p

Abstract 

Lessons and Experiences From a Stream Restoration Project in the Piedmont of North Carolina 

Thomas Barrett (919-858-1817, tbarrett@mulkeyinc.com), Senior Scientist/Forester, Mulkey 

Engineers and Consultants, Inc., 6750 Tryon Road, Cary, NC 27518 USA 

Edward Hajnos, Design and Construction Supervisor, North Carolina Ecosystem Enhancement 

Program, 1652 Mail Service Center, Raleigh, NC 27699 USA 

Mulkey, Inc. is participating in a stream restoration study with the Ecosystem Enhancement Program in Yadkin County, 

North Carolina. The purpose of this study is to restore approximately 4,300 linear feet of Rocky Branch, a second order 

stream located in the western Piedmont of North Carolina. Stream restoration in North Carolina is generally conducted 

to provide compensatory mitigation for stream impacts from both highway construction and private development. 

Since the late 1990s, North Carolina has served at the forefront for stream restoration activities due to the state’s 

tremendous population growth and stringent water quality standards. In an effort to provide mitigation for the state’s 

needs in an efficient manner, the Ecosystem Enhancement Program was created in 2003 under an agreement with the 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, the North Carolina Department of Transportation, 

and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. There are approximately 400 streams and wetland restoration projects that 

are currently under development across 54 watersheds in North Carolina. Those resources having the greatest repair 

needs are prioritized and the Ecosystem Enhancement Program works with public and private organizations in an 

effort to restore, to enhance and to preserve wetlands, streams, and buffers, statewide. The Ecosystem Enhancement 

Program serves as the nucleus for consolidating and streamlining mitigation activities within the state. The project 

presented here is one of the many projects this program administers in an effort to meet the ever growing mitigation 

needs in the state. 

The Rocky Branch site comprises approximately 24 acres of pasture and woodlands immediately adjacent to the 

Interstate 77 corridor in Yadkin County, North Carolina. The project site has a drainage area of approximately 3.1 

square miles and is part of the South Yadkin River Watershed. The site was once heavily forested, but over the last 100 

years has been cleared primarily for pasture and row crops. Cattle have been a significant part of the land-use since 

the early part of the 20th century and their impact is highly visible through compaction, erosion, and denuded vegetation 

along the stream. The objectives of the Rocky Branch stream restoration project were and continue to be: 1) to 

provide mitigation for future needs in the area, 2) to improve water quality by excluding cattle from the stream, 3) to 

provide a stable and functional stream channel, 4) to improve the overall quality of the stream and riparian areas and 

5) to provide long-term protection of the project through a conservation easement. 

The restoration of Rocky Branch’s main channel and its associated tributary were completed using methods based 

on the work of David L. Rosgen, PhD, which emphasize the use of natural stability concepts. The stream restoration 

project created a new stream channel with the appropriate dimension, pattern, and profile for its specific location 

within the watershed. The new channel contains in-stream boulder structures which provide grade control, bank stabilization, 

and aquatic habitat. Boulder structures used in conjunction with this project include cross vanes, rock vanes, 

and j-hooks. The stream banks were stabilized using erosion control matting, native seed mixes, bare root seedlings, 

rootwads, and live vegetation stakes. A permanent riparian buffer was established using native vegetation specific to 

the region. Vernal pools were established throughout the riparian buffer to provide habitat, water storage capacity and 

micro-topography. To protect the project from disturbance, permanent fencing was established around the entire site. 

As is true for projects of this type, an as-built report documenting stream restoration and enhancement is developed 

to provide a baseline for future monitoring or success criteria. A monitoring program will be implemented to document 

system development and progress toward achieving the success criteria as stipulated in the mitigation requirements 

for the project permit. Monitoring will take place over a 5-year period or until final success criteria are achieved. 


An Assessment of Field Method Efficacy to Monitor Wildlife Presence Near Interstate 70 at Vail Pass 

Abstract 

Paige Bonaker (970-620-0079, mmeeko@gmail.com) and 

Len Broberg, Ph.D., Environmental Studies Department, University of Montana, 230 Burlington 

Avenue, Missoula 59801 USA 

Chris Haas, Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 

80523 USA 

The 2002 National Cooperative Highway Research Project found a need among many state transportation departments 

for the development of “standard analytic techniques for assessing wildlife ecology and transportation.” These agencies 

use several methods to assess wildlife activity in areas of highway construction projects. However, there have been very 

few comparison studies of the different techniques and none have been conducted near a high traffic roadway. For this 

study, I am ascertaining the utility of various field methods to monitor wildlife near Interstate 70 at Vail Pass, Colorado. 

Interstate 70 is a major east-west transportation route running through the Colorado Rockies. The associated human 

development that comes with this transportation corridor has resulted in varying degrees of habitat fragmentation 

across the region and represents a potentially significant barrier to wildlife movement. To alleviate this potential barrier 

effect, the Colorado Department of Transportation is proposing to build a wildlife bridge across I-70 just west of Vail 

Pass. The Southern Rockies Ecosystem Project (SREP) and other Colorado non-profit organizations are developing a 

monitoring strategy that will inform the placement of the wildlife bridge and determine baseline movement patterns 

and activity levels of various wildlife species before, during, and after the project. In order to gather a greater wealth of 

data with this strategy, a Citizen Science Wildlife Monitoring program was created in 2006 by these organizations. 

My study is aimed at assessing which monitoring techniques are most effective at documenting species presence 

across this important wildlife linkage. In this study, “effective” is used to define any method: 1) that detects a mammal, 

and 2) by which the user is able to identify the mammal to the species level. This paper analyzes four sampling techniques 

(remote sensing digital cameras, track transect surveys, scat transect surveys, and hair snare surveys) during 

baited and non-baited sampling sessions. Results from this study will be used by SREP to develop a cost-effective 

monitoring strategy for the Vail Pass region. 

In July and August 2006, eight lines were placed perpendicular to a two-lane dirt road called Shrine Pass Road (SPR) 

which runs relatively parallel to I-70. Each line consisted of four plots; two directly on the roadway shoulder (roadway sites) 

and two 100-150m (328’-492’) from the road (approach sites). Each plot had a 100m (328’) long x 2m (6.6’) wide track 

and scat transect that ran as parallel as possible to SPR. At the midway point in each approach site transect, there was a 

hair snare station, a track bed and a camera station. The roadway sites only had a camera station at the midway point. 

Two study sessions were completed. An unbaited study period ran for two weeks and included both roadway and 

approach stations. On day one of this session, data from all the stations and transects were collected and the survey 

areas were cleared. On the final day of this session, the stations and transects were again walked and all track, scat and 

camera data were collected. For the baited session, only the approach sites were used and the hair snares were baited 

with a non-rewarding scent lure. The stations and transects were sampled every day for ten consecutive days. The hair 

snares were re-baited every third day. All tracks, scat and hairs found were recorded and any scat and hair samples 

were collected. Any samples that could not be positively identified by species in the field were labeled “unknown.” 

Preliminary results indicate that species detection varies greatly depending on the sampling method and whether a 

scent lure is present. Twelve different species were positively identified by the cameras, four by scat surveys and two by 

track surveys. No species could be positively identified using the hair snares without genetic analysis. 

Interestingly, for deer and elk, preliminary analysis indicates that detections with track surveys were significantly 

greater than those with camera and scat surveys. In contrast, scat was a better indicator of American marten presence 

compared to most other techniques. In fact, preliminary results suggest that detections of marten with scat and 

camera surveys are significantly greater than detections with track surveys. No difference was found between scat and 

camera surveys. Overall, however, scat surveys were a fairly ineffective technique without genetic analysis as several 

scat samples were unidentifiable in the field. 

Furthermore, it seems that the baited session was more effective than the non-baited session for monitoring wildlife. 

For instance, all twelve species identified at camera stations were recorded during the baited session whereas only 

six species were recorded during the non-baited period. Non-baited cameras did not detect certain rodent species, 

domestic dogs, gray fox, porcupine, and American marten. In addition, scat detections for marten were significantly 

higher for the baited session than for the unbaited session. Finally, activity indices were higher for domestic dog, mule 

deer, red and gray fox, mice, chipmunks and squirrels at the baited camera stations. Comparatively, during the nonbaited 

session, the activity index was notably higher solely for rabbits. 

These results will aid in assessing what sampling methods are most appropriate for certain species given time constraints, 

seasonal environmental conditions, and availability of funding for monitoring equipment. The results from the 

field study will be reinforced by additional research on each method to evaluate their effectiveness in other studies. In 

the end, this study will contribute to developing an appropriate long-term monitoring strategy for the Vail Pass linkage. 


The Salmon Resource and Sensitive Area Mapping Project: Integrating a Natural Resource GIS With 

Field Operations Via Handheld Computer Applications 

Robert G. Carson (503-224-3445, bcarson@masonbruce.com) and Wendy H. Wente, Mason, Bruce 

& Girard, Inc., 707 SW Washington Street, Portland, OR 97205 USA 

Milton Hill, Oregon Department of Transportation, Transportation Data Section, 555 13th Street NE, 

Suite 2, Salem, OR 97301 USA 

Abstract: The Salmon Resource and Sensitive Area Mapping (SRSAM) project was a unique effort undertaken by the 

Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT) to develop a Geographic Information System (GIS) of sensitive natural 

resource sites integrated with high-resolution digital color infrared imagery for the entire Oregon state highway system 

(approximately 9,000 miles). SRSAM data allow ODOT to plan maintenance and roadway/bridge project activities with 

up-to-date environmental resource data by providing maintenance workers, biologists, and transportation planners 

with access to a current, updateable database of sensitive environmental features. 

Taking full advantage of the SRSAM GIS for ODOT’s transportation planning uses required development of an effective 

system for delivering information to individual users in the field. To this end, ODOT contracted with Mason, Bruce & 

Girard, Inc. (MB&G) to develop two handheld computer applications that integrate spatially referenced data, including 

SRSAM’s sensitive resource data, with field data collection forms, thereby allowing users to view, manipulate, and 

enter data in the field. Use of these applications requires no specialized knowledge of GIS software, empowers users 

by providing access to an extensive database of environmental information, and through the use of standardized 

ArcPad forms for routine tasks improves the efficiency of field data collection and management. 

The first application addresses ODOT’s requirements for Mitigation Site Assessment, and enables biologists to spatially 

identify areas where maintenance or remediation is necessary. This allows a more rapid and efficient response when 

regulatory performance standards are not being met. The second application focuses on Environmental Scoping, the 

process by which ODOT identifies environmental issues likely to be associated with proposed projects. This coarselevel 

assessment requires numerous sources of environmental information. ODOT’s Environmental Scoping Application 

allows users to view over 20 reference data layers, including project-site imagery, while in the field. Other data layers 

within the Environmental Scoping application are dynamic, allowing users to update and correct spatially referenced 

environmental information based on their observations. The computer-based forms for both applications obviate the 

need to transcribe field data collected on paper, thus eliminating a time-consuming and error-prone procedure. 

Overall, SRSAM has provided a mechanism for ODOT to deliver sensitive natural resource data to maintenance 

crews, biologists, and transportation planners making field decisions that could impact sensitive resources. ODOT’s 

commitment to completing the SRSAM project state-wide was a key reason that ODOT’s routine road maintenance 

activities received a programmatic exemption under the Federal Endangered Species Act (ESA). The cost to ODOT of 

not obtaining the programmatic permit for maintenance activities has not been calculated, but surely would have been 

substantial (millions of dollars). Furthermore, the handheld computer applications, as well as the SRSAM GIS, offer a 

solution to a difficult ODOT challenge by standardizing data collection and storage techniques throughout the state, 

thereby streamlining ODOT’s efforts to protect sensitive resources. In sum, the SRSAM project represents an innovative, 

multifaceted solution to ODOT’s challenge of environmental compliance and stewardship. 

The SRSAM Project 

During the late 1990s the Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT) recognized that it could play a central stewardship 

role in protecting and enhancing Oregon’s natural resources. ODOT also realized that attention to natural resource 

issues as a routine procedure during transportation-related development or maintenance activities could reduce 

the incidence of unnecessary negative impacts to those resources and the associated costs of mitigation or special 

permitting. To this end, ODOT began an effort to integrate natural resource management with its transportation system 

maintenance and development activities. ODOT identified two primary components that would be instrumental to 

its efforts: 1) a comprehensive inventory of sensitive natural resources along ODOT’s transportation network, and 2) 

capability to produce maps, primarily to be used during maintenance activities, to indicate the locations of sensitive 

resources and associated restrictions. 

ODOT contracted with Mason, Bruce & Girard, Inc. (MB&G), a natural resources consulting firm, to collect the desired 

natural resource information along ODOT’s transportation corridors and develop the associated Geographic Information 

System (GIS) for storing and updating the statewide inventory. ODOT referred to this effort as the Salmon Resources 

and Sensitive Area Mapping (SRSAM) project. 

To build the GIS, MB&G acquired high resolution color infrared imagery of the entire highway system across the state of 

Oregon. These imagery data were coupled with existing and field- verified sensitive resource data to form the basis of 

the SRSAM GIS (Carson et al. 2001, Carson et al. 2003). By the end of the SRSAM project development phase in 2005, 

MB&G had built a GIS inventory of sensitive natural resource data along all state-maintained highways in Oregon, 

covering approximately 9,000 roadway miles. 

Current Uses of SRSAM Data 

The SRSAM data corridor extends at least 500 feet from the centerline along each side of the roadway. This corridor 

approach accurately captured the data needed to produce the maps ODOT originally desired for use during 

maintenance and project planning activities. ODOT uses the SRSAM GIS to produce two types of maps that depict: 1) 

Resource Areas (i.e., “RES” maps), and 2) Restricted Activity Zones (i.e., “RAZ” maps). 


Resource Area Maps 

RES maps are used by ODOT biologists and project planners to identify the locations of sensitive resources (e.g., 

streams, wetlands, known rare plant populations, potential threatened or endangered species habitat) along the 

transportation corridor. These maps indicate the types of sensitive resources present along the highway in 0.01-mile 

increments, providing an accurate on-site resource tool that can be used when making decisions on resource management. 

For example, under a separate environmental resource management program, ODOT has established Special 

Management Areas (SMAs) designed to protect specific native plant species and their habitats in specific locations 

along roadways. These SMAs are included in the RES maps taken to the field by ODOT biologists and can be updated 

as new sensitive native vegetation and habitats are located and recorded in the field or as new management activities 

are implemented at already established sites. 

Restricted Activity Zone Maps 

ODOT maintenance crews use the RAZ maps to identify sensitive resource sites so that their activities (e.g., mowing, 

pesticide applications, snow/ice removal, ditch/drainage maintenance) do not harm these resources. The color-coded 

RAZ maps clearly indicate zones along the roadway where specific maintenance activities are to be completed with 

caution or avoided entirely due to the presence of a sensitive resource. The maps are designed to require no biological 

training for interpretation. Through the use of the SRSAM-derived RAZ maps, ODOT actively promotes conservation of 

sensitive resources and habitats by providing direct knowledge of their locations to roadway maintenance crews so 

impacts can be avoided. 

Handheld Computer Applications 

The RAZ and RES maps represent significant improvement over the previous level of natural resource data accessible 

to ODOT staff. However, prior to the end of the original SRSAM project, ODOT recognized a need to provide even more 

accurate and up-to-date natural resource data for field actions. The printed RES maps were falling short of this goal 

since, by necessity, they only depicted data layers chosen before the field visit was made. Important data needed in 

the field could therefore be inadvertently left off the maps and thus not available during the field visit. In addition, ODOT 

observed that the SRSAM GIS itself needs to be regularly updated to reflect changes in natural resource locations and 

conditions as observed in the field; otherwise the data would eventually become archaic. To address these needs, 

ODOT funded a pilot project and asked MB&G to develop two handheld computer applications designed to deliver 

information from the SRSAM GIS and other sources to individual users in the field. 

To meet the needs of field data delivery, ODOT asked MB&G to focus the application development efforts on two 

common tasks where SRSAM data had already proven to be useful: 1) post-construction wetland and biological mitigation 

site monitoring, and 2) environmental scoping for transportation projects. 

The hardware platform chosen by ODOT for both handheld computer applications was the Trimble GeoXT, a relatively 

powerful and field-rugged handheld computer with integrated global positioning system (GPS) capability (sub-meter accuracy). 

ODOT chose ESRI ArcPad software because of its GIS/GPS capability and its customizable data entry interface. 

The handheld applications deliver GIS data and imagery to the user in the field. The user then populates ODOT-standard 

electronic data forms presented by the application following a standardized field survey protocol. Both applications 

also enable the user to collect new spatially referenced (GPS) data while in the field. The electronic forms embedded 

in the applications, coupled with standardized field data collection methods required by users of the applications, 

promote consistency and efficiency while reducing errors due to data transcription. 

Mitigation Site Assessment Application 

Transportation projects in Oregon, such as bridge replacements or roadway widening efforts, often result in impacts to 

regulated biological or wetland resources (e.g., fish species protected by the Federal Endangered Species Act or wetlands 

protected by the Clean Water Act). ODOT must meet mitigation conditions included in any project-related permits 

they receive from regulatory agencies during the environmental permitting process. These permits frequently require 

ODOT to offset the expected impacts to regulated resources by constructing and maintaining mitigation sites such 

as created wetlands or fish habitat improvements. These mitigation efforts must be monitored over a period of time, 

often 5 years, to satisfy defined success criteria for providing legitimate replacement of the resource functions lost by 

building the project. ODOT desired a handheld computer application that would enable staff to collect the monitoring 

data associated with ODOT mitigation sites throughout the state. 

MB&G delivered Version 1 of the Mitigation Site Assessment Application to ODOT in December, 2005. During 2006 

ODOT contracted with MB&G to monitor 14 biological and wetland mitigation sites using the Mitigation Application. 

Overall, the application proved to be an effective tool for monitoring mitigation sites. Data collected with the Mitigation 

Application were used by ODOT to produce monitoring reports for submittal to the regulatory agencies involved in 

permitting and monitoring each project (e.g., see MB&G 2006). MB&G is currently updating and refining the Mitigation 

Application for state-wide use by ODOT and contractor biologists performing mitigation monitoring. 


Environmental Scoping Application 

Early in the project development process, the ODOT Regional Environmental Coordinator (REC) visits a proposed project 

site to identify the environmental issues likely to be associated with the proposed project. This initial site reconnaissance 

serves to provide a coarse-level assessment of the expected environmental permitting requirements for the 

project. The REC typically populates a standard ODOT form designed to capture this information, and then produces 

a report based on the data collected during the site visit. This coarse-level assessment requires the REC to access 

numerous (>20) sources of environmental information (i.e. Oregon Natural Heritage Information, Hazardous Materials 

Sites, etc.) from the Web and from ODOT’s server prior to conducting the site reconnaissance. 

