Vegetation Classification and Mapping Project Report - USGS

National Park Service 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Northeast Region 

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 

Vegetation Classification and Mapping at 

Colonial National Historical Park, Virginia 

Technical Report NPS/NER/NRTR—2008/129

USGS-NPS Vegetation Mapping Program 

Colonial National Historical Park 

ON THE COVER 

Upper left: Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh; photograph by Karen D. Patterson. Upper right: Tidal Bald Cypress Forest 

/ Woodland. Lower left: Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine – Oak Forest. Lower right: Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp 

Forest (Green Ash – Red Maple Type). Photographs by Gary P. Fleming. 

2



Vegetation Classification and Mapping at 

Colonial National Historical Park, Virginia 

Technical Report NPS/NER/NRTR—2008/129 

Karen D. Patterson 

Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation 

Division of Natural Heritage 

217 Governor Street, 3 rd Floor 

Richmond, VA 23219 

June 2008 





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The Northeast Region of the National Park Service (NPS) comprises national parks and related areas in 13 New 

England and mid-Atlantic states. The diversity of parks and their resources are reflected in their designations as 

national parks, seashores, historic sites, recreation 

areas, military parks, monuments and memorials, and rivers and 

trails. Biological, physical, and social science research results, natural resource inventory and monitoring data, 

scientific literature reviews, bibliographies, and proceedings of technical workshops and conferences related to these 

park units are disseminated through the NPS/NER Technical Report (NRTR) and Natural Resources Report (NRR) 

series. The reports are a continuation of series with previous acronyms of NPS/PHSO, NPS/MAR, NPS/BSO-RNR, 

and NPS/NERBOST. Individual parks may also disseminate information through their own report series. 

Natural Resources Reports are the designated medium for information on technologies and resource management 

methods; "how to" resource management papers; proceedings of resource management workshops or conferences; 

and natural resource program descriptions and resource action plans. 

Technical Reports are the designated medium for initially disseminating data and results of biological, physical, and 

social science research that addresses natural resource management issues; natural resource inventories and 

monitoring activities; scientific literature reviews; bibliographies; and peer-reviewed proceedings of technical 

workshops, conferences, or symposia. 

Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the 

National Park Service. 

This report was accomplished under Cooperative Agreement 400089027, Supplemental Agreement No. 5, with 

assistance from the NPS. The statements, findings, conclusions, recommendations, and data in this report are solely 

those of the author(s), and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park 

Service. 

Print copies of reports in these series, produced in limited quantity and only available as long as the supply lasts, or 

preferably, file copies on CD, may be obtained by sending a request to the address on the back cover. Print copies 

also may be requested from the NPS Technical Information Center (TIC), Denver Service Center, PO Box 25287, 

Denver, CO 80225-0287. A copy charge may be involved. To order from TIC, refer to document D-340 

This report may also be available as a downloadable portable document format file from the Internet at 

http://www.nps.gov/nero/science/. 

Please cite this publication as: 

Patterson, K. D. 2008. Vegetation Classification and Mapping at Colonial National Historical Park, Virginia. 

Technical Report NPS/NER/NRTR—2008/129. National Park Service. Philadelphia, PA. 

NPS D-340 June 2008 

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Table of Contents 

Figures ............................................................................................................................................ 7 

Tables ............................................................................................................................................. 8 

Appendixes .................................................................................................................................. 10 

Contacts and Contributors ............................................................................................................ 11 

Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................ 13 

Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 14 

Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 16 

Page 

General Background ........................................................................................................... 16 

Park-specific Information ................................................................................................... 19 

Project Area ................................................................................................................................. 21 

Location and Regional Setting ............................................................................................ 21 

Park Environmental Attributes ............................................................................................ 24 

Methods ........................................................................................................................................ 26 

Project Scoping and Planning ............................................................................................. 26 

Preliminary Data Collection and Review of Existing Information ..................................... 26 

Aerial Photography Acquisition and Processing ................................................................ 27 

Preliminary Photointerpretation .......................................................................................... 27 

Field Data Collection .......................................................................................................... 28 

Vegetation Classification and Characterization .................................................................. 32 

Vegetation Map Preparation ............................................................................................... 38 

Accuracy Assessment ......................................................................................................... 39 

Metadata Preparation .......................................................................................................... 47 

5



Table of Contents (continued) 

Results .......................................................................................................................................... 50 

Page 

Field Surveys ....................................................................................................................... 50 