ODOT recognized that having the data from these databases available to the REC during the site reconnaissance would 

greatly increase efficiency and effectiveness. A further advantage of having the data available in the field is that the 

REC can record inaccuracies or omissions in the database information detected during the routine visit, thereby improving 

the quality of the base data. ODOT asked MB&G to design a handheld application, the Environmental Scoping 

Application, to meet this need. The key functionality desired by ODOT was the delivery of key environmental base data 

layers, ability to populate standard site reconnaissance field forms, and the ability to capture and edit spatially-referenced 

(via GPS) data while in the field. 

MB&G delivered Version 1 of the Environmental Scoping Application to ODOT in December 2005. Version 1 displays 21 

distinct data layers of environmental information for access by the REC during the site reconnaissance. In addition, this 

application allows the user to populate standard site reconnaissance field forms and to capture new point, line, and 

polygon data that are geo-referenced and associated with attribute forms. This Environmental Scoping Application has 

yet to be systematically field tested by ODOT, but this may occur in 2007. 

Conclusions 

SRSAM has increased ODOT’s efficiency with respect to environmental regulatory compliance and managing environmental 

resources by delivering sensitive natural resource data to personnel tasked with making decisions that 

could impact those resources: maintenance crews, biologists, and transportation planners. In addition, the handheld 

computer applications, as well as the SRSAM GIS, offer a solution to a difficult ODOT challenge by standardizing data 

collection and storage techniques throughout the state, thereby streamlining ODOT’s efforts to protect and manage 

sensitive resources. 

In summary, SRSAM has provided ODOT with the ability to deliver critical natural resource data to maintenance crews, 

biologists, and transportation planners making field decisions that could impact sensitive resources. The hand-held 

applications developed by ODOT and MB&G have enhanced and improved this ability, thus furthering the Agency’s 

resource protection and stewardship goals. 

Biographical Sketches: Bob Carson is a Principal with Mason, Bruce & Girard, Inc., and the manager of the Environmental Services Group. 

His 25 years of experience includes serving as environmental project manager or task leader on over 200 projects involving Endangered 

Species Act (ESA) and National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) compliance and permitting, biological resource studies, and wetland 

delineation and mitigation. His technical expertise includes wildlife, forest, and wetland ecology and management. Bob is a Certified 

Wildlife Biologist and a certified Professional Wetland Scientist. He earned his Masters of Science in Wildlife Resources in 1984 from the 

University of Idaho, and Bachelor of Science in Forest Science in 1981 from The Pennsylvania State University. 

Milt Hill is an Environmental GIS Program Manager with the Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT). His 19 years of experience with 

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in State Government encompass a broad range of activities including computer system administration, 

GIS analysis, GIS project management, program administration, and contract and consultant management. Prior to his employment 

with ODOT, Milt was the GIS Program Coordinator for the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW). Milt is a certified GIS 

Professional (GISP) and has completed the Oregon Project Management Certification Program (OPMCP). He earned his Bachelor of Science 

in Geography from Portland State University in 1989. 

Wendy Wente is an ecologist and project manager with Mason, Bruce & Girard, Inc. She has 13 years of experience in research design and 

implementation. Her professional expertise includes wildlife surveys, habitat assessments and field research designed to meet the needs 

of public sector clients. She specializes in federal permitting documentation primarily associated with the Endangered Species Act and the 

National Environmental Policy Act. Wendy earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Zoology in 1992 from Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. 

She completed her Ph.D. in Ecology, Evolution, and Animal Behavior at Indiana University in 2001. Prior to joining MB&G, Wendy worked 

as a post-doctoral researcher with the US Geological Survey, where she conducted research on problems of applied ecology including a 

multi-year study of regional amphibian decline and an experimental study of the effects of cattle grazing on wetland water quality. 

References 

Carson, Robert, Robert Kirkman, and Jason Neil. 2001. ODOT’s Salmon Resource and Sensitive Area Mapping Project: a high-tech 

procedure for obtaining biological resource data for resource protection and regulatory compliance. Pages 149-154 in Proceedings of 

the International Conference on Ecology and Transportation, September 24-28, Keystone, CO. 

Carson, Robert, Robert Kirkman, Rick Jones, and Jason Neil. 2003. ODOT’s Salmon Resource and Sensitive Area Mapping Project—application 

delivery of GIS biological resource data. Pages 548-551 in Proceedings of the International Conference on Ecology and 

Transportation, August 24-29, Lake Placid, NY. 

Mason, Bruce & Girard, Inc. 2006. Combined 2nd And 3rd Year Compensatory Wetland Mitigation Monitoring Report (2005/2006). U.S. 

26: Zigzag-Rhododendron Section, U.S. 26, Mt. Hood Highway. ODOT Key No. 07990. Clackamas County, Oregon 


Process Design for Collaboration: An Innovative Approach to Redesigning the Environmental Review 

Process for Transportation Projects 

Abstract 

Tom Crawford (360-357-6134, tom@praxisnw.com), President, Praxis Northwest, LLC, P.O. Box 2578, 

Olympia, WA 98507-2578 USA 

Project Overview: Recent federal legislation and accompanying rules (SAFETEA-LU) require state Departments of 

Transportation to increase their levels of collaboration with local jurisdictions and with other state and federal environmental 

and resource agencies related to the environmental impact of transportation projects. At the same time, they 

face increased demands for reducing the time and cost associated with project environmental reviews and permitting. 

Some barriers to achieving these desired results, experienced by DOTs, are: 

• Misunderstanding of goals, priorities and expectations among the DOT, local jurisdictions, and resource/regulatory 

agencies during project development. 

• Items and requests passed from one agency to another getting “lost in the shuffle.” 

• Duplication of effort to gather and assess environmental data by the DOT, local planning agencies (MPOs), 

community organizations, and resource agencies. 

• Important environmental or community impact considerations arising late in project development/delivery 

process, creating unexpected costs and schedule delays. 

• Choice of a project alternative by the MPO that requires very costly and time consuming environmental studies 

and mitigation efforts. 

• Frequent rework of environmental documents and delays in study and permit approvals. 

The Language-Action Framework focuses on building commitments and coordination between customers (for example, 

a DOT that needs a water resource study) and performers (for example, a consultant who completes the water resource 

study). This approach provides a structure for improving coordination using the following key communication points: 

a. Clear and specific statements of customer needs, including the motivation for the proposed effort 

b. Agreement between customer and provider on cycle time, cost and quality expectations for the work, so 

that there is a shared understanding of and commitment to meeting these expectations. 

c. Progress tracking and reporting, so that needed mid-course adjustments can be made in schedule, 

budget or other areas of the project 

d. Interim customer feedback on project deliverables 

e. Report of completed work to the customer 

f. Customer review, assessment and feedback on work delivered, and recommendations for continuous 

quality improvement which are developed collaboratively by customer and performer. 

Sample process designs have been developed, using the Language Action Framework, for three key process areas: 

integrating long range planning with the NEPA process, coordinating resource and regulatory agency review of environmental 

decisions and documents (EIS or EA), and ensuring the fulfillment of environmental commitments (including 

mitigation or other measures). These process designs, when adapted to the unique situation and needs of a particular 

agency, show potential for a wide range of tangible benefits, including: 

• Reduced time and effort to produce environmental documents (EAs and EISs). 

• Improved relationships between DOTs and the various resource, regulatory, and local jurisdiction agencies they 

collaborate with to produce and obtain approval for environmental documents. 

• Increased clarity about roles and accountabilities for completing environmental studies among DOT staff, the 

DOT’s partner agencies, and consultants/contractors. 

• Improved reliability of the DOT’s project schedules. 

• Improved environmental outcomes, achieved through greater clarity and broad interagency commitment regarding 

those outcomes. 

List of current/anticipated results: The Language-Action Framework has been used to design a set of sample diagrams 

and descriptions for typical DOT environmental streamlining processes. These process designs reflect the experience 

of TDOT, as well as recent AASHTO and FHWA studies of environmental streamlining and environmental management 

system processes within DOTs. 


Recommendations for future research: 

• This approach should be further tested by DOTs of various sizes and in various parts of the country, for its 

viability and application to meet their environmental streamlining and stewardship needs. 

• The approach may also improve collaboration and coordination for specific environmental mitigations or other 

actions—for example, multi-agency coordination to improve aquatic resources or wildlife habitat. Additional 

research in this area may be useful. 

Biographical Sketch: Tom Crawford is president and founder of Praxis Northwest, LLC, a firm which specializes in helping client organizations 

demonstrate outstanding results by connecting strategy with operations. Tom’s work has included organizational development, 

process analysis and redesign, IT project planning and management, systems analysis and design and feasibility study development. 

Environmental agencies and processes have been a vertical market focus over the last ten years. Tom’s recent work has included projects 

with several state Departments of Transportation and a national survey of environmental management best practices among DOTs. 


Abstract 

Road Decommissioning: Minimising the Adverse Ecological Effects of Roads in 

European Agricultural Landscapes 

Dolan, Lisa M. J. (353879578356, l.dolan@student.ucc.ie) and 

Whelan, Pádraig M. Department of Zoology, Ecology and Plant Science, University College Cork, 

Butler Building, Distillery Fields, Cork City, Cork 1234 Ireland 

The field of Restoration Ecology continues to provide an exciting array of new disciplines which focus on the restoration 

of ecological function and integrity to former habitat areas. Road Restoration Ecology (RRE) is one such discipline 

which is expanding the possibilities for habitat restoration beyond that which has been provided by the traditional 

management of roadside vegetation and landscape design. 

This paper focuses on a particular aspect of RRE - that of road decommissioning. To date even though many hundreds 

of kilometers of forest roads have been removed in the U.S., virtually no research has addressed the impact of road 

removal on wildlife. Furthermore, on an international level, even less research has been committed to examining the 

removal of paved roads despite the fact the road development has been identified in the literature as one of the major 

causes of habitat fragmentation across landscapes worldwide. 

In the course of new road planning and design, sections of old road pavement may be abandoned due to (1) the 

establishment of a new road ecosystem; (2) the realignment of an existing road; (3) the By-Pass of traffic ‘hotspots’; 

and (4) required road closure for environmental reasons. Occasionally the extent of old road pavement is large enough 

to significantly extend native habitats adjacent to an old road system. 

For this reason, road decommissioning can potentially: (1) restore ecological integrity, and function of semi-natural 

ecosystems (including soil); (2) provide compensatory habitat; (3) maintain and improve quality of existing adjacent 

habitat by reducing noise disturbance and human access (amongst others); (4) restore connectivity by reinforcing the 

ecological network of surrounding core habitat areas, and; (5) contribute to the restoration of landscape quality in the 

vicinity of a new road ecosystem. 

It can be assumed that, where road pavement is not decommissioned and persists, it may continue to: (1) inhibit the 

ecological functions and services of semi-natural ecosystems, (2) pose as a barrier to the dispersal of wildlife, (3) inhibit 

the establishment of vegetation cover (and habitat), (4) may continue to have an adverse effect on environmental 

aesthetics; and (5) contribute to the release of pollutants from surface run-off. It is for one or more of these reasons 

that the process of road decommissioning is generally carried out. 

Paved road segments on five national road schemes in Ireland were examined with a view to identifying the potential 

role of restored vegetation as habitat for wildlife. It has been demonstrated that native vegetation can more readily 

colonize former road corridors post-decommissioning, especially those roads located adjacent to existing native plant 

communities e.g. grasslands, hedgerows and woodlands. The resulting decommissioned sections of road generally 

show rapid recovery through natural recolonisation, where vegetation successional processes are shown to recapture 

road corridors within a few years, resulting in valuable additional habitat for wildlife, especially birds and nectar feeding 

invertebrates such as butterflies and bees. Various native mammal species have also been found to utilize old roads 

as a means of dispersal, therefore providing connectivity in an increasingly intensified agricultural landscape. 


Use of a GIS-Based Model of Habitat Cores and Landscape Corridors for VDOT Transportation Project 

Planning and Environmental Scoping 

Abstract 

Bridget M. Donaldson (434-293-1922, bridget.donaldson@vdot.virginia.gov), Research Scientist, 

Virginia Transportation Research Council, 530 Edgemont Road, Charlottesville, VA 22903 USA 

Joseph T. Weber (804-371-2545, joseph.weber@dcr.virginia.gov), GIS Projects Manager/Conservation 

Biologist, Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, Richmond, VA USA 

Transportation agencies across the United States are under increasing pressure to minimize or avoid impacts of 

transportation projects to important wildlife habitat. With new road construction and lane additions, habitat fragmentation 

is becoming more pronounced and its effects are increasingly evident. Transportation projects are often planned, 

designed, and funded before taking important habitat considerations into account, which can lead to expensive delays 

and lawsuits. 

Wildlife linkage or corridor analyses are being conducted in an increasing number of states, and more transportation 

agencies are using this information during the planning of proposed road projects. The Virginia Department 

of Conservation and Recreation’s Natural Heritage Program is creating a GIS tool, the Virginia Natural Landscape 

Assessment (VANLA) that identifies large patches of natural landcover (habitat cores) and the habitat linkages connecting 

these areas (landscape corridors). This mapping project can be integrated into the Virginia Department of 

Transportation’s (VDOT) existing GIS applications for access by staff involved with transportation planning and environmental 

scoping activities. Analyzing a proposed project in these early stages of project development will allow VDOT 

to identify important natural resource areas and wildlife corridors to avoid or for which mitigation may be necessary. 

This can result in fewer project delays, promote collaboration between VDOT and state natural resource and regulatory 

agencies, and meet the directives of the new habitat conservation provision in the federal transportation legislation. In 

addition, basing certain project decisions on a project’s location relative to a wildlife corridor can decrease the risk of 

animal-vehicle collisions. 


Abstract 

A Web-Based Approach to Compliance Reporting for Caltrans 

Ivy Edmonds-Hess (415-243-4724, edmondshess@pbworld.com), Lead Environmental Planner/ 

Professional Associate, PB, 303 Second Street, Suite 700 North, San Francisco, CA 94107, Fax: 

415-243-9501 USA 

Meeting compliance reporting requirements may be relatively easy for a smaller construction project, but as the 

projects gets larger and longer to complete the requirements get more extensive and complicated. Following traditional 

techniques such as mailing hard copies of reports can become labor intensive and expensive. The following 

describes a web-based approach that has been successfully used for over four years by the California Department of 

Transportation (Caltrans) during construction of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge (SFOBB) East Span Seismic 

Safety Project. 

The purpose of the East Span Project is to provide a seismically upgraded crossing for current and future users 

between Yerba Buena Island and Oakland. The construction period is approximately twelve years for construction of 

the new East Span and two years to remove the existing structure. Construction activities take place on land as well 

as in San Francisco Bay and include activities such as dredging, excavation, pile driving, construction of temporary and 

permanent structures, and removal of the existing bridge. 

Caltrans has incorporated numerous measures to avoid, minimize and compensate for potential environmental 

impacts. Caltrans is performing construction monitoring for biological resources which may be affected by construction 

of the bridge, including birds, fish, marine mammals, eelgrass, and water quality. Additionally, Caltrans is working 

with multiple resource agencies to develop on-site and off-site mitigation opportunities for creation and restoration 

of habitat. The off-site mitigation projects are among the largest Caltrans has ever funded and are the result of many 

agencies and environmental interest groups working together to improve the ecosystem of the Bay. 

Construction of the East Span Project began in 2002. After the biological mitigation and monitoring program had been 

underway for several months, Caltrans began to contemplate ways to disseminate reports and information to the permitting 

agencies and the public in a timelier and easier manner. While the primary objective was to meet permit compliance 

requirements in a cost-effective manner, it was also important to provide easy public access to the information. 

In order to develop such a tool, a better understanding of the users and the functional requirements of the tool was 

necessary. Interviews with stakeholders were conducted to evaluate the data collection process and existing reporting 

mechanisms as well as to determine what functions the stakeholders would like the tool to have. 

It was determined that the best approach would be to have a user-friendly website that provided information in general 

terms for members of the public who simply had an interest in the project as well as more specifics about the biological 

mitigation and monitoring program (e.g., monitoring protocols, workplans, and technical reports) for those who were 

interested. Distribution lists of interested parties were created for the various topics. When a report or plan related to that 

topic is posted to the website, the members of the distribution list are emailed along with a direct link to the report. 

A website prototype was developed and an implementation planning session was conducted in which selected Caltrans 

and consultant staff used the prototype and provided feedback on the various components. The website was then 

presented to regulatory agencies staff during an interagency coordination meeting. Feedback from the permitting 

agencies was very favorable. Many of the staff mentioned that the website is easy to use. They also liked the fact that 

all documents are readily available. When needing to check on a piece of information, they don’t have to search their 

office for a hard copy of a report, permit, or protocol. 

Members of the public were first introduced to the site as a link from the overall Caltrans Bay Bridge website and a 

website developed by an organization representing construction workers. Use of the website started out slowly and averaged 

about 170 visitors per week during the first year of operation. As the website became more known, the number 

of visitors increased. During 2006, the website averaged about 450 visitors a week. Visitors are located in numerous 

countries and downloads of the permits, protocols, and weekly bird and marine mammal memos are very popular. 

After four years of operation, Caltrans has determined that use of the website has been very successful. While the use 

of websites has been limited on other mitigation and monitoring projects, Caltrans has found this tool to be simple, 

user-friendly, and cost-effective. It also demonstrates Caltrans’ commitment to the environment. Proponents of other 

projects may want to consider using a website for compliance reporting or other environmental documents, particularly 

as the issue of sustainability and going “paperless” becomes more prevalent. 

Biographical Sketch: Ivy Edmonds-Hess is a Lead Environmental Planner and Professional Associate with PB. She has over 18 years of 

experience in environmental consulting and project management for a wide variety of projects. In her current position, she has been assisting 

the California Department of Transportation with environmental and permitting issues with the East Span Project for over nine years. 