Vegetation Community Descriptions and Map Classes ...................................................... 59 

Accuracy Assessment ......................................................................................................... 62 

Vegetation Map Production ................................................................................................ 67 

Project Deliverables ............................................................................................................ 67 

Discussion .................................................................................................................................... 75 


Vegetation Map Production ................................................................................................ 83 

Recommendations for Future Projects ................................................................................ 83 

Literature Cited ............................................................................................................................ 85 

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Figures 

Figure 1. Location of Colonial National Historical Park (COLO), 

Virginia. ....................................................................................................................................... 20 

Figure 2. Physiographic provinces of Virginia showing the location of 

Colonial National Historical Park. ............................................................................................... 22 

Figure 3. Location of Colonial National Historical Park (COLO), 

Virginia, on seven 1:24000 USGS topographic quadrangle maps. ............................................. 23 

Figure 4. Ground control points used to calculate horizontal positional 

accuracy of the Colonial National Historical Park leaf-on (fall) mosaics. .................................. 40 

Figure 5. Ground control points used to calculate horizontal positional 

accuracy of the Colonial National Historical Park leaf-off (spring) 

mosaics. ........................................................................................................................................ 41 

Figure 6. Locations of thematic accuracy assessment sampling points in 

the eastern half of Colonial National Historical Park. ................................................................. 45 

Figure 7. Locations of thematic accuracy assessment sampling points in 

the western half of Colonial National Historical Park. ................................................................ 46 

Figure 8. Locations of quantitative vegetation plots in the eastern half of 


Figure 9. Locations of quantitative vegetation plots in the western half of 


Figure 10. Vegetation and Anderson Level II classes for Colonial 

National Historical Park, Yorktown Battlefield north to Bellfield 

Plantation. .................................................................................................................................... 68 


National Historical Park, Poley Point to College Creek. ............................................................. 69 


National Historical Park, Jamestown Island, Swanns Point, and Green 

Spring. .......................................................................................................................................... 70 

Figure 13. Distribution of wetland vegetation-map classes in the eastern 

half of Colonial National Historical Park. ................................................................................... 72 

Figure 14. Distribution of wetland vegetation-map classes in the western 

half of Colonial National Historical Park. ................................................................................... 73 

Page 

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Tables 

Table 1. United States National Vegetation Classification System 

physiognomic-floristic hierarchy for terrestrial vegetation (from Grossman 

et al. 1998). .................................................................................................................................. 18 

Table 2. Cover-class scores used in field sampling and data analysis. ....................................... 29 

Table 3. Topographic / hydrologic environmental data recorded at each 

plot sample location. .................................................................................................................... 31 

Table 4. Ordinal values for topographic position and slope inclination 

used in data analysis. .................................................................................................................... 33 

Table 5. Environmental variables used in ordination joint plots. ............................................... 37 

Table 6. Recommended sample size for accuracy assessment points based 

on the stratified random sampling process (TNC and ESRI 1994c). ........................................... 42 

Table 7. Thematic accuracy assessment (AA) strategy for Colonial 

National Historical Park, showing number of polygons, mapped hectares, 

and number of AA points sampled for each vegetation-map class. ............................................. 44 

Table 8. Summary of key information for Colonial National Historical 

Park leaf-on (fall) mosaics. .......................................................................................................... 48 

Table 9. Summary of key information for Colonial National Historical 

Park leaf-off (spring) mosaics. ..................................................................................................... 49 

Table 10. Proportion of variance represented by each axis, based on 

coefficients of determination (r 2 ) between ordination distances and 

distances in the original n-dimensional space for the major vegetation 

groups at Colonial National Historical Park. ............................................................................... 53 

Table 11. Vegetation-map classes and corresponding USNVC 

associations or other classification for Colonial National Historical Park. ................................. 60 

Table 12. Contingency matrix and calculated errors for the thematic 

accuracy assessment of the original vegetation map for Colonial National 

Historical Park. ............................................................................................................................ 64 

Page 

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Tables (continued) 

Table 13. Contingency matrix and calculated errors for the thematic 

accuracy assessment of the final edited vegetation map for Colonial 

National Historical Park. .............................................................................................................. 65 

Table 14. Number of polygons, total mapped hectares (acres), and number 

of quantitative plots sampled for 40 vegetation-map classes at Colonial 

National Historical Park. .............................................................................................................. 71 

Table 15. Summary of products resulting from the classification and 

mapping of vegetation at Colonial National Historical Park. ...................................................... 74 

Page 

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Appendixes 

Appendix A. Quantitative vegetation plot sampling form. ......................................................... 92 

Appendix B. Accuracy assessment data form for the vegetation map of 


Appendix C. Vascular plants observed in quantitative vegetation plots and 

accuracy assessment observation points in Colonial National Historical 

Park during 2003–2005. ............................................................................................................... 99 

Appendix D. Distribution of vegetation classes, derived from the analysis 

of regional quantitative plot data, across seven national parks in Virginia. .............................. 108 

Appendix E. Definitions of global and subnational (state) conservation 

ranks. .......................................................................................................................................... 111 

Appendix F. Environmental variable averages for associations derived 

from the analysis of regional quantitative plot data. .................................................................. 116 

Appendix G. Cluster dendrograms, ordination scatterplots, and joint plots 

resulting from quantitative analysis of regional plot data for 11 major 

vegetation groups present at Colonial National Historical Park. ............................................... 121 

Appendix H. Compositional summary statistics for vegetation 

associations within Colonial National Historical Park derived from the 

analysis of regional quantitative plot data. ................................................................................ 152 

Appendix I. Local and global descriptions of vegetation associations and 

other vegetation-map classes for Colonial National Historical Park. ........................................ 175 

Appendix J. Field definitions for local and global descriptions of 

vegetation assocations and other map classes. ........................................................................... 348 

Appendix K. Key to the vegetation classes at Colonial National Historical 

Park. ........................................................................................................................................... 360 

Page 

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Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation 

Division of Natural Heritage 

Governor Street, 3rd Floor 

Richmond, VA 23219 

www.dcr.virginia.gov/dnh/index.html 

Karen D. Patterson 

Vegetation Ecologist, Project Manager 

(804) 786-5990 

karen.patterson@dcr.virginia.gov 

J. Christopher Ludwig 

Chief Biologist, Inventory Manager 

(804) 371-6206 

chris.ludwig@dcr.virginia.gov 

Contacts and Contributors 

Contributors: Philip Coulling, Gary P. Fleming, Barbara Gregory, Kristin Taverna, John Townsend, Nancy 

VanAlstine, Joe Weber. 

Cente r for Earth Observation 

North Carolina State University 

5112 Jordan Hall, Box 

7106 

Raleigh, NC 27695 

http://www.ceo.ncsu.edu/ 

Hugh A. Devine 

Associate Director / Professor 

(919) 515-3682 

hugh_devine@ncsu.edu 

Contributors: Bill Millinor, Beth Eastman. 

11



1101 Wilson Boulevard 

15th Floor 

Arlington, VA 22209 

www.natureserve.org 

Lesley Sneddon 

Senior Regional Ecologist 

(617) 542-1908 x245 

lesley_sneddon@natureserve.org 

Boston Office: 

11 Avenue de Lafayette 

5th Floor 

Boston, MA 02111 


Northeast Region (NER) 

www.nps.gov/nero/science/ 

NER Natural Resources Stewardship and Science 

John F. Karish 

Chief Scientist 

(814) 865-7974 

John_Karish@nps.gov 

Beth Johnson 

Research Biologist 

(401) 874-7060 

Beth_Johnson@nps.gov 


Tom C. Nash 

Chief Resource Manager 

(757) 898-2425 

Tom_C_Nash@nps.gov 

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Acknowledgments 

This project was completed with help and support from many individuals from many 

organizations. Chuck Rafkind, the former Natural Resource Manager at Colonial National 

Historical Park, provided on-site logistical assistance and expertise on park resources. Many 

former and current Virginia Division of Natural Heritage employees conducted or assisted me 

with fieldwork for this project, including Dean Walton, Joe Weber, Philip Coulling, Gary 

Fleming, Kristin Taverna, Mark Hall, Nancy VanAlstine, Kathleen McCoy, and Rhonda Houser. 

Donna Ware and Leah McDonald volunteered their time to assist with fieldwork. Jim Drake and 

Rickie White, both of NatureServe, provided advice on National Vegetation Mapping Program 

protocols and standards and a sounding board for ideas on mapping and accuracy assessment 

procedures. Greg Podniesinski and Stephanie Perles both provided advice on accuracy 

assessment procedures and analysis. Joe Weber provided GIS technical assistance in developing 

and implementing the accuracy assessment sampling design. He also served as johnboat captain 

during fieldwork in tidal marshes. My colleagues Gary Fleming, Kristin Taverna, and Philip 

Coulling were responsible for much of the data preparation and analysis of the regional dataset. 