Effects of a Purpose-Built Underpass on Wildlife Activity and Traffic-Related Mortality in Southern 

California: The Harbor Boulevard Wildlife Underpass 

Abstract 

David Elliott (714-992-7113, david.elliott.m@gmail.com) and 

Paul Stapp (714-278-2849, pstapp@fullerton.edu), Department of Biological Science, California State 

University, Fullerton, CA 92834-6850 USA 

Conservationists have advocated the construction of wildlife crossing structures for the purpose of reducing traffic 

mortality of wildlife and maintaining habitat connectivity in increasingly fragmented landscapes. In May 2006, 

construction was completed on a wildlife underpass beneath Harbor Boulevard, a four-lane road that bisects the 

Puente Hills, one of the few remaining large tracts of coastal sage scrub habitat in southern Los Angeles County. We 

monitored the frequency of road-killed wildlife and the activity of medium and large mammals at track-stations in the 

vicinity of the underpass before, during and after underpass construction. We also used digital remote cameras and 

track stations to determine wildlife use of the new underpass. Remote cameras were installed in the underpass on 

26 May 2006, soon after construction was complete. Our aim was to determine whether such underpasses reduce 

traffic-related mortality of wildlife and improve functional connectivity of remnant coastal sage scrub and other natural 

habitats for wildlife populations. Cameras indicated that wildlife began using the underpass almost immediately after 

construction. Mule deer and coyotes were photographed using the tunnel 3 and 4 weeks, respectively, after cameras 

were installed. Coyotes have used the underpass fairly regularly, with a sharp increase observed in October 2006, 23 

weeks after cameras were installed. Use of the underpass by deer has been less consistent, perhaps due to seasonal 

changes in habitat use. As of April 2007, coyotes were photographed at the underpass an average of 26.6 times per 

month, and deer, an average of 2.0 times per month. Additionally, one bobcat was photographed in February 2007. 

Track-station surveys indicated that coyotes and striped skunks are very common across the study area, but that other 

rare or more secretive carnivores such as long-tailed weasels, gray foxes and bobcats are also present. Track-station 

activity, and the diversity of species represented, was especially high in the center of the Puente Hills study area, suggesting 

that wildlife activity increases as one moves east and away from more intensely urbanized areas of the county. 

Across the study area, rodents were the most common road-killed animals followed by, in order of abundance, striped 

skunks, opossums, coyotes, brush rabbits, raccoons, mule deer, and bobcats. One American badger, a species that is 

considered uncommon in developed parts of Los Angeles County, was also found. Incidence of road-kills increased with 

higher speed limits. On Harbor Boulevard, coyotes accounted for 39% of the 31 road-kills detected since surveys began 

in July 2004, followed by opossums (19%) and striped skunks (16%). Two bobcats (6%) were also killed by vehicles on 

Harbor Boulevard over this period. Incidence of road-kills was very high on Harbor Boulevard relative to the rest of the 

study area prior to construction; however, to date (10 months post-construction), there has been no reduction in the 

frequency of road-kills on Harbor Boulevard. There also has been no apparent change in the frequency of road-kills 

across the study area between comparable pre- and post-construction surveys. Although wildlife use of the underpass 

has been relatively high, the lack of any decrease in the number of road-killed animals, notably coyotes, suggests 

that some animals have not found or are not using the underpass, and that other measures such as fencing might be 

considered in the vicinity to funnel more crossings off of Harbor Boulevard and into the underpass. 

The underpass was constructed at Harbor Boulevard because it represents an area of significant narrowing of the 

Puente Hills Wildlife Corridor by urban development, where traffic-related mortality of wildlife was suspected to be high. 

As such, the new underpass has the potential to facilitate movement between protected areas of the Puente Hills and 

other undeveloped private and public lands to the east. We hope that our project, which will monitor wildlife activity and 

traffic-related mortality in the vicinity of the underpass through May 2007, will add to the current body of knowledge on 

mitigating the negative effects of roads on wildlife. Additionally, our project may also provide information that will help 

to eventually create and maintain a functional wildlife corridor from the San Gabriel River to the Cleveland National 

Forest, of which the habitat in Puente Hills will be a critical link. 

Biographical Sketches: David Elliott is currently a Master’s student at California State University, Fullerton. His project aims to evaluate 

the effectiveness of a purpose-built wildlife underpass in Los Angeles County, California and measure wildlife activity in the area surrounding 

the underpass. Dr. 

Paul Stapp is an assistant professor in the Department of Biological Science at Cal State Fullerton. 


Wildlife Mitigation and Human Safety for Sterling Highway MP 58-79, Kenai Peninsula, Alaska 

Abstract 

Richard Ernst, Wildlife Biologist/Pilot (907-262-7021, rick_ernst@fws.gov), U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, Kenai National Wildlife Refuge, P.O. Box 2139, Soldotna, AK 99669, Fax: 907-262-3599 

USA 

Jeff Selinger, Area Wildlife Biologist (907-260-2905, jeff_selinger@fishgame.state.ak.us), Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game, 43961 Kalifornsky Beach Road, Soldotna, AK 99669 USA 

Jim Childers, Project Manager (907-269-0544, jim_childers@dot.state.ak.us), Alaska Department 

of Transportation and Public Facilities, P.O. Box 196900, 4111 Aviation Avenue, Anchorage, AK 

99519 USA 

Dale Lewis, Central Region Liaison Engineer (907-586-7429, dale.j.lewis@fhwa.dot.gov), Federal 

Highway Administration, Alaska Division, P.O. Box 21648, Juneau, AK 99802, Fax: 907-586-7420 

USA 

Gary Olson, President (907) 336-6673, golson@growmoremoose.org), Alaska Moose Federation, 

11701 Brayton Drive, Anchorage, AK 99516 USA 

Lt. Steve Bear, Detachment Commander (907-262-4453, steve_bear@dps.state.ak.us), Alaska 

Department of Public Safety, Wildlife Troopers, 44009 Kalifornsky Beach Road, Soldotna, AK 

99669, Fax: 907-262-9664 USA 

The Sterling Highway is a paved two-lane road which links Alaska’s western Kenai Peninsula, to the Seward Highway 

and Anchorage, the state’s largest city. The Kenai National Wildlife Refuge is bisected by the Sterling Highway, 

which has one of the highest moose (Alces alces) vehicle collision rates for a rural highway in the state. The Alaska 

Department of Transportation and Public Facilities is planning to reconstruct a section of the Sterling Highway between 

MPs 58 and 79, occurring mostly within the Refuge. A working group was formed in 2005 to collect data on moose 

movements and review wildlife-vehicle collisions (WVC). The group consists of representatives from the Federal 

Highway Administration; the Alaska Departments of Transportation and Public Facilities, Fish and Game, and Public 

Safety; the Alaska Moose Federation (non-profit); and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The purpose of this cooperative 

effort is to reduce wildlife-vehicle collisions along the Sterling Highway corridor through the Kenai National Wildlife 

Refuge while maintaining permeability and enhancing habitat connectivity. In this paper, we describe our study design 

and provide interim results from 2005-06. 


Background 

Major Objectives for Road Ecology to Benefit Transportation and Society 

Richard T. T. Forman (617-495-1930, rforman@gsd.harvard.edu), PAES Professor of Landscape 

Ecology, Graduate School of Design, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA 

Abstract: Pinpointing major objectives as a vision for transportation and society provides a cost-effective framework 

for numerous detailed solutions along the road network. Three major objectives, with road ecology a central player, are 

highlighted: (1) improve the natural environment close to the entire road network; (2) integrate roads with a sustainable 

emerald network across the landscape; and (3) integrate roads with near-natural water conditions across the landscape. 

These are briefly described along with examples of possible key steps ahead. In effect, this big picture or vision 

is a cost-effective route to achievement and benefit for transportation, the environment, and society. 

The world’s transportation infrastructure, a remarkable engineering accomplishment, was basically built before the rise 

of modern ecology. Now in an era of new scientific information and new societal objectives, transportation, science 

and the public have all moved well ahead. Enhancing the natural environment increasingly stands alongside safety and 

efficiency in transport as transportation’s central goal for the public. 

Not surprisingly, along with this major development, the science of “Road Ecology” has emerged, focusing on plants, 

animals and water related to roads and vehicles (National Research Council 1997, Forman et al. 2003, Forman 

2004). Decreasing the apparent drumbeat of public calls for environmental sensitivity in transportation plans and 

projects, planners, engineers, and managers increasingly find existing solutions, tested options, and solid ecological 

science readily available for application. Potential partners…transportation departments, natural resource agencies, 

academics, nonprofit organizations, and the informed public…are discovering common interests and opportunities for 

a new era of accomplishment. Project by project, countless locations along our road network ecologically improve, and 

environmental objectives increasingly receive emphasis in transportation plans. 

Yet the big picture has yet to coalesce and capture our attention. The greatest environmental gain and the greatest 

cost benefit for transportation and society are achieved by keeping our eye on the big picture—the major objectives— 

while we work project by project, location by location, and solution by solution. Three major objectives effectively tie 

the detailed solutions together in context, and provide the primary gain for transportation and society (Forman 2007a). 

Road ecology is central to all three. 

The Three Major Objectives 

1. Improve the natural environment close to the entire road network. 

2. Integrate roads with a sustainable natural emerald network across the landscape. 

3. Integrate roads with near-natural water conditions across the landscape. 

The first objective is a flexible trajectory rather than an end point, with different solutions in different locations. The 

second effectively meshes road networks with the land’s most-valuable large natural areas connected by major wildlife 

corridors to establish a combined sustainable pattern for the future. The third objective integrates road networks with 

the land’s water-bodies, groundwater/surface-water flows, aquatic ecosystems, and fish populations, so that an effective 

infrastructure and relatively natural surrounding water conditions are both sustained. 

The major objectives constitute a vision appealing to many potential partners and interested parties. The vision cannot 

be accomplished by the transportation community alone; collaboration with partners is essential, providing planning, 

project, policy, and public-relations values. Indeed, diverse interested parties with a common vision are an unbeatable 

recipe for powerful, cost-effective environmental accomplishments for transportation and society. Therefore, consider 

the three objectives more closely. 

Improve the Natural Environment Close to the Entire Road Network 

This objective emphasizes a trajectory of improvement rather than identifying and targeting a specific end product with 

success or failure. The rate of improvement varies from place to place. Location-by-location solutions along a road 

are appropriate (Bekker et al. 1995, Trocme 2003, Iuell et al. 2003, Forman et al. 2003, van Bohemen 2005). Roadsegment-by-road-segment 

solutions may often be more effective and cost efficient. Road-network-by-road-network 

approaches are likely to be especially valuable. The types of improvement stretch the imagination---habitat enhancement, 

vegetated stormwater-pollutant depressions, wildlife underpasses/overpasses, less-intensive mowing regimes to 

reduce invasive species, diverse deicing approaches, reduced air pollutants, aesthetic noise-attenuation techniques, 

and much more. Intriguing solutions for all of these currently operate in different nations. In essence, this objective 

can be accomplished with ample flexibility for transportation and great environmental gain for society. 

Integrate Roads with a Sustainable Natural Emerald Network across the Landscape 

This second objective emphasizes the most important solution known to protect and sustain biodiversity in a 

landscape with roads and vehicles, even in the face of urbanization and anthropogenic climate change. The central 


component is to identify (even create) and protect emeralds, the most-valuable large natural patches or areas on 

land, in locations and forms undegraded by roads, traffic, and other human effects (Forman 1995, 2007b). However, 

significant added value is achieved by effective connections for species movement, and also walkers, among the emeralds. 

Highways with traffic fragment habitats and are major barriers to effective movement between natural areas. 

Identifying, creating in some places, and protecting major wildlife corridors emerges as the key to converting a group 

of large natural patches into an effective functioning emerald network, which can be sustained for the future. Planning 

road networks hand in hand with landscape ecology is a key to achieving this objective. 

Integrate Roads with Near-Natural Water Conditions across the Landscape 

This third objective highlights water as the other major flow that crosses a landscape with roads and traffic present. 

Water is normally a key variable in road construction and, almost always, surrounding wetlands, streams, ponds, 

groundwater, other water-bodies, and especially water flows are significantly altered (Bekker et al. 1995, Forman 

et al. 2003, van Bohemen 2005). Thereafter culverts/bridges and roadside ditches are key determinants of water 

conditions in surrounding areas, and therefore are major “handles” for improvement and attaining the objective. For 

example, ongoing maintenance and rehabilitation/upgrading projects are cost-effective opportunities to reduce waterflow 

problems and the water transport of pollutants, including heat, mineral nutrients, heavy metals, and hydrocarbons 

from roadsides, road surfaces, and vehicles. Wide stream-corridor vegetation has double value, addressing both the 

second and third objectives (Forman 1995). Achieving near-natural conditions in essentially all water systems of the 

surrounding landscape provides many important societal benefits, from flood control and less-scarce-and-costly cleanwater-supply 

to biodiversity, aesthetics, and happy fishermen. 

The three objectives focus on the existing infrastructure on which we all depend. For new road construction, incorporating 

the objectives into planning can eliminate the later need to address them, an environmentally salutary and cost-effective 

accomplishment. 

Promising Steps Ahead 

How do we get from here to there? Think big. Large areas are a surrogate for long term. Planning and improving whole 

landscapes and road networks is effectively long-term thinking, and is likely to produce sustainable patterns that 

persist. Or, achieve success in a small area, and replicate it flexibly in similar form so that it spreads widely across the 

road system. The first objective above is especially amenable to inexorable incremental progress, while the second and 

third objectives fit progressive steps logically into a framework or vision. 

An array of important ecological steps is readily available for use in transportation, as the following examples emphasize 

(Bekker et al. 1995, Forman et al. 2003). Ongoing bridge and culvert replacement or upgrading is a cost-effective 

opportunity to combine benefits for water, wildlife, and other societal goals. Identify and map the major water flows and 

species movements across landscapes, to identify potential conflict points with the road system (Forman et al. 2003). 

Wildlife underpasses and overpasses are the best way for animals in major wildlife corridors to cross highways (Trocme 

2003, Iuell et al. 2003, Forman et al. 2003, van Bohemen 2005). Roadside woody vegetation in distinct wildlife-crossing 

zones is also effective for animal crossing of roads (Forman and McDonald 2007). Determine and apply the ecologically 

and travel-optimum road network form and its underlying principles (Forman 2004). The road-effect zone, combining 

engineering and landscape ecology perspectives, is particularly valuable for transportation planning (Forman et al. 

2003, van Bohemen 2005). 

Indeed, appoint a respected blue-ribbon panel of transportation, engineering, ecology, planning, and other experts 

to critically evaluate the objectives, and outline the trajectory and timetable to success. Establish high-profile pilot 

projects (with monitoring) widely across the land. Continue attracting the cutting-edge scholars in road ecology, and 

fund high-quality scientific research (National Research Council 1997, Forman et al. 2003, Roedenbeck et al. 2007). 

Accomplish steps in the context of other major concerns or crises, such as greenhouse gases/climate change, urbanization-spread 

patterns, and water scarcity. In short, lots of promising approaches await our leadership, stepping 

forward to accomplish the three major objectives—the vision—for transportation, for the environment, and for society. 

References 

Bekker, H., B. van den Hengel, H. van Bohemen, and H. van der Sluijs. 1995. Natuur over Wegen (Nature Across Motorways). Ministry of 

Transport, Public Works and Water Management, Delft, Netherlands. 

Forman, R. T. T. 1995. Land Mosaics: The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions. Cambridge University Press, New York. 

Forman, R. T. T. 2004. Road ecology’s promise: what’s around the bend? Environment 46: 8-21. 

Forman, R. T. T. 2007a. Foreword. In Getting Up to Speed, by T. White. Defenders of Wildlife, Washington, D.C. Forthcoming. 

Forman, R. T. T. 2007b. Urban Regions: Ecology and Planning Beyond the City. Cambridge University Press, New York. Forthcoming. 

Forman, R. T. T. and R. I. McDonald. 2007. A massive increase in roadside woody vegetation: goals, pros, and cons. In International 

Conference on Ecology and Transportation 2007 Proceedings, Center for Transportation and the Environment, North Carolina State 

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Pre-Assessment of Wildlife Movement Patterns in a Forested Habitat Prior to Highway Development: 

Prioritizing Methods for Data Collection to Couple Local and Landscape Information for the 

Development of Statistical Models 

Abstract 

Kerry R. Foresman (406-243-4492, foresman@mso.umt.edu), Professor of Biology, and 

Michael A. Krebs (406-243-4492, michael.krebs@mso.umt.edu), GIS Analyst, Division of Biological 

Sciences, The University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, Fax: 406-243-4184 USA 

In 2004 the Federal Highway Administration, Western Federal Lands Highway Division, presented a proposal to 

improve the roadway along the Thompson River in west central Montana connecting state Highway 200 east of the 

town of Thompson Falls and Highway 2 west of the town of Kalispell. As currently exists here, two gravel roads run, 

north-to-south, over a 40-mile length. This corridor supports denning wolves, has legal status as a grizzly bear corridor, 

has habitat which may be used by lynx, wolverine, and fisher, has large populations of elk, white-tailed and mule deer, 

moose, and bighorn sheep, and the river itself is a bull trout spawning tributary. Because of this, the Thompson River 

drainage was identified as such a significant wildlife corridor that a consortium of organizations (USDA Forest Legacy 

Program, USFWS Habitat Conservation Land Acquisition Program, Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, and Bonneville 

Power Administration) allocated $34 million to place a conservation easement on this region. 

Initial plans were to pave this roadway to permit year-round travel and to reduce siltation of the Thompson River. 

Our research focus was to characterize the terrestrial wildlife populations along this corridor, to determine the most 

significant locations across which animal crossings occur and characterize these by local and landscape attributes, 

and to develop mitigation plans to deal with significant wildlife issues if improvements were to proceed. One of our 

primary purposes was to develop a model approach predicting wildlife activity to such studies for the FHA which could 

be employed in the future at other locations. 

Wildlife distributions were determined through the use of remote cameras (n = 583 sites monitored with replicates; 

>7,600 animals detected), permanent snow-track transects (n = 52; >18,000 tracks identified), and GPS radiotelemetry 

(specifically bighorn sheep; n = 9; average of > 4,600 locations determined/animal). Movement patterns were 

further studied by identifying roadway crossing locations (“hotspots” – n = 650), backtracking a subset of these and 

creating GPS layers, and identifying all locations at which road mortalities (n = 33) occurred. Local (25 m radius) 

vegetation analyses and habitat characteristics were collected in the field at 316 locations along the roadways associated 

with each of these survey parameters, and various landscape level attributes within a 1 km radius of each camera 

location were then derived using ArcGIS 9.0 from GIS layers supplied from the USFS Northern Region Vegetation 

Mapping Project and Lolo National Forest coverages. These include actual surface area estimates of dominant vegetation 

and lifeform type, vegetation size, canopy cover, ownership, and road and stream density. A 10-meter digital elevation 

model (DEM) and MODIS satellite data of the study area were used to generate topographic attributes of slope and 

aspect and estimates of forest cover for analysis. 