John Townsend and Gary Fleming provided assistance with plant identification. Barbie Gregory 

helped in making edits to the final vegetation map and figures for the report. Mary Russo and 

Kristin Snow of NatureServe provided valuable feedback and assistance with report formats, and 

Lesley Sneddon wrote the first draft of the vegetation key and assisted with crosswalking 

problematic map classes to the USNVC. Kristina Callahan, of the National Park Service 

Mid-Atlantic Inventory and Monitoring Network, and our colleague Kirsten Hazler helped us 

wade through the wilderness of metadata creation. My colleague Kristin Taverna was a critical 

partner in this project and helped with every step, providing excellent ideas and solutions 

throughout the project. John Karish and Beth Johnson of the National Park Service, Northeast 

Region, provided funding and contractual oversight for all cooperators in this project. 

This project would not have been possible without funding from the National Park Service, 

Northeast Region. 

A large thank you to all involved, both those listed and those unacknowledged. 

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Summary 

Accurate and up-to-date vegetation maps are recognized by the National Park Service (NPS) 

Inventory and Monitoring Program as one of twelve basic data sets for every national park with 

significant natural resources. The National Park Service (NPS) and the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) have put forth standards and protocols for classification and mapping of vegetation 

communities on NPS lands. The USGS-NPS Vegetation Mapping Program recognizes the 

United States National Vegetation Classification (USNVC) as the standard vegetation 

classification to be used in these mapping projects. 

Vegetation data collected from seven national parks in Virginia were combined with over 2,000 

existing plot samples from throughout the Mid-Atlantic Piedmont and Coastal Plain and used to 

refine the USNVC for the mid-Atlantic region. This classification was used to map and describe 

the vegetation at the seven national parks in Virginia. 

This report documents the classification and mapping of vegetation at Colonial National 

Historical Park. Forty map classes representing 31 USNVC associations, seven nonstandard, 

park-specific vegetation classes, and seven Anderson Level II land-use categories were used to 

map the 3,452-ha (8,529-ac) park. Vegetation map classes were determined through extensive 

field reconnaissance, data collection, and analysis. Leaf-off aerial photography from 2002 

served as the base map, and field sampling was conducted from 2003–2005. Spatial data were 

digitized onscreen over digital orthophoto mosaics created from scanned color infrared, stereo 

pair 1:6,000 scale aerial photography using a 0.5 hectare minimum mapping unit. 

The vegetation map for Colonial National Historical Park covers 3498 ha (8644 ac) in and 

around the park. Transitional vegetation covers 37.4% of the land in the park (1,308.4 ha 

[3,233.0 ac]). Cultural map classes cover 19.3% (676.6 ha [1671.9 ac]) of the park and include 

the Anderson land-use categories and other man-made or maintained areas in the park. Tidal 

wetlands account for approximately 16.3% (568.5 ha [1404.7 ac]) of the park, and nontidal 

wetlands cover 4.9% (171.9 ha [424.7 ac]). Open water accounts for 2% of the area on the 

vegetation map. The remaining 20.1% (702.5 ha [1,736.0 ac]) of the park land is mapped as later 

successional, upland forests. 

A vegetation map of Colonial National Historical Park was created following the USGS-NPS 

Vegetation Mapping Program protocols. Vegetation map classes were crosswalked to the 

Natural Communities of Virginia and to the USNVC in order to provide a regional and global 

context for the park’s vegetation. One hundred and eighty-three randomly selected accuracy 

assessment sampling points were collected throughout the park and used to assess the thematic 

accuracy of the map. The Kappa Index for the final vegetation map was 83.8 ± 4.7%, with an 

overall accuracy of 84.7%. 

A field key to the vegetation classes, and detailed descriptions for map classes, or associations 

within a map class, were developed to assist with field recognition and classification. Additional 

products associated with this project include leaf-on and leaf-off orthophoto mosaics, a database 

of vegetation plot data and accuracy assessment data, digital photos of vegetation associations, 

14



and spatial data files for the vegetation map, plot sample points, and accuracy assessment sample 

points with associated Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC)-compliant metadata. 

Products for Colonial National Historical Park and similar national park vegetation mapping 

projects can be accessed at the USGS-NPS Vegetation Mapping Program website: 

http://biology.usgs.gov/npsveg/. 

Keywords: vegetation association, vegetation classification, vegetation mapping, Colonial 

National Historical Park. 