Using ESRI’s ModelBuilder geoprocessing environment, spatial data from individual camera locations served as inputs 

for a data model developed for landscape-level data extraction from GIS layers and subsequent coupling of local and 

landscape variables. One kilometer buffer zones created around each camera location were used to intersect with 

GIS layers. Summary tables of model variables were generated in a geodatabase, exported to a Microsoft Access 

database and merged with local variables where further derivation and calculation of predictor information could be 

accomplished. Once complete, a final table containing both response and local and landscape predictor variables was 

created and exported to SPSS/S-PLUS for statistical analysis. 

Three distinct regions along the 43-mile corridor were identified for separate model development. The southernmost 

region is largely characterized by steep, forested canyon topography; the central region consists of a broader, open, 

forested river valley, while the northernmost region is predominantly private agricultural land. As our primary response 

variable measuring animal activity along the proposed highway, we calculated the number of animal sightings recorded 

by each camera per 100 hours of camera time for each location (called Occurrence Index) and the number of tracks (by 

species) per 100 meter interval over each 1 km snow transect. Several regression modeling approaches are currently 

being explored including logistic, Poisson, and Ordinary Least Squares, depending on response variable distribution 

model fit and other procedural assumptions. Spatial correlation will also be evaluated using either ESRI’s Geostatistical 

Analyst or S-PLUS. Models will be generated for each region and their final selection will be determined using both 

cross-validation and various model fit criteria. Beyond their current application in this study, it is our further goal that 

these models representing contrasting landscapes will have a broader inter/intra-regional application for other similar 

studies in the future. 


Forest Service Back Roads: Utilization of GPS/GIS Technology for Acquiring Road Infrastructure 

Data in the Ozark-St. Francis National Forests 

Abstract 

Benjamin Gentry, GIS Technician (479-964-7200, bgentry@fs.fed.us), Ozark-St. Francis National 

Forest, 605 West Main St., Russellville, AR 72801 USA 

This presentation describes how one Forest Service unit uses GPS/GIS technology to update and maintain information 

regarding its road network. 

The Ozark-St. Francis National Forest (OSFNF) has developed an integrated field collection and GIS process method to 

digitally capture spatial and tabular information about travel routes, road features, travel route conditions, and other 

related features, to assist in land management planning activities and environmental assessments. 

The methodology draws from 5+ years of experience incurred by the Ouachita National Forest, The Nature 

Conservancy, and the Watershed Conservation Resource Center to inventory road locations and prioritize maintenance 

recommendations. These earlier activities were useful for updating Forest Service applications, or collecting variable 

for use in environmental prediction models such as WEPP: Road. 

Currently the USFS maintains road information in an Oracle database accessed through an application known as INFRA 

travel routes which interfaces with an Electronic Road Log (ERL) for conducting automated updates. This tool makes 

available changes to tabular information fields but does not support spatial updates to GIS data layers. The methodology 

described in this project is manual; however the intent is an expanded amount of highly organized tabular and 

spatial information, collected in the field, using a standard suite of hardware/software components. These features 

make this methodology appropriate for dissemination to other FS units, and could easily be automated as a one-click 

update tool. 

The OSFNF methodology uses Trimble Geoexplorer GPS units and a custom data dictionary for the collection and 

organization of tabular and spatial information. Post-processing methods that remove errors, correct for spatial requirements, 

provide QA/QC, and format the output products are clearly defined. This output is then migrated into applications 

such as INFRA travel routes; INFRA travel route GIS data layers, and forest specific datasets that accommodate 

related information. This methodology allows the OSFNF to maintain databases and GIS layers to the appropriate 

standards while providing an expanded dataset of road related features for land and resource management planning. 

The goals of this project are to increase the spatial accuracy of road related data and to develop a tool where multiskilled 

users can generate consistent outputs for this type of information. This project also seeks a method for updating 

tabular INFRA data and spatial GIS data layers simultaneously in order to increase the efficiency of field inventories. 

Ultimately, updating travel route information without ERL hardware requisites, increasing the intensity of field inventories, 

and achieving greater consistency will expand the OSFNF capabilities for conducting environmental assessments 

and opportunity analysis. 


Limited Applications of Wildlife-Vehicle Collision Analyses for Transportation Planning and Mitigation 

Efforts Due to Spatial Inaccuracy 

Abstract 

Kari E. Gunson, Faculty of Environmental and Resource Engineering (315-375-3760, kegunson@syr. 

edu), State University of New York, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, 312 Bray Hall, 

Syracuse, NY, 13210 USA 

Anthony P. Clevenger, Ph.D., (403-760-1371, tony.clevenger@pc.gc.ca), Western Transportation 

Institute, P.O. Box 174250, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA 

To properly mitigate road impacts for wildlife and increase motorist safety, transportation departments need to be able 

to identify where particular individuals, or species are susceptible to high road-kill rates along roads. Researchers have 

relied on a variety of statistical methods to determine the specific explanatory factors associated with wildlife-vehicle 

collisions (WVC). Of particular importance in these analyses is the underlying spatial data used to describe the locations 

of WVCs. In this study we investigate the importance of the same WVC factors on two different datasets: one with 

highly accurate location data (

Abstract 

Development of a Bald Eagle Habitat Assessment Tool and Its Application in Highway Planning 

James Hatchitt, GIS Project Manager (352-333-8393, jim@armasi.com), ARMASI, Inc., 3966 SW 98th 

Dr., Gainesville, FL 32608 USA 

Florida has the largest population of nesting bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) in the Continental US. Bald eagles 

are currently listed as a federal and state threatened species. The bald eagle population in Florida has recovered to 

the point that the US Fish & Wildlife Service (USFWS) has indicated that it no longer warrants protection under the 

Endangered Species Act (ESA). However the species will continue to be managed and protected by federal and state 

guidelines. Until recently application of management guidelines could only be based on subjective assessment of the 

individual nest site. Habitat management guidelines have been developed and successfully implemented to accommodate 

human and bald eagle habitat needs on a limited basis. Here we are describing a data based model which 

was used to assess each nest site in Florida based on its current and future comparative importance to the population. 

The results of this process are then overlaid on the Florida Intrastate Highway System (FIHS) map layer. This provides 

a mechanism whereby the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) has advanced warning of potential issues 

relating to bald eagle habitat. 

The Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) and FFWCC has worked cooperatively through a contract with 

ARMASI Inc. to develop a Bald Eagle Habitat Index of Vulnerability (BEHIV) environmental management tool. This 

vulnerability index evaluates each eagle nesting site in Florida to provide a quantitative assessment of the current and 

predicted effects of various anthropogenic and natural modifications to the long term viability of these sites. Multiple 

habitat aspects associated with each nest site, including land use, distance to water, and density or proximity of nest 

habitat areas, were systematically grouped into data layers. The various layers used in the construction of the BEHIV 

were incorporated into the model through a weighting process based on their relative importance to eagle nest viability 

(Nesbitt et al. manuscript). The weighted value assigned to each layer was developed through the review of historical 

data, ongoing studies, and expert opinions. The relative score compiled from the model and associated map data was 

used to delineate the various habitat constraints and resources associated with each of the more than 1200 nest 

sites in Florida. This natural setting score provides a characterization of the quality of each habitat area based on the 

weighted data variables compiled. 

In addition to the natural setting profile an evaluation of the potential for future disruption was compiled using a 

Conservation Land and Future Land Use coverage with a similar weighting scheme. The amount of area for each future 

land use or proposed zoning land use categories contained within each habitat buffer was calculated and summarized 

to arrive at a potential for disruption score. 

This qualitative ranking process and the database of individual component values for each nest offers a consistent 

means of ranking habitat areas across the state. The results of this analysis are used to determine the number of 

nests within a certain distance of the FIHS system along with their associated BEHIV score. We created a buffer file 

for each FIHS segment. The resulting buffer files were then overlain on the Eagle nest BEHIV file and the two files 

were then merged and summarized by FIHS segment to get a preliminary BEHIV score for each segment. Three buffer 

distances are used to indicate the potential for disruption of nest in proximity to the FIHS network. The buffer distances 

are a 750 feet Primary Alert buffer, a 1500 feet Secondary Alert buffer, and a 1 mile notification buffer (these distances 

are expected to be reduced once the species has been delisted). 

The results of this project are intended to compliment existing information related to the FIHS maintenance and right 

of way development. The incorporation of the BEHIV/ASSESS into the FIHS provides a means by which FDOT personnel 

can be alerted to environmental concerns at an early stage in the planning process. This project and its application 

offers some insight to the potential for adding other environmental layers to FDOT planning areas. The results have 

been submitted to FDOT and the BEHIV process is currently under review by FFWCC staff for incorporation into the Bald 

Eagle Management Plan. 


New International Efforts for Freshwater Research, Education, and Conservation: A Report From the 

Society for Conservation Biology’s Freshwater Working Group 

Description 

Nathaniel P. Hitt (than@vt.edu), Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic 

Institute and State University, 100 Cheatham Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA 

Aventino Kasangaki (aventinok@yahoo.com), Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation, Mbarara 

University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 44, Kabale, Uganda 

Mordecai Ogada (mordyogada@yahoo.com), National Museums of Kenya, Museum Hill, P.O. Box 

40658, Kenya 00100 

Ken Vance-Borland (ken.vance-borland@oregonstate.edu), Department of Forest Science, Oregon 

State University, Corvallis, OR 97331 USA 

We provided an informational poster about the Society for Conservation Biology’s Freshwater Working Group and 

proposed new research questions regarding the effects of transportation networks on freshwater ecosystems. 

Abstract 

Freshwater ecosystems are vital for human well-being and ecological integrity but are increasingly jeopardized by 

habitat loss and degradation, fragmentation, water abstraction, and climate change. These threats are diverse and 

pervasive and thus require new thinking about conservation problems and solutions. Here, we describe the Society for 

Conservation Biology’s Freshwater Working Group (FWWG) and invite ICOET members to join this initiative. First, we 

review the origins of the FWWG and briefly describe previous accomplishments. Second, we describe the international 

composition of the FWWG and current activities. Third, we propose new research questions regarding the effects of 

transportation networks on freshwater ecosystems. We explain that the landscape structure of freshwater ecosystems 

is distinct from terrestrial environments and that localized, direct effects of roads must be understood in the context 

of regional, indirect effects of landscape connectivity and other factors. We conclude that freshwater conservation 

requires new research across ecological scales and new collaborations across political boundaries. 


An Alternative to the Openness Ratio for Wildlife Crossing Structures Using Structure Physical 

Attributes and Behavioral Implications of Deer Vision and Hearing Capabilities 

Abstract 

Sandra Jacobson, Wildlife Biologist (503-453-0593, sjacobson@fs.fed.us), USDA Forest Service, 

Pacific Southwest Research Station, Redwood Sciences Lab, 1700 Bayview Drive, Arcata, CA 

95521 USA 

This study proposes an alternative to the current use of the “openness ratio” by investigating the contribution of the 

acoustical and visual proprerties as a result of structure shape and size to its effectiveness for deer. 

Reed et al. (1975) coined the term “openness” to describe and measure a concept that mule deer (Odocoileus 

hemionus) prefer crossing structures with a clear view of the horizon. Since then, the concept has been extrapolated 

far beyond Reed’s use, for all shapes of underpasses and for many species of animals, most often with no definition 

beyond a simplistic height x width/length. Other problems with the current use of the concept are the inconsistent use 

of the units (English vs metric), different terms (ratio, index or simply openness), measurements at different points 

on a non-square underpass, lack of differentiation between the value of height vs width, and lack of well-designed 

experimental studies controlling for this variable. Yet biologists intuitively know that ungulates prefer structures 

with good visibility, and several studies support this even without a means to clearly differentiate the contribution 

of openness components. This study looks at the way that different shapes and sizes of underpasses contribute to 

the components of an open feeling in terms of the predator avoidance adaptations of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus 

virginianus). Underpass shape, size and materials determine the acoustical signature of noises resonating within a 

structure. For example, an arch shape within the sizes often used for wildlife crossing structures will focus sound in the 

approximate location of a deer’s head. As underpass size increases, resonance diminishes. Underpass length determines 

the amount of total light and the perception of distance to the end of the structure. White-tailed deer perceive 

danger through hearing, vision and smell. Their use of hearing is impaired if sounds resonating from the interior of an 

underpass are unknown to them and mask other normal sounds, thus causing fright and possible flight. White-tailed 

deer perceive movement along a horizontal plane better than focused detail, and their depth perception is lower than 

animals with eyes facing forward. Their vision in low light conditions is far better than humans. These factors taken 

together can be used to redefine the Openness concept into its important components. We propose that Openness 

be comprised of the following four measures. 1) Aspect Ratio measures the relationship between a structure’s length 

and height, measured at the approximate height of a deer’s head, or 1 meter. This measure considers the greater 

importance of horizontal visibility for predator detection from an ungulate’s perspective. 2) Cross-sectional Area 

measures the area above a horizontal line at a 1 meter. This measure takes into account that structures of varying 

shape produce different perceptions of openness. 3) Brightness measures the perception of distance that varies with 

the length of a structure. This measure takes into account the perception of apparent distance to safety and flight 

distance. 4) Presence of a Ledge indicates presence or absence of a horizontal ledge whose surface is not visible from 

an animal inside the structure. This indicator considers the intimidating effect of a possible predator attack position on 

the willingness of deer to pass through an enclosed structure. Thresholds for these components will be proposed as 

alternative measures to the current use of the “Openness Ratio” for highway crossing structures intended for whitetailed 

deer, and suggested as further study for other ungulates as well. 


Abstract 

A Review of the Broad Effects Generated by Roads on Herpetofauna 

Denim M. Jochimsen (208-244-1336, denim2cure@yahoo.com), School of Biological Sciences, 

Washington State University, P.O. Box 644236, Pullman, WA 99164-4236 USA 

Although, several reviews, bibliographies, and texts describing the effects of roads on natural systems have been 

published, amphibian and reptile taxa remain underrepresented. 

An array of studies document that roads generate ecological disturbance and destruction at multiple scales across 

the landscape. As conflicts between roads and wildlife become increasingly common, experts seek to understand the 

interactions in the search for solutions. Although, several reviews, bibliographies, and texts describing the effects of 

roads on natural systems have been published (Andrews 1990, Forman and Alexander 1998, Trombulak and Frissell 

2000, Forman et al. 2003, White and Ernst 2003) amphibian and reptile taxa remain underrepresented. The extent 

of the direct and indirect effects of roads on these species has been revealed in numerous studies, with excessive 

rates of mortality (thousands) documented, and changes in behavior, movement, survival, growth, and reproductive 

success of individual animals reported. Cumulatively, effects may incur population-level consequences, or influence 

the overall species richness and diversity in an area. The goals of this presentation are to: 1) provide examples of 

physiological, ecological, and behavioral traits inherent among herpetofauna that enhance their susceptibility to 

environmental changes associated with development and roads, 2) summarize the prevalence of direct mortality data 

for herpetofauna, 3) identify the diversity of indirect effects documented in the literature, 4) infer larger-scale impacts 

on population and community levels, 5) recommend areas of future research that are to date undocumented, but for 

which herpetofauna are likely susceptible, and 6) present proactive approaches for addressing conflicts. 


Abstract 

Effectiveness of Black Bear Crossings on I-26 in Madison County, North Carolina 

Elizabeth R. Jones (919-515-7587, erjones@ncsu.edu), Richard A. Lancia, and Phil D. Doerr, 

Fisheries and Wildlife Program, Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North 

Carolina State University, Box 7646, Raleigh, NC 27695-7646 USA 

Roads have become an integral part of our society, but recently society has begun to realize the ecological impact 

that roads have on their surroundings. One major effect that roads have on large mammals is creating a barrier 

to movement of individuals both between and within populations. In an effort to alleviate this problem on a new 

interstate project, the North Carolina Department of Transportation constructed two 8’ x 8’ concrete box culverts on 

I-26 in Madison County, North Carolina, intended for use by American Black Bears (Ursus americanus). Black bears 

have been observed using a variety of crossing structures, and it is not known what type of design best suits their 

needs. To determine the effectiveness of these crossing structures, each culvert’s wildlife activity is being recorded by 

Cuddeback digital still cameras. In addition, digital video data is being captured at one of the culverts. One crossing 

has been monitored since November 2005, the other since April 2006. From these data, detection probabilities and 

an overall estimate of wildlife use can be calculated. Wildlife crossings at other structures along the roadway will also 

be recorded, specifically at culverts built to carry trout streams under the interstate. Also, still cameras have been 

installed at a few likely crossing locations along the roadway in an attempt to capture black bear crossings. These 

potential crossings were selected based on the literature. Lastly, local residents are being surveyed to determine locations 

black bears have been seen crossing the interstate. Based on the various types of crossing data, and information 

from the literature, a GIS model will be constructed to predict where black bears are most likely to cross roads in 

the Appalachian Mountains. 

At this time, no black bears have been recorded using either of the crossings, or any of the stream culverts. Bears 

have been recorded crossing the roadway adjacent to the crossing structure, and one bear was recorded at the 

entrance to the crossing structure. Several other mammal species have been recorded using the wildlife crossings, 

including raccoons, opossums, bobcats, groundhogs, a least weasel, a species of rat, and domestic cats. The crossings 

will continue to be monitored through early summer 2007. At that time, the crossings will be evaluated for effectiveness 

as black bear crossings, and the GIS model will be finalized. 

Based on the results, transportation officials around the world will have a better understanding of how black bears, 

and possibly other large carnivores, interact with roads of this size. 


Summary of Strategic Agenda for Deer-Vehicle Crash Reduction: Data Collection, Research, Funding, 

Partnerships, and Technology Transfer 

Abstract 

Keith K. Knapp (979-845-5686, k-knapp@tamu.edu), Associate Research Scientist, Texas 

Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University, 3135 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-3135, 

Fax: 979-845-6006 USA 

More than 65 people (with varying backgrounds) involved with or interested in the reduction of deer-vehicle crashes 

(DVCs) attended the October 2005 “Deer-Vehicle Crash Reductions: Setting a Strategic Agenda” conference. At this 

meeting the attendees collaborated and brainstormed to identify strategic agenda action items for DVC reduction 

research and data collection, funding, partnership building, and technology transfer and education. Focus groups were 

created to discuss each of these subject areas. This poster summarizes the results of those discussions. Each of the 

focal groups was initially asked to identify the concerns/problems it thought should be resolved to help reduce DVCs 

within their subject area (and overall). They also provided goals/objectives that could be achieved within their subject 

area during the next three to five years, along with the strategic agenda action items that could help accomplish these 

goals/objectives. The focus of each group was different and in some cases their suggested strategic agenda action 

items were very specific. In other cases, however, similar suggestions were provided by more than one group. Four 

common themes or general categories were identified among the strategic agenda action items suggested. The first 

category includes action items that help facilitate and guide intra- and inter-agency coordination with respect to the 

DVC problem. The second category included action items that increase the general awareness of the DVC issue by 

effectively and efficiently providing the correct message to a wide range of audiences. The third group included action 

items to encourage the consistent collection of DVC-related data, and the fourth group of action items promotes the 

development, implementation, and evaluation of potential and existing DVC countermeasures. A strategic agenda document 

was created from the meeting activities and results. It should be used as a guide to those individuals and groups 

interested in advancing the reduction of DVCs. This poster summarizes the content of that strategic agenda document. 


Highway Median Impacts on Wildlife Movement and Mortality 

Angela Kociolek (406-994-6308, angela.kociolek@coe.montana.edu), Research Associate, Western 

Transportation Institute at Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717-4250 USA 

Anthony Clevenger (403-760-1371, tony.clevenger@pc.gc.ca), Research Ecologist, Western 

Transportation Institute at Montana State University, Harvie Heights, AB, T1W 2W2 Canada 

Abstract: Linear transportation features have been shown to have a barrier effect on certain wildlife species. In the 

case of highway median barriers or dividers designed for safety, little research has been done to gain an understanding 

of how these continuous linear structures affect the movement and mortality of different taxa. This research effort 

was comprised of a state of the practice survey, a literature review and gap analysis, and a qualitative assessment 

of potential wildlife impacts based on median barrier type and taxa size. Results from this cumulative effort have 

produced a foundation from which to develop rigorous field studies which should ultimately yield the basis for agency 

standards and guidelines. This study represents the first attempt ever in North America to synthesize information 

about highway median barriers and wildlife. 

Background and Purpose 

Transportation agencies (DOTs) regularly install solid concrete median barriers and, in some cases, incorporate mitigative 

designs without information on their effectiveness. Therefore a study of the interactions between vehicles, median 

barriers, and wildlife is needed. The continued use of concrete median barriers should be of concern where they bisect 

areas of ecological importance and wildlife populations. The aim of this Caltrans-sponsored project was to determine 

what is the current practice and knowledge in the US and Canada pertaining to potential impacts of highway median 

barriers on wildlife movement and mortality. 

Methods 

• The literature review focused on 1.) barrier effects of roads and linear infrastructure, 2.) historical and current 

trends of median barrier installation and unintended/potential impacts, and 3.) the effects of median barriers 

on a range of wildlife species and the performance of mitigative design solutions. The gap analysis culminated 

in a series of unanswered questions and limitations of available information. 

• Ninety-six biological/environmental and engineering specialists in DOTS in all 50 U.S. states and 13 provinces/territories 

in Canada were invited to participate in this online state of the practice survey. The survey 

addressed trends and patterns of installations, regulatory and practical issues in deployment, and agency-led 

research efforts to assess median barrier impacts on wildlife. 

• The qualitative assessment of potential wildlife impacts followed a matrix model whereby the potential permeability 

and mortality risks associated with common median barrier designs were assigned (based on intuitive 

and available information) for each taxa group of varying sizes. 

Summary of Findings 

Individually and collectively, these median barrier-wildlife research efforts confirm that a concerted study is needed in 

order to develop best practices for appropriate placement, design choice and mitigations to meet the needs of motorist 

safety while avoiding negative impacts to local wildlife populations. 

Literature Review and Gap Analysis 

The literature review substantiated median barriers have an effect on a wide range of wildlife from small to large. This 

statement largely comes from documented anecdotal data and intuitive public concern, however, there were some supporting 

scientific research studies. There is general agreement that barriers can result in increased wildlife mortality 

and decreased wildlife movements depending on the species and/or body size. Comprehensive studies that specifically 

measure these impacts are lacking. The absence of WVCs in some cases may be an indication that such barriers 

affect how, and if, wildlife move along and/or across roadways. 

State of the Practice Survey 

Thirty-four individuals representing 28 (or 45%) of DOTs in the U.S. and Canada completed the survey (figure 1). 

Results from the survey revealed there were few evaluations of median barriers impacts on wildlife. 


Figure 1. Survey respondent type by state, province and territory. 

Few DOTs reported that they ‘employ’ or ‘consider’ mitigative designs. Of the 22 agencies that answered the following 

question set, results were similar; 68% rarely or never consider mitigative design solutions and 77% rarely or never 

employ them. 

Figure 2. Number of agencies surveyed which consider or employ designs to mitigate impacts to wildlife. 

No clear mandate to address wildlife and habitat connectivity concerns (other than for threatened and endangered species) 

and the lack of guidance for decision-making are possible explanations. But the literature review revealed that DOTs 

and others have attempted to address some aspect of median barrier effects on wildlife movement and/or mortality. 

Qualitative Assessment 

It is likely that animal size, median barrier dimensions, existing wildlife passages and landscape features have a collective 

effect on wildlife permeability and potential mortality risk on median divided roadways. 

In a analysis of potential wildlife impacts, scores combining potential permeability and potential mortality risk were 

applied in a qualitative decision matrix for taxa relative to nine distinct median barrier types (mitigated and traditional). 


Taxa groups (largely based on California fauna) were classified by general size differentiation as follows: 

• A: mice, shrews/frogs, salamanders, lizards, snakes 

• B: rat families, squirrels, weasels/turtles/young waterfowl and upland birds 

• C: marten, fisher, mink, badger, skunk, fox, opossum 

• D: coyote, bobcat, lynx, wolverine, otter, raccoon, ocelot 

• E: grizzly bear, black bear, wolf, moose, elk, deer, bighorn sheep, mountain lion 

• Permeability scores were qualitatively assigned in absolute terms based on the size and physical capacity 

of each taxa group to overcome each barrier type. 

• Potential mortality risk was based on the extent to which a barrier might limit an animal’s ability to traverse 

the barrier to avoid oncoming vehicles and see vehicles approaching from the opposite direction. The score 

also took into consideration literature that indicated a higher risk of WVC (especially deer) on undivided 

two-lane roads and on roads with vegetated medians. 

Based on this model, small (shrew-sized) to medium (fox-sized) taxa have the highest risk with solid, concrete barrier 

designs. Medium taxa also have a high risk score for concrete barriers with scuppers or basal cutouts. Conversely, 

small and medium taxa have the lowest risk with permeable metal beam, cable, centerline rumble strips and vegetated 

median designs. Larger species (coyote-sized to elk- or bear-sized) have a moderate combined risk for all median 

(barrier) types with the exception of the Ontario Tall Wall (Table 1). This qualitative assessment is not intended to be a 

guideline but rather is a starting point for discussion about potential impacts. 

Table 1: Combined risk score based on potential permeability and mortality risk of median barrier type for taxa of 

different sizes 

Future Research 

Field research should address varying sizes of taxa and different median barrier designs (mitigated and traditional) in a 

variety of landscapes. The following is a recommended hierarchical research framework: 


1. First and foremost, study wildlife impacts in terms of increased mortality and reduced movements. 

2. Second, investigate mortality and barrier effects to individuals and populations and subsequent effects on 

demographics and genetics. 

3. Third, ask how all of the above affects long-term persistence of focal populations. 

Acknowledgments: The authors thank the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) for funding this project and, specifically 

thank Harold Hunt for guidance and support, and Dave Hacker for initiating this work. The authors greatly appreciate the transportation 

agency specialists in the U.S. and Canada who participated in the survey and graciously offered their insights. For their contributions of 

technical, editorial, graphical and administrative assistance, the authors are grateful for staff at the Western Transportation Institute. 

Biographical Sketches: Angela Kociolek received a M.S. in biology (Conservation emphasis) and a Master’s Certificate in Interdisciplinary 

Studies in 1997 from Montana State University. Her thesis focused the effects of climate on ground squirrel species distribution and she 

has experience in avian and lichenological field research. Angela is a Returned Peace Corps Volunteer having served in the Integrated 

Education and Community Outreach program in northeast Thailand (1998-2000). Angela is currently a research associate at the Western 

Transportation Institute where she is involved in a variety of field and research/writing projects in the Road Ecology focus area. 

Tony Clevenger is a research wildlife biologist Montana State University’s Western Transportation Institute. His research focuses on 

assessing wildlife crossing performance and analyzing factors contributing to wildlife-vehicle collisions. Tony was a member of the U.S. 

National Academy of Sciences Committee on Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads (National Academies Press, 

2005). He has published over 40 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals and has co-authored three books including, Road Ecology: 

Science and Solutions (Island Press, 2003). Tony is a graduate of the University of California, Berkeley, has a master’s degree from the 

University of Tennessee, Knoxville and a Doctoral degree in Zoology from the University of León, Spain. 


Long-Term Consequences of Winter Road Management Practices to Water Quality at High-Altitude Lakes 

Within the Adirondack State Park (New York State) 

Abstract 

Tom Langen (315-268-7933, tlangen@clarkson.edu), Associate Professor of Biology, Clarkson 

University, Box 5805, Potsdam, NY 13699-5805, Fax: 315-268-7118 USA 

The long-term impacts to water quality from the use of sodium chloride (rock salt) anti-icer and sand abrasive was 

evaluated at two high elevation lakes along a highway in the Adirondack Park, New York State. 

Upper Cascade and Lower Cascade Lakes are two hydrologically connected water bodies in the Adirondack Park of New 

York State. The lakes are bordered by NYS Route 73, the primary transportation route for visitors to the tourist center 

of Lake Placid. The Cascade Lakes lie within a long, narrow, high elevation gorge that is notorious for some of the worst 

winter weather in the New York State highway system. The lakes themselves are a popular recreational destination 

and contain the largest population of a fish that is officially listed as endangered in New York State (round whitefish, 

Prosopium cylindraceum). There has been widespread concern from both governmental agencies and the general 

public about the impact of winter road management in this area, provoked by an apparent dieback of paper birch along 

the roadside and evidence of rising chloride levels in the lakes. 

We have been funded by the New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT) to assess the impacts to soil, 

vegetation, lake water quality, and lake biota at the Cascade Lakes caused by use of deicing road salt (mainly sodium 

chloride) and sand abrasive. We also modeled future changes to lake water quality, resulting from current management 

practices and alternatives. 

Chloride levels within soils adjacent to State Highway 73 are generally low, indicating that chloride is rapidly transported 

away via surface and ground water flow. Upper and Lower Cascade Lakes now have chloride levels 100 to 

150 times higher than expected for a comparable Adirondack Lake. Within the last five years, there has been a 250% 

increase in chloride concentrations within the Cascade Lakes, which has been caused by the recent dramatic increase 

in road salt applications. The concentration of chloride in Chapel Pond is slightly elevated, about twice as high as the 

average for Adirondack 

A strong concentration gradient of chloride occurs in Upper and Lower Cascade Lakes, with as much as a 57% difference 

in concentration between surface water (epilimnion) and bottom water (hypolimnion). Although the chloride 

concentrations and magnitude of the concentration gradients are within the range that results in a permanent stratification 

on some lakes (meromixis), Upper and Lower Cascade Lakes remain dimictic (i.e. complete turnover occurs 

twice a year, caused by thermal mixing). Lower Cascade Lake turns-over earlier than Upper Cascade Lake, indicating 

that there is little resistance to thermal mixing at present in this more heavily chloride-contaminated lake. 

Twenty years of data on watershed loadings of sand and road salt at the Cascade Lakes indicate that lake chloride 

levels closely match loadings. Upper Cascade Lake contains 80,000 - 130,000 kg chloride, and Lower Cascade Lake 

contains 50,000 - 75,000 kg chloride. Seasonal changes in chloride concentrations in the lakes appear to be gradual, 

peaking in summer, suggesting that there is no shock elevation of concentrations associated with seasonal events 

(e.g. snow melt), and that sizeable input into the lakes are via groundwater discharge. Based on the mass balance 

model of chloride transport through the Cascade Lakes, simulated over a period of 20 years, chloride concentrations 

are predicted to rise over the next five years in the Cascade Lakes, with the biggest increases in the Lower Cascade 

hypolimnion (a 40% increase). Under present salt loadings, peak chloride concentrations in the Lower Cascade Lake 

hypolimnion are predicted to approach the USEPA recommended maximum limits for chronic exposure to aquatic life. 

Lower Cascade Lake also remains at risk of becoming meromictic. Doubling the annual salt loading will double the 

lakes concentrations of chloride, halving the salt loading will halve the concentration of chloride in each lake (as was 

empirically observed in the early 1990s). Changes in salt loadings result in a new equilibrium concentration of chloride 

within about seven years. 


Abstract 

Culvert Retrofit Testing 

Christopher May (360-681-4556, christopher.may@pnl.gov), Senior Scientist, and 

Ron Thom (360-681-3657, ron.thom@pnl.gov), Staff Engineer, Battelle PNNL, 1529 West Sequim Bay 

Road, Sequim, WA 98382, Fax: 360-681-3681 USA 

Road culverts located on federal, state, and private lands currently block upstream passage of juvenile salmon to 

thousands of miles of suitable juvenile rearing habitat. Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT), 

in cooperation with partner state and federal agencies, is currently leading a cooperative program to study juvenile 

salmonid passage through culverts by systematically conducting statistically designed experiments in full-scale culvert 

systems at the Culvert Test Bed (CTB). 

The overall goal of the CTB program is to identify culvert configurations and the associated hydraulic conditions that 

facilitate successful upstream passage of juvenile salmonids. Previous studies have used juvenile coho salmon to 

examine the factors influencing passage success and leaping ability. This study begins research focused on retrofitted 

culverts. A retrofitted culvert is one in which the bed characteristics of an existing culvert are modified or engineered 

to improve fish passage. The main objectives of this study were to determine the passage success of juvenile salmon 

swimming through a series of configurations baffles under different culvert slopes and water flow conditions and to 

relate fish passage success to culvert slope, water flow, water velocity, turbulence intensity, water depth, and other 

hydraulic parameters for the installed retrofit design. 

In 2005 and 2006, testing was conducted using a culvert-baffle configuration commonly used in Washington to enhance 

upstream adult salmonid passage. The primary question to be addressed is what passage success is achieved 

for juvenile salmon with this standard culvert-baffle configuration. The fish-passage tests evaluated passage success in 

a 40-ft corrugated culvert with three weir baffles at one culvert slope (1.14%) and over five flows conditions (1.5, 3, 6, 

8, and 12 cfs). In addition, a full hydraulic analysis of flow conditions inside the CTB was conducted. 

The relationships between natural logarithm of passage success of juvenile coho salmon (94 mm to 104 mm) and 

culvert discharge were statistically significant and curvilinear for all three configurations. For the configuration without 

baffles, passage success was about 40% at 1.5 cfs, increased to about 70% at 3 cfs, and then decreased to less than 

10% at 12 cfs. The curves for configurations without baffles and with baffles and elevated backwatering condition did 

not differ significantly. Both these curves were significantly greater than the curve for the configuration with baffles and 

standard backwatering condition. Backwatering influences passage success through baffled culverts and will need to 

be considered as an experimental variable in future tests. 

Differences between our results and other research results indicate that fish size has substantial influence on passage 

success and that these tests will need to be repeated for smaller juveniles. The lower passage success at 1.5 

cfs relative to the higher flows both with and without baffles indicates that the lower passage success at 1.5 cfs is 

not a function of baffling conditions, i.e., baffles or no baffles, but rather is due to some aspect of culvert discharge. 

More exploratory behavior was observed at 1.5 cfs than at higher flows. The observations also suggest that consistent 

upstream movement may require a cue that is associated with higher flows. The nature of the cue is not known but 

could be related to higher velocities, greater depth, or more distinct low-velocity pathways. 

Behaviors associated with successful upstream passage were more complex with baffles than without baffles. A 

significant quadratic relationship between the probability of passage success and the number of entries was found 

for all configurations at flows above 1.5 cfs. These relationships suggest that fish may be achieving the same level of 

passage success for less effort in the baffled configuration. The behavioral observations indicate that the fish use lowvelocity 

pathways to accomplish passage and that these pathways differ between the baffled and unbaffled conditions 

and perhaps differ with flow for the baffled condition. The fish appear to be able to find and use low-velocity pathways 

to accomplish the passage in several different settings. 

Overall, the results obtained thus far in the culvert test bed system demonstrate that the juvenile coho salmon have 

remarkable abilities to adapt their behavior to accomplish upstream passage in different system configurations and 

under different flows. The fish appear able to find and use low velocity pathways to accomplish the passage. 


Abstract 

Effects of a Highway Improvement Project on Florida Key Deer 

Israel D. Parker (979-739-0679, iparker@tamu.edu), Anthony W. Braden, Roel R. Lopez, and 

Nova J. Silvy, Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M University, 2258 TAMU, 006 

Nagle Hall College Station, TX 77843-2258, Fax: 979-845-3786 USA 

Donald S. Davis, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 

77843 USA 

Catherine B. Owen, Environmental Management Office, Florida Department of Transportation, Miami, 

FL 33172 USA 

With an absence of predators, deer-vehicle collisions (DVCs) are the primary source of mortality for the endangered 

Florida Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium). Of these collisions, >50% occur on United States Highway 1 (US 

1), the primary inter-island roadway in the Florida Keys. DVCs on the 5.6-km section of US 1 on Big Pine Key (BPK) 

are responsible for approximately 26% of annual mortality. In 2002, a continuous 2.6-km system of 2.4-m fencing, 2 

underpasses, and 4 experimental deer guards was completed on US 1 on BPK. Our objective for this project was to 

evaluate the effectiveness of this system in reducing DVCs. Deer heavily used the underpasses built in the fenced area 

all 3 post-project years (2003–2005). The fencing successfully prevented Key deer from entering the exclusion area. 

In spite of increasing deer population numbers, the US 1 improvement project prevented an increase in DVCs on US 1. 

Biographical Sketch: Israel Parker is currently a Ph.D. student in the Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences at Texas A&M 

University working on central Texas water quality issues. He received his M.S. in the Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences at 

TAMU in 2006 focusing on Florida Key deer. 


Abstract 

Evaluation of a Citizen-Science Highway Wildlife Monitoring Program 

Kylie Paul (612-910-9248, skylie101@gmail.com), Len Broberg, and Christopher Servheen, 

University of Montana, 1721 Phillips Street, Missoula, MT 59802 

Michael S. Quinn (403-220-7013, quinn@ucalgary.ca), Faculty of Environmental Design, University of 

Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4 Canada 

The Crowsnest Pass in southwestern Alberta, Canada has been highlighted as a critical area for wildlife movement. 