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General Background 

Introduction 

Effective management of natural resources in our national parks depends on park managers 

having access to comprehensive, scientifically credible information on species and habitats found 

in their parks. Accurate and up-to-date vegetation maps can form the foundation for resource 

management activities in the national parks and are recognized by the National Park Service 

(NPS) Inventory and Monitoring Program as one of twelve basic data sets for every park with 

significant natural resources (NPS 2003). Activities as diverse as park planning, fire 

management, wildlife research, habitat conservation/restoration, and visitor interpretation all can 

be informed by current maps of vegetation distribution. Additionally, a vegetation map 

attributed to a standard, nationally used classification system provides a way to assess how an 

individual park’s biodiversity fits into the context of the entire region. 

Since the early 1990’s, the National Park Service and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) have 

worked cooperatively to classify, describe, and map vegetation communities in more than 250 

national parks across the United States. At its inception, the USGS-NPS Vegetation Mapping 

Program (USGS-NPS VMP) put forth standards and protocols for classification and mapping of 

vegetation communities on NPS lands. These standards are outlined in four documents written 

by The Nature Conservancy and Environmental Systems Research Institute (TNC and ESRI 

1994a, b, c, d) and available at http://biology.usgs.gov/npsveg/standards.html. 

Products produced as part of the USGS-NPS VMP must meet Federal Geographic Data 

Committee (FGDC) standards for vegetation classification and metadata, and national standards 

for spatial accuracy and data transfer. Standard spatial data products include aerial photography, 

map classification, a spatial database of vegetation communities, hardcopy maps of vegetation 

communities, metadata for spatial databases, and a complete accuracy assessment of the 

vegetation map. Vegetation information includes vegetation classification, dichotomous field 

key of vegetation classes, formal description of each vegetation class, ground photos of 

vegetation classes, and field data in database format. Mapping standards include a minimum 

mapping unit of 0.5 hectares (ha) and classification accuracy of 80% for each map class. The 

spatial databases are required to have a horizontal positional accuracy that meets National Map 

Accuracy Standards at the 1:24,000 scale. This means that each well-defined object in the 

spatial database will be within 1/50 of an inch of its actual location on the map or 12.2 m (40 ft) 

on the ground. 

The FGDC standard for vegetation classification is the United States National Vegetation 

Classification (USNVC). Over the past twenty years, the USNVC has been developed and 

implemented by The Nature Conservancy (TNC), the network of Natural Heritage Programs, and 

more recently, NatureServe. The USNVC is a subset of the larger International Vegetation 

Classification (IVC). In North America, the IVC consists of the U.S. National Vegetation 

Classification (USNVC) and the Canadian National Vegetation Classification (CNVC). The 

IVC has also been developed for the Caribbean region. Further developments are under way 

through various Latin American projects. 

16



The USNVC is currently maintained and updated by NatureServe. Additional support has come 

from federal agencies, the FGDC, and the Ecological Society of America. Refinements to the 

classification occur in the process of application, leading to ongoing proposed revisions that are 

reviewed both locally and nationally. A two volume publication (Grossman et al. 1998) 

presenting the standardized classification, and providing a thorough introduction to the 

classification, its structure, and the list of vegetation types found across the United States as of 

April 1997 can be found on the Internet at: http://www.NatureServe.org/publications/library.jsp. 

Volume II of this publication (the classification listing) has been superceded by the online 

database server, NatureServe Explorer®, http://www.NatureServe.org/explorer 1 , which provides 

regular updates to ecological communities in the United States and Canada. 

The USNVC is a hierarchical system that classifies vegetation using physiognomic (structural) 

features at the highest levels of the hierarchy and floristic features at the lower levels. The 

physiognomic units have a broad geographic perspective and the floristic units have local and 

site-specific perspectives (The Nature Conservancy and Environmental Systems Research 

Institute 1994a; Grossman et al. 1998). The USNVC includes most existing vegetation, whether 

natural or cultural, but attention is focused on natural vegetation types. Natural vegetation, as 

defined in The Nature Conservancy and Environmental Systems Research Institute (1994a), 

includes types that “occur spontaneously without regular management, maintenance, or planting 

and have a strong component of native species”. Cultural vegetation includes planted/cultivated 

vegetation types such as orchards, pastures, forestry plantations, and vineyards. 

The physiognomic-floristic classification includes all upland terrestrial vegetation and all 

wetland vegetation with rooted vascular plants. The hierarchy has five physiognomic levels and 

two floristic levels (Table 1). The basic unit of the physiognomic portion of the classification is 

the formation, a type defined by dominance of a given growth form in the uppermost stratum and 

characteristics of the environment (e.g., cold-deciduous alluvial forests). The physiognomic 

portion of the classification is based upon the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and 

Cultural Organization world physiognomic classification of vegetation, which was modified to 

provide greater consistency at all hierarchical levels and to include additional types (UNESCO 

1973). 

The floristic levels include alliances and associations. The alliance is a physiognomically 

uniform group of plant associations that share dominant or diagnostic species, usually found in 

the uppermost strata of the vegetation. The association is the finest level of the USNVC. An 

association is defined as a plant community type that is relatively homogeneous in composition 

and structure and occurs in a uniform habitat. For example, Mid-Atlantic Mesic Mixed 

Hardwood Forest (Fagus grandifolia - Quercus (alba, rubra) - Liriodendron tulipifera / (Ilex 

opaca var. opaca) / Polystichum acrostichoides Forest) is a common forest type on well drained, 

acidic midslopes in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain of Virginia. Associations are also assigned 

global rarity ranks that indicate their conservation status and relative risk of extirpation 

(Grossman et al. 1998). Associations from the USNVC are cross-referenced to communities in 

1 As of this writing, cultural, early successional / ruderal, and exotic (i.e. nonnative plot species) 

dominated vegetation units defined in the USNVC are not served on NatureServe Explorer. Additional 

information on these types can be obtained from a NatureServe regional or national vegetation ecologist. 

17



Table 1. United States National Vegetation Classification System physiognomic-floristic 

hierarchy for terrestrial vegetation (from Grossman et al. 1998). 

Level Primary Basis For Classification Example 

Class Growth form and structure of vegetation Forest 

Subclass Growth form characteristics (e.g., leaf 

phenology) 

Deciduous forest 

Group Leaf types, corresponding to climate Cold-deciduous forest 

Subgroup Relative human impact (natural/seminatural 

or cultural) 

Natural/semi-natural 

Formation Additional physiognomic and 

Lowland or submontane cold-deciduous 

environmental factors, including 

hydrology 

forest 

Alliance Dominant/diagnostic species of uppermost White Oak - (Northern Red Oak, Hickory 

or dominant stratum species) Forest Alliance 

Association Additional dominant/diagnostic species Northern Red Oak / Umbrella Magnolia - 

from any strata Eastern Redbud / Black Cohosh - 

Heartleaf Foamflower Forest 

state-specific vegetation classifications such as the Natural Communities of Virginia (Fleming et 

al. 2006), as well as to other regional and national classification systems. 

In 2001, the Northeast Region of NPS contracted separately with the Virginia Department of 

Conservation and Recreation, Division of Natural Heritage (VADNH), NatureServe, and North 

Carolina State University’s Center for Earth Observation (NCSU-CEO) to apply the USGS-NPS 

VMP standards to the vegetation in seven NPS units in Virginia. These parks are within two 

NPS Inventory and Monitoring networks: the Mid-Atlantic Network and the Northeast Coastal 

and Barrier Network. 

The goal of the study was to accurately map and classify, at least to the alliance level of the 

USNVC, the vegetation in Appomattox Court House National Historical Park, Booker T. 

Washington National Monument, Colonial National Historical Park, Fredericksburg and 

Spotsylvania National Military Park, George Washington Birthplace National Monument, 

Petersburg National Battlefield, and Richmond National Battlefield Park. The classification used 

to map these parks was developed regionally, using quantitative data that was collected from all 

seven parks and combined with existing data from throughout the Mid-Atlantic Piedmont and 

Coastal Plain. 

The goal of the mapping effort at Colonial National Historical Park was to produce an up-to-date 

digital geospatial vegetation database for the park and to provide a plant species list, a 

dichotomous key to the vegetation, and descriptions of the vegetation communities in the park. 

Baseline information on plant community composition and rarity is critical to developing desired 

conditions and park management goals relating to native plant communities, nonnative plant and 

insect species, and effects of deer browse and other disturbances. Identification and description 

of plant communities also provide habitat information important to understanding associated 

18



organisms, including animals, protozoa, bacteria, and fungi. A vegetation map can also allow 

inferences about the location and abundance of species that are characteristic of each community. 