There are plans to upgrade Highway 3, which cuts through the Pass, to four lanes, with resulting increased traffic 

volume and speed. Currently, highway traffic volume is between 2,500 to 10,500 vehicles/day. Highway 3 may already 

be acting as a barrier to large carnivore and ungulate movements patterns, and wildlife mortality from animal/vehicle 

collisions on Highway 3 is approximately 109 large mammal deaths reported annually for a 46km stretch within the 

Pass. Detailed wildlife movement information in the Pass is limited. 

To assist in understanding wildlife movement patterns along the highway to support decision-making for mitigation, a 

community based monitoring project was developed. The Alberta research institute Miistakis Institute of the Rockies 

created Road Watch in the Pass (RW), which allows local citizens to enter their wildlife observations along Highway 3 

through an interactive web-based mapping tool. Over 1220 observations have been collected in over sixteen months, 

including 11 species of ungulates and carnivores. 

This innovative approach to data collection would benefit from an analysis to determine whether the citizen reports 

are accurately representing visible wildlife activity along Highway 3. There are likely biases in citizen reports, based on 

unequal sampling effort involving location and frequency of travel. To identify and address these biases, this study 

compares spatial and temporal wildlife observation data from RW to a systematically gathered dataset using various 

statistical approaches. 

We began systematic data collection in May 2006 and will continue through May 2007 to examine spatial and temporal 

characteristics of large mammal species movement (bighorn sheep, elk, moose, mule deer, white-tailed deer and 

carnivore species) along the highway. A 46-km stretch of Highway 3 was driven as a strip transect. When we observed 

an animal along or crossing the highway, UTM location, species, date, time, and other data were recorded. Each hour 

within the 24-hour period were sampled equally across a full year, allowing temporal analysis. Similar data from RW 

reports provided by citizens during the same period were extracted from the RW database. From May 2006 to March 

2007, 395 transects were driven totaling over 395 hours of data collection and resulting in 681 wildlife observations. 

Spatial and temporal comparisons will be made between systematically gathered data and concurrent Road Watch 

data. Analysis will include examination of spatial association between the two data collection processes, comparison of 

spatial distribution, comparison of hourly and seasonal temporal distribution, effect of any biases on spatial or temporal 

distribution or species composition, and other analyses. 

The Road Watch program is an important use of citizen involvement in transportation science. After analysis of RW’s 

accuracy in representing visible wildlife activity in the Crowsnest Pass, this study will provide suggestions and stipulations 

to improve the scientific rigor of this unique citizen-science program. 


Introduction 

Roadkill and Landscape Scales on the Californian Central Coast 

Jordi Puig (+34 948 425600 ext. 6496, jpbaguer@unav.es), University of Navarra, Department of 

Zoology and Ecology, E-31080 Pamplona, Fax: +34 948 425658 Spain 

Joe R. McBride (jrm@nature.berkeley.edu), Michael G. Herrin (mikeherrin@berkeley.edu), and 

Trevor S. Arnold (trevarnold@yahoo.com), University of California, Berkeley, College of Natural 

Resources, Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management, 137 Mulford Hall # 

3114, Berkeley, CA 94720-3114 USA 

Abstract: Roadkill data have been analyzed in a 25.6 mile-long highway stretch in the Californian central coast, 

in search of distribution patterns. The highway stretch was broken up into 1/10 mile sections. Roadkill data were 

collected along the road, mapped, and analyzed together with surrounding landscape units and landscape features 

defined at three different scales, namely micro-, meso-, and macro-landscape scales. 

Landscape and roadkill data were arranged in such a way as to allow numerous comparisons between them at each 

scale. Most analyses were done by analyzing the line of best fit in X-Y plots. Linear and logarithmic comparisons were 

made, and t-scores (

y the coastline, including scattered coyote brush (Baccharis pilularis), lupine (Lupinus albifrons), and poison oak 

(Toxicodendron diversilobum). Each one of the 256 sections was labelled as belonging to one of these units. 

Selected meso-landscape features were (1) ridges, (2) ponds, (3) windbreaks, (4) groves, (5) ephemeral streams, and 

(6) perennial streams. They were identified and located on USGS maps. The distance between each of the 256 sections 

and each of the nearest meso-landscape features was measured to compare the roadkill location data. Ponds 

(figure 3), ephemeral and perennial channels were included in the study because of their potential to provide a source 

of food, water and shelter. Ephemeral and perennial channels were also studied because of their potential use as 

wildlife corridors along with ridges. Groves and windbreaks (figure 7) were considered because of their potential to 

provide denning sites, travel shelter and a food source. 

Micro-landscape was defined as the area comprising fifteen feet from the border of the road surface to the land interior. 

Roughly, the entire road is lined on both sides by various types of fences. As they prevent cattle grazing, a peculiar 

micro-environment is created, wherein landscape features may differ from the immediate surroundings (figure 4). The 

micro-landscape typologies present within these spaces were: (1) groves (2) windbreaks, (3) driveway accesses, (4) 

shrubs and blackberry, (5) riparian environment, (6) channels, and (7) culverts. Channels, riparian vegetation, groves 

and windbreaks were taken into consideration again at this scale when they extend to the narrow strip next to the road. 

Each of the 256 sections of the road was characterized either as having or not having each one of these micro-landscape 

features. Channels were identified as any place where a perennial or ephemeral stream lacking shrubs and/or 

trees crossed the road. Driveway accesses were considered given their potential for being used as travel corridors, 

channeling animals to the main road, and also by their potential to attract scavengers looking for garbage. Areas 

containing shrubs and blackberry were considered because of their potential to provide shelter and a source of food. 

Culverts were considered given their potential to provide denning sites, crossing passages, and temporary shelters. 

Analysis and Findings 

The mapping of roadkills along the road did not revealed geographical clustering, the kind of evidence required to 

quickly prompt road managers to apply preventive and corrective measures. 

Data were subsequently analyzed with the JMPIN statistics program (Distributed by Duxbury Press). Data were arranged 

in such a way as to allow numerous comparisons between roadkills and landscape data. Most analyses were 

done by analyzing the line of best fit in X-Y plots. Linear and logarithmic comparisons were made utilizing the JMPIN 

program and t-scores (

The fact that we have never met two roadkills in the same place and time is not enough to deny a possible attraction 

mechanism for scavengers to and along the highway. In any case, roadkill data must be analyzed with the species’ 

behaviour in mind when inferences on populations are made from roadkill data. 

The deer carcasses found off the road in the tenth mile section 25.0 reminds us that the data collection method 

overlooks some roadkills. On the other hand, some aspects of landscape dynamics may be revealed by a geographical 

analysis at a larger scale, complementary to those revealed by the statistical analysis already conducted. Figure 

1 shows that the road runs across a topographic and vegetation gap in the coastal mountain range. Some riparian 

woodland remains across the gap, which is likely to support a richer wildlife activity than the grassland, as it provides 

shelter, food, and fresh water to wildlife. A particular riparian woodland leads directly southward towards the road (Figs. 

1, 5). Its intersection with the road marks the area where the carcasses have been found. So the streambed seems to 

be playing a corridor role, at a larger scale than the ones intended in this study. Fencing and wider underpasses should 

be targeted at this point to reduce the number of collisions, if findings are confirmed by future studies undertaken to 

prove this hypothesis. 

The absence of roadkill data at some points along the road might prove also enlightening in understanding wildlife 

dynamics across roads. 

Conclusions 

Trends in roadkill distribution along roads have been found at different scales. 

Roadkill distribution patterns related to landscape features have been identified through statistical analysis even 

where geographical cluster does not exist. 

The use of maps and geographic analysis to interpret the recorded data proves to be a necessary tool and it supplements 

the statistical analysis. 

Regarding the carcasses encountered off the road around the tenth of mile section 25.0, they underline the need to 

confirm the existence of landscape dynamics mechanisms for deer at larger scales than the ones proposed by this 

study from the outset. Moreover, if the high incidence of unrecorded roadkills in this spot is confirmed, it would require 

roadkill prevention efforts to be concentrated on this particular stretch of the road. 

Preliminary studies as the one conducted here are recommended to outline the topics that should be stressed in future 

research. They would enable the on-going design of future research to be adjusted accordingly. 

Biographical Sketches: Jordi Puig. Associate Professor on Environmental Impact Assessment in the University of Navarra (Pamplona, 

Spain) since 1996. He got his Science degree in 1990 (University of Navarra), and his PhD at the School of Forestry of the Polytechnic 

University, in Madrid (Spain). Visiting scholar in the UC Berkeley (2002-2003) and in the University of Manchester (2004), he has been 

doing research, among other topics, on roads and wildlife since 1998. 

Joe R. McBride. Assistant Professor. Department of Forestry. Iowa State University (1969-70). Assistant Professor, Associate Professor, 

Professor. Department of Forestry and Department of Landscape Architecture. University of California. (1970-present). 

Chair, Department of Forestry, University of California, (1986-89). 

Chair, Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, (1996-.). 

Consulting experience in the fields of vegetation analysis and management and urban forestry with federal, state, county, and city 

governmental agencies, private landscape and land use planning firms, citizen groups, and private land owners. International consulting 

experience in Ecuador, China, United Kingdom, and Australia. Registered Professional Forester in California. 

Michael G. Herrin. Graduate student. School of Landscape Architecture. UC Berkeley, USA. 

Trevor S. Arnold. Trevor Arnold moved to the United States from Australia to attend University of California, Berkeley. He graduated in 2002 

with a major in Conservation and Resource Studies and a minor in Forestry. After graduation Trevor worked as a research assistant under 

Joe McBride at UC Berkeley before becoming a resource manager for California State Parks. Trevor’s desire to protect wildlife through 

research and medicine has led him to University of California, Davis School of Veterinary Medicine where he is about to begin his fourth 

and final year. 

References 

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Clevenger, A.P., Chruszcz, B., Gunson, K.E., 2003. Spatial patterns and factors influencing small vertebrate fauna road-kill aggregations. 

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Manage. 62, 584-588. 

Groot-Bruinderink, G.W.T.A., Hazebroek, E., 1996. Ungulate traffic collisions in Europe. Conserv. Biol. 10, 1059-1067. 

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and Highways: Seeking Solutions to an Ecological and Socio-economic Dilemma. The Wildlife Society, pp. 7-20. 

Lovallo, M.J., Anderson, E.M., 1996. Bobcat movements and home ranges relative to roads in Wisconsin. Wildlife Soc. Bull. 24(1), 71-76. 

Rodríguez, A., Crema, G., Delibes, M., 1996. Use of non-wildlife passages across a high speed railway by terrestrial vertebrates. J. Appl. 

Ecol. 33, 1527-1540. 

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24, 276-283. 

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Analysis and Landscape Integration Assessment. Landsc. Urban. Plan., 58, 113-123. 

Figures 

Figure 1. Study area. The road under study (unbroken line) runs across a topographical gap. Woodland and scrub 

patches (drawn as dotted shapes) are almost absent across the gap as well. A particular scrub unit reaches the 

road at 25.0 tenth of mile, close to Bodega Bay. 

Figure 2. Low density suburban unit. 


Figure 3. Valley grassland unit, and one of the ponds to water cattle. 

Figure 4. Ridge grassland unit. See the narrow bushy strip between road and fence, defining a 

particular micro-landscape. 

Figure 5. Coastal scrub unit, and stream crossing underneath the road. Several deer carcasses were found off 

the road around this point, a possible pathway for deer and other wildlife. 


Figure 6. Coastal scrub next to the stream shown in Figure 4. The steepness of the slopes reinforce the possible 

pathway function of the stream, funneling wildlife towards it. 

Figure 7. Valley grassland unit and windbreaks 

Figure 8. Example of a large concrete culvert located within tenth mile section 25.0. Dimension are roughly 4 x 

20 x 25 ft. During dry seasons culvert are utilized as underpasses by animals, as indicated by deer and raccoon 

tracks. A large female deer carcass was located on the left side of the road’s shoulder (out of view). Another 

small deer carcass was discovered in the bush to the left. 


Abstract 

An Analytical Framework for Wildlife Crossing Policy in California 

Amy Pettler (916-651-8166, amy_pettler@dot.ca.gov), Senior Endangered Species Coordinator and 

Wildlife Biologist, and 

Gregg Erickson (916-654-6296, gregg_erickson@dot.ca.gov), Division of Environmental Analysis, 

California Department of Transportation, 1120 N Street, MS 27, Sacramento, CA 94274 USA 

James Quinn (530-752-8027, jfquinn@ucdavis.edu), 

Robert Meese (rjmeese@ucdavis.edu), and 

Fraser Shilling (fmshilling@ucdavis.edu), Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University 

of California, Davis, CA 95695 USA 

This abstract reports on the results of a California joint DOT-university project to develop database, modeling, and GIS 

tools and to publish an electronic manual and digital library to address animal-vehicle collision reduction and connectivity 

issues in the state. 

Despite the potentially large impacts of roads on wildlife movements and mortality, California has historically lacked 

standardized information tools to enable wildlife and transportation planners and managers to best identify and mitigate 

those impacts. These issues are being addressed by several California Department of Transportation research 

and development initiatives, including Animal Vehicle Collision Reduction and Connectivity Issues, Fish Passage, and 

Advanced Mitigation, much in collaboration with the University of California. Goals include addressing: 

• Developing Useful Metrics, Standardizing Data Collection Techniques and Data Analysis Models/Tools for 

Assessment 

• Improving Safety and Delivery in the Caltrans Planning and Project Development Process 

• Strategic Outreach and Engagement 

• Development of Guidance Documents and Support Tools for Analysis based on the developed Metrics, 

Standards, and models 

• Working at a program level to optimize and leverage funding opportunities for collision reduction and connectivity 

issues 

Elements of a new analytic framework to address this need include integrative GIS tools to identify, on both local 

and regional scales, locations of core wildlife populations, mapping of least-cost-path movement corridors to identify 

locations posing high risks of crossing mortality, a library of species-specific information on movement patterns and 

models, tools to develop more systematic documentation of road-related wildlife mortality, and a clearinghouse for 

evaluating structures, technologies and networking approaches to remotely detecting the presence of wildlife around 

transportation facilities, evaluating impacts, and mitigating the effects. Improved data from remote sensing and GIS 

clearinghouses, new methods and sensors for detecting animals and movement, emerging technologies for networking 

distributed and heterogeneous data, new data standards and models, and better integration with other information 

sources can all contribute to decreasing road impacts on animal populations and movements. Results of this project 

include a newly published California manual for managing wildlife crossing issues and GIS, database, and supporting 

digital library tools on-line at the Information Center for the Environment (http://ice.ucdavis.edu). 


Abstract 

Efficient Transportation Decision Public Web Site: Bridging the Gap Between 

Transportation Planning and the Public 

Ruth Roaza (850-574-3197, ruth_roaza@urscorp.com), Senior Project Manager, URS Corporation, 

1625 Summit Lake Drive, Tallahassee, FL 32317 USA 

The State of Florida has developed a new process for accomplishing transportation planning and project development 

for major capacity improvement projects. The goal of this process – the Efficient Transportation Decision Making 

(ETDM) Process - is to make transportation decisions more quickly without sacrificing the quality of the human 

and natural environments. The ETDM Process enables agencies and the public to provide early input to the Florida 

Department of Transportation (FDOT) and Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) about potential effects of 

proposed transportation projects. 

Early in the planning process, the public and District-wide Environmental Technical Advisory Teams (ETATs) review projects 

for potential environmental effects. The ETAT consists of government representatives with statutory authority for 

issuing permits or providing environmental consultation. When they are notified to review a project, the District or MPO 

Community Liaison Coordinators (CLCs) inform the public that the project information is available for their review on the 

ETDM Web site or through the MPO or FDOT District Office. Project information includes: project details, results of GIS 

analyses, and resource maps. Members of the public provide comments through normal public involvement channels 

(for example, workshops, correspondence, telephone communication, and emails). At the end of the 45-day review 

period, ETDM Coordinators summarize and respond to comments in a screening summary report, which is published 

on the ETDM Web site and available at the FDOT District Office. The project information, ETAT comments, and summary 

reports continue to be available as the project progresses through subsequent phases. Updates are posted when new 

phases begin. A history record of the project is available as well. During Project Development, Project Managers post 

technical studies, environmental documents, and project-specific Web sites as they are completed. People using the 

site may elect to sign up to receive email notifications to keep informed about project updates in their area of interest. 

One of the challenges in public involvement is providing access to information. The ETDM Web site is one means of 

providing that information in a timely manner. The Web site has been recently updated to comply with the American 

Disabilities Act (ADA) regulations. The new site was released on October 31, 2006. This interactive poster session 

provides an overview of the site. 

Biographical Sketch: Ruth Roaza is a senior project manager at URS with over 15 years of experience in the technical fields of geographic 

information systems (GIS) and database management. For the past 7 years, she has worked under contract with the Florida Department 

of Transportation to support development of Florida’s Efficient Transportation Decision Making (ETDM) Process. Originally, Ms. Roaza led 

the development of the Environmental Screening Tool (EST), an Internet application which supports the ETDM Process. Currently, she is the 

project manager of the ETDM consultant team. Prior to joining URS in 1998, Ms. Roaza managed the enterprise-wide GIS and Applications 

Development programs for the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP). Ms. Roaza received her bachelor’s degree in 

Computer Science and Religion/Philosophy from Muskingum College. She also completed two years of graduate studies in Cross Cultural 

Communication at Ohio University. 


Abstract 

Measuring Gene Flow Across the Trans-Canada Highway and Population-Level Benefits of Road 

Crossing Structures for Grizzly and Black Bears in Banff National Park, Alberta 

Michael A. Sawaya, Western Transportation Institute, Montana State University, P.O. Box 174250, 

Bozeman, MT 59717, USA. Email: mike.sawaya@pc.gc.ca. Phone: (403) 760-1371, 2410 

Westridge Drive, Bozeman, MT, 59715, USA. 

Anthony P. Clevenger, Western Transportation Institute, Montana State University, P.O. Box 174250, 

Bozeman, MT 59717, USA. Email: tony.clevenger@pc.gc.ca. Phone: (403) 760-1371, Mailing 

address: 138 Birch Avenue, Harvie Heights, Alberta, T1W 2W2, Canada. 

Steven T. Kalinowski, Ecology Department, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA. 

Email: skalinowski@montana.edu. Phone: (406) 994 3232, Mailing address: Ecology Dept. 

Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, 59717, USA. 

The section of the Trans-Canada Highway (TCH) that bisects Banff National Park, Alberta supports the highest volume 

of traffic of any road in the North American national park system and is recognized as an important stressor to the 

ecological integrity of the central Canadian Rockies. Wide-ranging carnivores, such as grizzly (Ursus arctos) and black 

bears (U. americanus), are particularly vulnerable to road mortality and habitat fragmentation caused by roads. In 

order to mitigate these negative impacts on wildlife, twenty-four crossing structures have been constructed across the 

TCH. Over a decade of intensive study of these wildlife crossings has shown they reduce mortality and maintain wildlife 

movements. Track pads have recorded both bear species crossing the TCH on 1389 occasions, but the number of 

different individuals using the crossings, their genders and the demographic and genetic benefits of the crossings for 

populations remain unknown. 

In 2004 and 2005, a pilot study was conducted at two of the crossing structures to evaluate the feasibility of using a 

barbed wire hair sampling system to determine the number of individual male and female grizzly and black bears passing 

through the crossings. Based on the results of that pilot study, a three-year research project was initiated in 2006 

to evaluate the conservation benefits of wildlife crossing structures for grizzly and black bear populations in the Bow 

Valley of Banff National Park. The hair sampling system was installed at 22 of 24 of the crossing structures to determine 

the total number of male and female bears using the crossings and the populations of grizzly and black bears 

in the Bow Valley surrounding the TCH were also sampled using a combination of hair snares and rub tree surveys. 

The genetic information derived from the hair samples will be used to: assess the effectiveness of different types of 

crossing structures, estimate the population sizes for both bear species in the Bow Valley, calculate the proportion of 

the population using the crossings and quantify the level of movement and gene flow across the TCH. 

This poster highlights our research objectives and presents some of the preliminary results from the 2006 field season. 

12 grizzly bears (7 males, 5 females) and 11 black bears (7 males, 4 females) were identified from the samples 

collected at the crossing structures and 40 black bears (16 males, 24 females) and sixty-three grizzlies (37 males, 26 

females) were identified from the samples collected from the hair snares and rub trees. These data will be analyzed 

using a combination of population viability analysis and landscape genetics approaches to assess the demographic 

and genetic benefits of wildlife crossings for bear populations in the Bow Valley. Wildlife crossings are gaining recognition 

as an effective method for reducing road-caused mortality and maintaining wildlife movement, but the conservation 

benefits of crossings for bears at the population-level has yet to be evaluated. 


Making Environmental Sustainability for Transportation Infrastructure a Reality: The Environmental 

Enhancement Fund in British Columbia 

Abstract 

Leonard Sielecki, Environmental Issues Analyst (250-356-2255, leonard.sielecki@gov.bc.ca), British 

Columbia Ministry of Transportation, PO Box 9850 STN PROV GOVT, 4B - 940 Blanshard Street, 

Victoria, BC V8W 9T5, Fax: 250-387-7735 CANADA 

The award winning Environmental Enhancement Fund developed by the British Columbia Ministry of Transportation 

demonstrates environmentally sustainable transportation projects can be achieved through innovative private and 

public partnerships. 

The award winning Environmental Enhancement Fund (EEF) was established by the British Columbia Ministry of 

Transportation (BCMoT) in 2004. The fund was conceived by the Ministry’s Executive to promote environmental 

stewardship in the Ministry and foster partnerships with outside agencies. 

EEF was initiated as a one year program in 2004, and extended in 2005. In 2006, as a result of its outstanding success 

and support from other government agencies and non-government organizations (NGO’s), the EFF was made a permanent 

program by BCMoT. The EEF supports BCMoT’s commitment to the British Columbia Government’s goal to lead the 

world in sustainable environmental management, with the best air and water quality, and the best fisheries management. 

The EEF is an innovative program that has helped BCMoT highway projects ensure: 

1. High benchmarks for environmental stewardship are set and achieved; 

2. Environmental Best Management Practices (BMP’s) are more results driven and performance based; 

3. Partnerships with provincial and federal agencies, First Nations and NGO’s are established to ensure environmental 

sensitive areas and habitats are protected and/or restored, and function on a sustainable basis; and 

4. Goodwill, trust and positive working relationships are established and sustained with provincial and federal 

agencies, First Nations, NGO’s, and private landowners. 

Working closely with other provincial and federal agencies, First Nations, NGO’s, including the Nature Trust, Ducks 

Unlimited, the Pacific Salmon Foundation, the Land Conservancy of British Columbia, and private landowners, BCMoT 

has been involved in over 100 EEF-supported projects throughout British Columbia. 

EEF projects fall under four general categories of on-ground and in-stream environmental projects that directly enhance, 

restore and/or protect fish and wildlife resources: 

1. Fish passage improvements and restoration at highway stream crossings through culvert retrofits and 

replacements, enabling salmon and trout to return to their former levels in previously accessible habitat. 

2. Strategic and timely acquisition of environmentally sensitive properties for conservation purposes and protection 

in perpetuity, with property owned and managed by non-Ministry agencies, NGO’s or other organizations. 

3. Fish and wildlife habitat enhancement works, in partnership with provincial and federal environmental 

agencies and NGO’s, to: construct salmon and trout rearing habitat and spawning channels; establish water 

storage to create wetlands or wetted habitat and to augment low summer streamflows; increase habitat 

complexing and daylighting; restore highway footprint impacts; and enhance riparian areas. 

4. Other fish and wildlife projects: including restoration of wild fish populations or wild fish transplants; and 

wildlife crash mitigation by relocating rare or endangered species, such as Roosevelt Elk, to more remote 

areas to establish new herds or enlarge existing ones. 

Many projects have significant spin-off benefits for water and/or air quality. The projects also provide a capital environmental 

return and are linked directly to the BCMoT’s highway infrastructure. 

Since it inception, the EFF has garnered numerous accolades and awards from Federal and Provincial agencies and 

high profile NGO’s. In 2005, Ducks Unlimited Canada awarded its most prestigious award, the Platinum Award, to 

BCMoT for environmental mitigation land donations associated with Ministry projects, such as the Vancouver Island 

Highway Project. Also in 2005, Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) presented industry awards to fourteen BCMoT 

staff involved with highway fish passage restoration projects in the Province’s northwest. In 2006, the EEF won the 

Transportation Association of Canada (TAC) Environmental Achievement Award. The TAC award, coveted by transportation 

agencies throughout Canada, provides national recognition of the importance and need of the transportation 

sector to continue protecting and enhancing the environment. 

The EEF consistently delivers high value, tangible environmental projects linked to the highway infrastructure, in a 

cost-effective manner through private and public partnerships that restore and conserve British Columbia’s natural 

resources. Given its success, the EEF model can be adopted by transportation agencies and municipalities to foster 

environmentally sustainable transportation projects. 


Introduction 

Wildlife Use of Open and Decommissioned Roads on the Clearwater National Forest, Idaho 

T. Adam Switalski (Phone: 406-543-9551, E-mail: adam@wildlandscpr.org), Wildlands CPR, P.O. Box 

7516, Missoula, MT 59807 

Len Broberg (Phone: 406-243-, E-mail: len.broberg@mso.umt.edu), Environmental Studies Program, 

Rankin Hall, The University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812-4320 

Anna Holden (E-mail: anna.holden@grizmail.umt.edu), Environmental Studies Program, Rankin Hall, 

The University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812-4320 

Abstract: The impacts of roads on wildlife are extensive and can be especially harmful on U.S. National Forest lands 

where ecosystems are relatively intact. Access allowed by wildland roads can increase poaching, over-hunting, and 

over-trapping. Roads also increase negative edge effects, cause fragmentation, and facilitate or hinder wildlife movement. 

Forest Service managers are removing some roads to mitigate these impacts on wildlife, but few studies have 

addressed the effectiveness of this strategy. 

In this study, we tested if wildlife were using decommissioned roads more than adjacent open roads. The study was 

conducted on the Clearwater National Forest in the Bitterroot Mountains of north-central Idaho where they have 

removed and revegetated more than 500 mi of roads. From May to October 2006 we monitored wildlife use on open 

and decommissioned roads using remotely-triggered cameras and baited track plates. Wildlife monitoring was part of 

a larger citizen monitoring program where a trained volunteer coordinator lead trips into the field each week to collect 

data on decommissioned roads. Using t-tests, we compared the number of detections and rates of detection between 

open and decommissioned roads. 

Remotely-triggered cameras detected mammals at a higher rate on decommissioned roads than open roads for all 

species. However, on track plates there were about the same number of detections on open and decommissioned 

roads. Overall, we could not statistically distinguish the rate of detection between open and closed roads for whitetailed 

deer, elk, moose, and coyotes. Black bear, however, had a significantly higher rate of detection on removed roads 

than open roads (p

elevations. The average annual maximum temperature is 56.1 o F and the average annual minimum temperature is 

29.4 o F (data from Western Regional Climate Center http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?idpowe). 

The tree canopy is dominated by Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western larch (Larix occidentalis), and 

Englemann spruce (Picea engelmannii). In riparian, corridors old growth western red cedar (Thuja plicata) and grand fir 

(Abies grandis) are the dominant tree species. Important understory shrubs include Sitka alder (Alnus sinuata), Rocky 

Mountain maple (Acer glabrum), mountain ash (Sorbus scopulina), western thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), and blue 

huckleberry (Vaccinium globulare). 

Decommissioned roads were seeded with non-persistent non-native see mixes, and some level of native plant and 

shrub community has returned. On many of the sites, trees have also begun to recolonize the decommissioned 

roads. Additionally, some non-native invasive plants are present on decommissioned roads including spotted knapweed 

(Cntaurea maculosa), St. Johnswort (hypericum perforatum), sulfur cinquefoil (Ptentilla recta), and oxeye daisy 

(Crysanthemum leucanthemum). 

A complete suite of native wildlife species still thrive in the area, except grizzly bears. Most roads receive little human 

use, except during the hunting season. Archery season for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and elk began on 

August 10 and lasted the remainder of the study. Moose (Alces alces) were hunted with rifles from August 30 until the 

end of the study. Black bear hunting with dogs took place for most of the study and was allowed April 1 until June 30 

and then again from August 30 until the end of the study. Coyotes (Canis latrans) were managed as predatory wildlife 

and could be shot on sight. Trapping was generally not allowed during our study. 

Methods 

From May to October 2006 we monitored wildlife use on open and decommissioned roads using remotely-triggered 

cameras and baited track plates. Wildlife monitoring was part of a larger citizen monitoring program where a trained 

volunteer coordinator lead trips into the field each week to collect data on decommissioned roads. 

Using GIS, we calculated the “local road density” of each site for an average female black bear home range (12 km 2 ; 

Reynolds and Beecham 1980) around each study site (table 1). We also recorded the amount of human use on open 

and decommissioned roads, aspect, and the amount of cover on decommissioned roads (table 2). 

Table 1: Study site characteristics 

* Calculated using an average female black bear home range (12km 2 ; Reynolds and Beecham 1980) buffer; ground truthing 

will be necessary because not all decommissioned roads have been removed from the Forest Service inventory 

Table 2: Study site characteristics for open and decommissioned roads 

Sampling Design 

Our study design consisted of three paired monitoring sites on open and decommissioned roads. One set of a remotelytriggered 

camera and a track plate were placed on an open road near the beginning of the decommissioned road. A 

second camera and track plate was set 0.3 mi back on the decommissioned road. A third camera was placed 1 mi 

back on the decommissioned road to test if increased security (i.e., increased distance from an open road) influenced 

wildlife use. In order to minimize the amount of variability, sites were located at similar elevation and between 6 and 7 

mi from a paved road (table 1). 

Sampling Methods 

StealthCam © remotely-triggered film and digital cameras were used to record large mammal use. Remotely-triggered 

cameras have been used successfully for many years to detect wildlife and have been commercially available since 

the early 1990s (e.g., Kucera and Barret 1993). They contain a passive infrared sensor which triggers the camera 

using heat and motion. Cameras were mounted on trees adjacent to open and decommissioned roads. On decommissioned 

roads, cameras were next to existing wildlife trails on the former location of the road prism. Camera stations 


automatically photograph animals that interrupt the infrared “trip” beam. At night, a visible flash allowed animals to 

be identified. Cameras were programmed to take three consecutive photos with a 60-second delay between triggers. 

The camera tagged each photo with the date on each photo. Cameras were checked once a week to ensure they were 

functioning properly. 

Track plates were used to record small and medium size mammals. We employed similar tracking methods as developed 

by Fowler and Golightly (1994). Track plates consisted of a 24 in x 36 in piece of sheet metal covered by an 

aluminum roof. In the center of the track plate, a 12 in x 18 in piece of white contact paper was placed sticky side up 

and affixed with double-sided tape. The remainder of the track plate was covered with a tracking medium consisting of 

Sight Black © . The track plate was baited with a small can of cat food. Each week, the contact paper with tracks was 

removed and kept as a permanent record. 

Statistical Analysis 

For analysis, the total number of detections on open and decommissioned roads from remotely-triggered cameras and 

track plates were summarized. For remotely-triggered cameras, each trigger was counted as an individual unless it 

was apparent that the same animal was repeatedly triggering the camera. We had different levels of sampling effort 

because of camera malfunctions, stolen cameras, and to account for an additional camera on decommissioned roads. 

In order to accommodate for this disparity of effort, we calculated the rate of detection for each species on open and 

decommissioned roads dividing the number of individuals of a species by the number of days of sampling (fig. 1). We 

conducted t-tests to identify if there was a significant difference in the means of the rates of detection between open 

and decommissioned roads (Zar 1999). 

For track plates, there was generally the same amount of sampling effort on each site, so we used raw data for analysis. 

Multiple tracks of the same species during one sampling period were counted just once. For track plate data, we 

conducted t-tests to identify if there was a significant difference in the means of the amount of detections between 

open and decommissioned roads (Zar 1999). 

Results 

We recorded 11 mammalian species, 1 avian species, and people on open and decommissioned roads. We had a total 

of 505 camera days which recorded 154 wildlife detections and people (vehicles on open roads; hunters and Agency 

personnel on decommissioned roads; fig.1). Track plates were checked a total of 38 times resulting in 135 individual 

detections (fig. 2). 

The amount of use on open roads appeared to correspond with distance from the closest town. The closest site to 

a town (Pete King) had the most use. The amount of use on decommissioned roads appeared to be related to the 

degree of cover and/or year decommissioned. Shotgun Creek which did not have any human use had been decommissioned 

for almost 20 years and had dense spruce and alder covering much of the old roadbed. 

Overall, remotely-triggered cameras detected mammals at a higher rate on decommissioned roads than open roads 

for all species (fig. 1). Deer were the most frequently detected species on open and decommissioned roads (10% and 

22%, respectively). Coyotes were only detected on decommissioned roads. The one avian species detected, turkey, 

was only found on open roads. 

Figure 1. Average rate of detection (number of species/number of camera days) by remotely-triggered cameras 

on three open and decommissioned roads in the Powell Ranger District of the Clearwater National Forest (May 

2006 through October 2006). Error bars are ± one standard error. 


On track plates, there were about the same number of detections on open and decommissioned roads (66 and 

69, respectively; fig. 2). However, bear tracks were found more on decommissioned roads than open roads. Mice 

(Peromyscus spp.) and voles (Microtus spp.) were detected the most and were found on almost every track plate. We 

could not distinguish these species by their tracks, so they were grouped together. Other species detected on track 

plates included jumping mouse (Zapus princips) , chipmunk (Tamias spp.), red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus), 

short-tailed weasel (Mustela erminea), and American marten (Martes americana). 

Statistical analysis of camera data found that black bear were detected at a significantly higher rate on decommissioned 

roads than on open roads (p

Our track plates did not find any statistical difference between open and decommissioned roads. This could be due 

to the lack of structural complexity on recently decommissioned roads. Recently decommissioned roads resemble 

clearcuts or open roads, and it may take many years for small mammal habitat to return. Many small mammals will 

avoid and in some occasions not cross open roads (Wisdom et al. 2000). Recently, Semlisch et al. (2007) examined 

road effects on a woodland salamander (Plethodon metcalfi) in the southern Appalachian Mountains. In addition to 

finding lower salamander abundance adjacent to forest roads, they also found lower abundance on old (80 years), 

abandoned overgrown logging roads. Thus, the effects of road building may persist for generations. 

Conclusion and Next Steps 

While the sample size was small, this study is the first to demonstrate with statistical significance that road decommissioning 

is restoring habitat for bears. While more research is needed to fully understand the effects of road removal on 

bears, this is a first step. This summer, we will be increasing our sample size to include two more study sites. We also 

hope to increase our sampling effort by monitoring sites more than once a week. Checking on our cameras and track 

plates twice a week would increase the amount of data collected and reduce the amount of data lost due to camera 

malfunctions. By increasing our sample size, we hope to reduce variability and gain greater insight into the impacts of 

increased levels of security on wildlife use of decommissioned roads. 

Acknowledgements: We thank Rachel Kalenberg, Sam Rogers, Coleman Whitney, Denver Henderson, and Gini Porter for their help summarizing 

our data and conducting data analysis. 

Biographical Sketches: Adam Switalski has been Wildlands CPR’s Science Coordinator since 2002. Adam received his M.S. in wildlife 

ecology from Utah State University. He is a faculty affiliate at the University of Montana and sits on the Board of the Montana Chapter 

of the Society for Conservation Biology. Recently, Adam organized an Organized Oral Session on road removal research for the 2007 

ESA/SER conference in San Jose, CA. He currently is coordinating road removal research projects in Idaho and Montana. 

Len Broberg is Professor and Director of the Environmental Studies Program at the University of Montana. He received his J.D. at Wayne 

State University and a Ph.D. in Biology from the University of Oregon. Len teaches courses in conservation biology and environmental law 

and policy. He has also published work on transboundary conservation, land use planning, restoration, and wildlife ecology. 

Anna Holden is an Environmental Studies graduate student at the University of Montana. Previously she has worked with the University of 

Montana’s Wilderness Institute as a field instructor. Anna was also a recipient of the Doris Duke Conservation Fellowship. 

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Abstract 

An Overview of Recent Deer-Vehicle Collision Research in Arkansas 

Philip A. Tappe (Phone: 870-460-1352, Email: tappe@uamont.edu), 

Michael C. Farrell (Phone: 719-524-5297, Email: mike.farrell2@us.army.mil), and 

Donald I.M. Enderle (Phone: 770-270-7678, Email: denderle@photoscience.com), Arkansas Forest 

Resources Center and School of Forest Resources, University of Arkansas, Monticello, AR 71656. 

An expanding human population combined with a growing white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) population has 

resulted in an escalation of the number of deer-vehicle collisions in Arkansas. In response to this increase, we initiated 

research to help understand the scope of the problem and to investigate factors contributing to deer-vehicle collisions 

(DVCs) on Arkansas highways. 