This report also describes the park’s vegetation in the context of a national and regional 

vegetation classification, the USNVC. Having the park’s vegetation mapped and attributed to 

this standard will facilitate the comparison of vegetation types among other NPS units in the 

region and throughout the United States. 

The success of this study depended on cooperative efforts of several government and private 

entities. VADNH and NatureServe worked cooperatively to develop the vegetation 

classification, the vegetation descriptions, and field keys to the vegetation classes, and to ensure 

that the vegetation units were properly crosswalked to the USNVC. NCSU-CEO produced the 

photo mosaics, assessed their positional accuracy, and developed preliminary vegetation maps. 

VADNH took lead responsibility for field validation of the preliminary maps, editing the 

vegetation maps and labeling features with USNVC units, vegetation data collection and 

analysis, thematic accuracy assessment, and writing the final reports. The Northeast Region of 

NPS funded the project and provided technical specifications and guidance. 

Park-specific Information 

Colonial National Historical Park is located in eastern Virginia, between the James and York 

rivers, 72 km (45 mi) southeast of the City of Richmond. The 3452 ha (8529 ac) park is spread 

out over three counties and the City of Williamsburg (Figure 1). Established in 1930, Colonial 

National Historical Park preserves the historic resources of Yorktown Battlefield, scene of the 

culminating battle of the American Revolution in 1781, and Jamestown Island, the site of the 

first permanent English settlement in North America. The Colonial Parkway, a 24 mile scenic 

road, links Yorktown Battlefield with Jamestown Island, passing through the City of 

Williamsburg. Along the Colonial Parkway are park holdings such as picnic areas (many have 

been closed to visitor use) and overlook sites. In addition, the park maintains two land holdings 

not directly connected to the Colonial Parkway. Green Springs is about 4.6 km (3 mi) northwest 

of Jamestown Island in James City County. Swanns Point is located across the James River 

about 2.4 km (1.5 mi) southwest of Jamestown Island in Surry County. Colonial National 

Historical Park provides a resource for interpretation of history from pre-colonial settlement 

through the American Civil War, as well as numerous opportunities for outdoor recreation. In 

2007 over 3.3 million people visited Colonial National Historical Park. 

19



Figure 1. Location of Colonial National Historical Park (COLO), Virginia. 

20



Location and Regional Setting 

Project Area 

Colonial National Historical Park is located in the middle of Virginia’s Coastal Plain (Figure 2). 

This region is also known as the “The Peninsula” or the “Lower Peninsula”, one of three 

prominent peninsulas formed as four large tidal rivers dissect the Coastal Plain, draining into the 

Chesapeake Bay. The Lower Peninsula is bounded by the York River to the north, the 

Chesapeake Bay to the east, and the James River to the south. The park boundaries fall within 

seven USGS quadrangle maps: Clay Bank, Hog Island, Norge, Poquoson West, Surry, 

Williamsburg, and Yorktown (Figure 3). The majority of the park is in a portion of the Coastal 

Plain known as the Atlantic Southern Loam Hills subsection that is characterized by smooth 

plains ranging from 30 to 91 m (100 to 300 ft) (Keys et al. 1995). Jamestown Island is in the 

Chesapeake Bay subsection of the Atlantic Coastal Flatwoods section, and the eastern portion of 

Yorktown is in the Tidal Area subsection of the Atlantic Coastal Flatwoods section, an area of 

flat plains with elevations ranging from 0–30 m (0–100 ft) (Keys et al. 1995.) Historical climate 

data from Williamsburg, Virginia (37°18'N / 76°42'W) from the years 1948 through 2007 report 

the mean monthly minimum temperature as 8.6º C (47.5º F), and the mean monthly maximum 

temperature is 21.0º C (69.9º F). The mean January minimum temperature is –2.0º C (28.3º F), 

and the mean July maximum temperature is 31.4º C (88.5º F). Annual precipitation averages 

102.9 cm (47.63 in), with snowfall of 18.3 cm (7.2 in) (Southeast Regional Climate Center 

2008). 