In Arkansas, vehicle accident reports filed with the Arkansas State Police are currently the most extensive and reliable 

source of information on DVCs. We used these reports to gather data on DVCs over a 4-year period, 1998 – 2001. A 

total of 5,858 reports of DVCs were obtained and used to document mean vehicle-damage estimates, mean numbers 

of human injuries and deer deaths, mean numbers of collisions by time of day and month, and proportions of bucks 

and does involved in collisions by month. 

The same 5,858 DVC reports were used to conduct an examination of the influence of county-level factors on the 

density (no. /1000 km) of reported DVCs in Arkansas. Principal components (PCA) and regression analyses were 

used to evaluate the importance of county-level factors, such as human population densities/urbanization, landcover 

composition and arrangement, timber harvest levels, deer density indices, and highway densities and characteristics. 

Of the 5,858 DVC reports, 3,170 were spatially referenced to specific locations on highways, thus allowing for an 

evaluation of site-specific factors that may influence the locations of DVC occurrences in Arkansas. We used logistic 

regression analyses to evaluated the importance of landcover patterns, landcover characteristics, and number of 

stream/highway intersections within 400, 800, and 1200 m of collision sites; landcover crossing types and maximum 

topographic relief within 100 m of collision sites; and distances to nearest forest and to nearest water. Furthermore, 

we developed models for each physiographic region of the state, as well as a state-wide model, to identify high risk 

areas along Arkansas highways. 

Collisions were documented in all months, but we found most (>50%) occurred during October – December with a peak 

in November. The number of collisions was greatest between 5:30 p.m. and midnight with a smaller peak occurring 

between 5:00 - 7:00 a.m. Most deer (67.5%) were killed as a result of the collisions; 32.5% were injured and fled the 

collision site. We do not know the ultimate fate of these animals. Overall, 48.3% of the collisions were with bucks 

and 51.7% were with does. However, we found this proportion varied by month, ranging from 24.1% bucks and 75.9% 

does in June to 64.7% bucks and 35.3% does in November (Fig. 3). Annually, the human injury rate averaged 0.7%. 

Reported, estimated damage to individual vehicles averaged almost $2.7 million/year with a mean of $1,926 per collision. 

Based on an assumed reporting rate of approximately 17%, we estimated that Arkansas could potentially have up 

to 18,000 DVCs annually with a loss of almost $35 million in vehicle damage. 

We found that deer-vehicle accident occurrence in Arkansas counties was influenced more by roadway features, level of 

urbanization, and human population densities than by deer densities or landscape characteristics. PCA indicated two 

important components contributing to DVC densities in Arkansas counties. Component 1 represented a predominantly 

forested matrix with high edge density and contrast. Component 2 described an urban environment, with high road 

densities, human population densities, and average daily traffic counts. These 2 components were strongly related to 

DVCs (r 2 = 0.55, P < 0.001), with Component 2 explaining the most variation (71.4%). 

Landcover characteristics of DVC sites were useful in predicting site-specific probabilities of deer-vehicle collisions. 

Based on 31 site-specific variables, correct classification rates of predictive models (DVC sites vs. non-DVC sites) 

ranged from 62% - 70%. Five groups of factors strongly correlated with DVC locations were the: (1) presence and 

amount of water; (2) presence of a diverse association of land cover types; (3) amount and size of urban area; (4) 

amount and size of forested area; and (5) density of pastures and agricultural crops. 

Information derived from these studies can aid land managers, agencies, and policy makers in making informed decisions 

related to DVC mitigation. Additionally, our results provide a foundation for future research targeted at increasing 

our knowledge of interactions between wildlife and roads, and for further research into DVC mitigation strategies. 

Biographical Sketch: Philip A. Tappe is a professor of wildlife ecology and management, Associate Director of the Arkansas Forest 

Resources Center, University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture; and Associate Dean of the School of Forest Resources, University of 

Arkansas at Monticello. He received his B.S. and M.S. from Stephen F. Austin State University, and his Ph.D. from Clemson University. 


Abstract 

Bats and Bridges: Promoting Species Conservation Through Early Multi-Agency Planning 

Zak Toledo, Natural Resources Specialist (503-383-8265, zak.toledo@hdrinc.com), HDR Engineering, 

Inc., 1165 Union Street, NE, Suite 200, Salem, OR 97301, Fax: 503.587.2929 USA 

The purpose of this process is to promote species conservation and environmental enhancements for the OTIA III State 

Bridge Delivery Program. Bat habitat enhancements applied in the field throughout the state will be presented as an 

example of these efforts. 

The OTIA III State Bridge Delivery Program is part of the Oregon Department of Transportation’s 10-year, $3 billion 

Oregon Transportation Investment Act program. OTIA funds will repair or replace hundreds of bridges, pave and 

maintain city and county roads, improve and expand interchanges, add new capacity to Oregon’s highway system, and 

remove freight bottlenecks statewide. About 17 family-wage jobs are sustained for every $1 million spent on transportation 

construction in Oregon. Each year during the OTIA program, construction projects will sustain about 5,000 

family-wage jobs. 

Oregon Bridge Delivery Partners (OBDP) is a private-sector firm that has contracted with the Oregon Department of 

Transportation to manage the $1.3 billion state bridge program. OBDP, a joint venture formed by HDR Engineering Inc. 

and Fluor Enterprises Inc., will ensure quality projects at least cost and manage engineering, environmental, financial, 

safety, and other aspects of the state bridge program. 

OBDP has developed a framework to integrate the myriad of tools developed for the Program, including environmental 

performance standards, a joint batched-programmatic biological opinion, environmental and engineering baseline 

reports, and a web-based GIS. The purpose of this framework is to identify environmental concerns early in the project 

development process and communicate these concerns to design teams and regulatory agencies to promote environmental 

stewardship through impact avoidance and minimization. 

Innovative and creative use of technology has been a keystone to the framework. Environmental professionals input 

the relevant environmental data for a project in a comprehensive, on-line Pre-Construction Assessment (PCA). The data 

are used to identify project challenges (e.g., archaeological sites or wetlands within the project footprint) and compile 

electronic reports to the regulatory agencies. Environmental metrics, such as exempted T&E species take and wetland 

fill quantities, are tracked using the GIS database. One framework meets the needs of many stakeholders. 

Now with over two and a half years of execution, we have some great successes and lessons learned to share. The focus 

of this presentation will be on our species conservation and environmental enhancement identification process with bat 

habitat presented as a case study. Through early planning and coordination with our regulatory and resource agency 

partners, OBDP has integrated enhancement opportunities into project design. This enhancement request process has 

been developed to work with both of the dominant project delivery methods: design-bid-build and design-build. 

Through this process, regulatory and resource agency liaisons are sent a pre-field information packet so they can solicit 

input from their agency cohorts. A group field visit is then facilitated by an OBDP environmental coordinator. All comments 

collected from the field and the inquiries are uploaded into a tracking database. The enhancement requests are 

screened and classified for future actions, such as accept without change to scope, schedule, or budget or request additional 

scope, schedule, or budget. Those requests that are approved are integrated into the project contract, whereas 

those that denied are passed on to alternative groups, such as the ODOT region, maintenance district, or headquarters 

for future potential action. 

To date, all requests have been collected, entered into the database, and classified. This presentation will focus on the 

bat habitat elements integrated into the bridge design. More than a half-dozen bridges have had various bat habitat 

elements incorporated into their designs. None of the 15 bats in Oregon are listed as threatened or endangered 

these efforts are strictly enhancements with the hope of avoiding the need for future listing. Many bats, including the 

Townsends big-eared bat (Corynorhinus townsendii; endangered in Washington, sensitive in Oregon), have been known 

to use ODOT bridges for both day and night roosts as well as maternal colonies. We will present the process we have 

developed, the environmental performance standard that directs the designers, and the final product integrated into 

actual bridges. 


Abstract 

Riparian Restoration Plan for Stormwater Flow Control Management 

Carl Ward, Biology Program Manager (360-570-6706, wardc@wsdot.wa.gov), Washington State 

Department of Transportation, PO Box 47417, Olympia, WA 98504-7417, Fax: 360-570-6697 USA 

WSDOT is proposing riparian restoration as an alternative to the construction of large stormwater detention facilities for 

the State Route 167 Extension Project. 

WSDOT is proposing riparian restoration as an alternative to the construction of large stormwater detention facilities for 

the State Route 167 Extension Project. Buildings, roads, culverts, and other infrastructure will be removed and the land 

use will be converted back to a riparian forest. Within the 189 acres proposed for riparian restoration: approximately 

30 acres of existing impervious surface will be removed; 63 acres of existing wetlands will be restored; 19 stream 

crossings will be removed or improved; fill materials in the floodplain will be removed; 13,000 feet of stream channel 

will be protected; 9,350 feet of stream channel will be created; and the area will be replanted with native vegetation. 

The RRP is expected to prevent property damage caused from flooding by removing buildings, roads, and infrastructure 

from flood prone areas. Project implementation with the RRP is predicted to reduce future flooding impacts by 48 

percent compared to future conditions without the project. The RRP is expected to provide water quality treatment 

above and beyond any wet ponds or similar treatment facilities required under the Highway Runoff Manual by removing 

sediment and nutrients from surface runoff. 

The RRP is expected to result in considerable benefits to streams by reestablishing vegetated riparian buffers which increase 

shade to maintain cooler water temperatures. Establishing woody vegetation increases bank stability and helps 

form habitat for fish and wildlife, and improves water quality. The RRP will also reduce the amount of inlet structures 

and drainage piping required to maintain flow control, while at the same time increasing the channel migration area. 

As the future large woody debris recruitment forces channel migration, the abandoned stream channels will develop 

into wetlands and off-channel rearing habitats for fish. The RRP includes the restoration of upland habitat within the 

riparian buffers, and also provides wildlife habitat and migration corridors, and will provide improved wetland buffer 

functions. 

A Net Environmental Benefits Analysis was performed to quantitatively estimate and compare the relative ecological 

losses and gains between the use of conventional stormwater treatment ponds and the RRP approach. Project wide, 

the RRP approach was found to have 57 percent greater environmental benefit than the conventional treatment 

approach. 


Abstract 

A Summary of the 2006 Linking Conservation and Transportation Workshops 

Patricia White, Director, Habitat & Highways Campaign (202-772-0236, twhite@defenders.org), 

Defenders of Wildlife, 1130 Seventeenth Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036-4604, Fax: 202- 

682-1331 

To improve the linkage between conservation and transportation planning, emphasize the use of information, tools and 

methods that can be shared between the transportation, resource and regulatory agencies. 

Project Description 

In 2006, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), NatureServe and Defenders of Wildlife teamed up to organize 

three state-based workshops to improve linkages between conservation and transportation planning. Host states included 

the ICOET 2007 host state, Arkansas,* as well as Colorado and Arizona. Approximately 150 people participated 

in the workshops, from the executive to the field level. Each workshop emphasized the information, tools and methods 

that can be shared among transportation planners, wildlife and resource agencies and the regulators to better inform 

the planning process. In addition to improved inter-agency relationships and increased stewardship, integration can 

save money and time by streamlining transportation projects. Following presentations on transportation planning, 

conservation data sources and available technology, workshop participants discussed opportunities to integrate and 

collaboratively developed a work plan. 

Each workshop included: 

• an overview of transportation planning in their state, from local to state level and from long-range to project 

level 

• major conservation planning approaches in use, including natural heritage methods and State Wildlife Action 

Plans 

• software tools for comprehensive planning, including NatureServe VISTA, Community Viz and Quantm 

• discussion and strategy building 

Current or Anticipated Results 

This presentation will summarize the lessons learned from the workshop series, to include: 

• In order to gauge interest and importance of the subject matter, participants were asked for input prior to 

and following the workshop. For example, â€œWhat would be most helpful towards integrating conservation 

planning into the transportation planning process?â€ These responses will be compiled and categorized for 

consistencies across states and across disciplines. 

• Compiled and categorized lists of obstacles and opportunities for comprehensive planning, as identified by 

workshop participants 

• Finished work plans from each workshop, with progress updates as of May 2007 

• Recommendations for other states from workshop participants 

• *As Arkansas hosted both a workshop and ICOET, Arkansas workshop participants will be asked to join us for 

this session and answer questions on their own progress 

Recommendations for Future Research 

• Addressing identified obstacles to integrated planning 

• Continued monitoring of integrated planning efforts 

• Quantify conservation gains from integrated planning efforts 


Relating Vehicle-Wildlife Crash Rates to Roadway Improvements 

Rhonda Young (Phone: 307-766-2184, Email: rkyoung@uwyo.edu), Assistant Professor, Department 

of Civil and Architectural Engineering, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming 82071, Fax 307- 

766-2221 

Steven Vander Giessen (Phone: 307-766-3427, Email: zzyzx@uwyo.edu) and 

Chris Vokurka (Phone: 307-766-3427, Email: cvokurka@uwyo.edu), Graduate Research Assistants, 

Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming 

82071 

Abstract: Animal-Vehicle Crashes are a growing trend in America, and Wyoming in particular. The focus of this research 

effort is to determine the effect of road reconstruction on the number of animal-vehicle crashes using changes in 

the reported animal-vehicle crash rates. Using GIS tools, the entire Wyoming highway system was analyzed using 

10 years of reported crash data to determine both the frequency and crash rate of animal-vehicle crashes on each 

roadway segment. Seven reconstruction projects were selected for the study. Statistical analyses were performed with 

a focus on crash rates. The seven sections were analyzed as an aggregate data set, and it was determined that wild 

animal-vehicle crash rates experienced increases following reconstruction. During this same period, those crash rates 

not associated with animal-vehicle crashes, as well as the overall crash rate, were generally observed to decrease. An 

analysis of changes in roadway design attributes was performed, and the only attribute observed to have a statistically 

significant impact on the animal-vehicle crash rate was design speed. 

Background and Purpose 

There lack of information concerning the geometric design of roads and the effect on animal-vehicle crashes. There 

have been few attempts to correlate changes in road design, and these are primarily concerned with the addition 

of lanes of traffic to a highway. None of these have been concerned with the addition of lane and shoulder width or 

changes to the horizontal or vertical curvature of a roadway. The main objective of this research effort is to determine 

what features of a reconstructed highway may have an effect on the number of animal-vehicle crashes. 

Methods 

The research effort collected background data on seven reconstruction projects in the state of Wyoming including 

geometric features (lane widths, shoulder width, curve radii, superelevation, and bridge and culvert structures), traffic 

volumes, wildlife population estimates, speeds (current, before speeds in available, and estimated change in speeds) 

and crash records. The before and after crash frequencies and crash rates were calculated for each project. A crash 

rate that accounted for wildlife population number was also calculated. 

Three types of analyses were performed on the data set. A general analysis comparing before and crash after rates 

for the aggregated data set, a analysis on the aggregated dataset that considered project attributes such as design 

speed, lane width, shoulder width, and pavement width, and individual analyses of the project segments. The general 

analysis performed paired t-test to determine if there was a statistically significant change in crash rates for animalvehicle 

crashes, animal-vehicle crashes accounting for changes in animal populations, non-animal-vehicle crashes, and 

total crashes. 

For the aggregate analysis with project attribute variables, a single variable regression analysis was performed on each 

of the six project variables (animal population density, design speed, lane width, shoulder width, pavement width, and 

design speed with estimated speed reductions). A model that combined the significant attributes was then generated 

using stepwise regression. 

The last analysis that was performed was using the individual segments before and after crash rates assuming a 

Poisson distribution. Each of the seven projects were analyzed separately to determine if the crash rates has a 

significant increase or decrease in crash rates. 

Preliminary Results 

The general analysis comparing before and after crash rates of the aggregated data found that there was a statistically 

significant increase in the animal-vehicle crash rates at the 97% confidence level. When the animal population values 

were accounted for there was still a significant increase in the animal-vehicle crash rates at the 96% confidence level. 

The non-animal-vehicle crash rate was observed to decrease at the 95% confidence level. The total crash rate was 

observed to decrease at the 87% confidence level. 

The aggregate analysis with project attribute variables the important attributes were determined to be animal density 

of the herds and the design speed of the project. The final model that included the animal density and design speed 

variables has a R 2 value of 0.55, suggesting that significant variation remained unexplained. 

Due to small sample size issues the individual analyses were less conclusive than the aggregate analyses. All seven 

projects showed an increase in animal-vehicle crash rates, although only one of these increases was statistically 

significant. Five of the seven projects showed a decrease in non-animal-vehicle crash rates, although only three of 

these decreases were statistically significant. The total crash rate results were the most varied with four of the seven 


showing decreased crash rates. Two of these were statistically significant decreases. None of the increased rates were 

found to be statistically significant. 

Next Steps 

The next step to this research effort is to apply the empirical bayes methodology to the data set utilizing a rural twolane 

highway safety prediction algorithm. The use of this methodology will correct for regression-to-the-mean bias and 

improve the precision of the statistical analyses. 


Simulation-Optimization Framework to Support Sustainable Watershed Development by Mimicking the 

Pre-Development Flow Regime 

Abstract 

Dr. Emily Zechman, Research Assistant Professor (919-513-7920, emzechma@ncsu.edu), 

Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State 

University, Campus Box 7908, Raleigh, NC 27695-7908, Fax: 919-515-7908 USA 

A new approach is presented to achieve a more aggressive sustainability objective for designing transportation 

infrastructure and land use planning: to design BMPs to continuously mimic the natural flow regime and ensure that 

ecosystems downstream of development would not be adversely affected. 

As the land uses are changed for development of urban areas and transportation infrastructure, ecosystems in 

receiving water bodies are significantly affected by the changes in duration, peak, and minimum flows. Though Best 

Management Practices (BMPs) are typically designed to not exceed some peak flow during a design storm and perhaps 

maintain a minimum flow at low-flow periods, downstream conditions are altered, potentially harming ecosystems. 

A new approach is presented to achieve a more aggressive sustainability objective: to design BMPs to continuously 

mimic the natural flow regime and ensure that ecosystems downstream of development would not be adversely 

affected. This objective may not be achievable through the implementation of a single detention pond at a watershed 

outlet; a system of BMPs strategically placed throughout the watershed may be required. Several BMPs exist as options 

for treatment, such as detention/retention ponds, constructed wetland systems, infiltration systems (i.e., porous 

pavement), and vegetative filtrations systems. As each system chosen for implementation must be specified by a set of 

design decisions and placement location, an efficient mechanism of optimization is needed to handle the large array 

of decisions. In addition, a comprehensive modeling framework is needed to simulate a collection of BMPs simultaneously. 

A quantitative analysis framework is described and illustrated for coupling BMP and watershed models with 

optimization techniques.

Poster Sessions, pages 567-640 - ICOET

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