The upland forests that originally covered much of Virginia’s Coastal Plain have been 

extensively cleared or altered, so that it is now difficult to determine which species and natural 

communities were historically prevalent. Much of the contemporary forest consists of 

successional or silvicultural stands of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) and secondary pine-hardwood 

forests that have developed after repeated cutting or agricultural abandonment. The most mature 

remnant stands on mesic uplands are characterized by associations of American beech (Fagus 

grandifolia), several oaks (Quercus spp.), and American holly (Ilex opaca var. opaca), 

representing what once was the common, matrix-forming forest type in region. Patches of drier 

oak-dominated forest and steep bluffs with forests of chestnut oak (Quercus prinus), American 

beech, and dense mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia) are fairly common in the dissected inner 

Coastal Plain, especially north of the James River. South of the James River, fire-maintained 

forests and woodlands dominated by longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) may have been prevalent 

prior to European settlement (Frost 1995), but little trace of these now remain. The Coastal Plain 

also supports terrestrial communities that are restricted to special habitats on ravine slopes and 

estuarine-fronting bluffs that have down-cut into Tertiary shell deposits or limesands. Soils of 

these forests and woodlands have extraordinarily high levels of calcium and support a number of 

inland, calciphilic species that are disjunct from the mountains. Wetlands of the Coastal Plain 

are extensive and have fared somewhat better than the province’s upland forests, supporting a 

great variety of natural communities. The diversity of wetlands in this region spans a range of 

freshwater to saline, lunar-tidal estuaries; tidal and palustrine swamps; nonriverine, groundwatersaturated 

flats; seasonally flooded ponds and depressions; seepage slope wetlands; and various 

tidal and non-tidal aquatic habitats. 

21



Figure 2. Physiographic provinces of Virginia showing the location of Colonial National Historical Park. 

22



Figure 3. Location of Colonial National Historical Park (COLO), Virginia, on seven 1:24000 USGS topographic quadrangle maps. 

23



Park Environmental Attributes 

Many environmental factors, such as geology, soils, hydrology and topography, affect the types 

and distribution of vegetation within Colonial National Historical Park. The majority of the park 

is underlain by six geologic units representing ancient marine and fluvial-estuarine deposits of 

sands, silts, and clays: Bacons Castle Formation, Chesapeake Group, Chuckatuck Formation, 

Shirley Formation, Tabb Formation (Sedgefield member), and the Winsor Formation (Virginia 

Division of Mineral Resources 1993). Some marine formations contain strata rich in fossilized 

shells, which are locally exposed on the park’s steep slopes and have a pronounced influence on 

soil chemistry and vegetation composition. 

Two different soil surveys cover Colonial National Historical Park. The Soil Survey Geographic 

(SSURGO) databases for James City and York counties and the City of Williamsburg, Virginia 

(USDA, NRCS 2007a), and for Surry County, Virginia (USDA, NRCS 2007b) map 37 unique 

soil series within the boundary of Colonial National Historical Park. 

The soils in the park are primarily ultisols (57%), entisols (25%), and inceptisols (13%), with 

small areas mapped as alfisols and histosols. The upland soils of the park are deep, well-drained 

to moderately well-drained soils that formed in interbedded layers of loamy and clayey fluvial or 

marine Coastal Plain sediments. These soils are typically very strongly to extremely acid in 

reaction (pH values less than 5.0). Common soils on upland terraces, ridges, and side slopes in 

the park include the series Emporia, Craven, Slagle, and Uchee, or complexes of these soil series 

(all ultisols). Thirteen soil series are mapped on well-drained to somewhat poorly drained stream 

terraces in the park; the most common of these are State, Tetotum, Peawick, Dogue, Newflat (all 

ultisols), and Pamunkey (an alfisol). These soils are not considered hydric, but are found on 

low-lying stream terraces often associated with wetland vegetation. Hydric soils are mapped on 

18% of the park. Hydric soil is a soil that formed under conditions of saturation, flooding, or 

ponding long enough during the growing season to develop anaerobic conditions in the upper 

portion. Soils along creeks and rivers in tidal marshes that are inundated twice daily by saline, 

brackish, or freshwater are very poorly drained entisols of the series Axis, Bohicket, Lawnes, and 

Levey. Poorly drained to very poorly drained soils of non-tidal floodplains, swamps, and 

bottomlands are mapped as Chickahominy (ultisol), Johnston (inceptisol), Nawney (entisol), and 

Matten (histosol) series. The Bethera series (an ultisol) is mapped on wet upland flats and 

depressions not associated with streams. Alluvial beach deposits occur along the James and York 

rivers. 

Colonial National Historical Park lies within the James River drainage basin, except for the very 

northern portion of Yorktown Battlefield and the Colonial Parkway from Yorktown to 

Williamsburg, which lie in the Lower York River watershed. More than 48 km (30 mi) of 

shoreline along the James and York rivers bounds Colonial National Historical Park and 

approximately 38 km (24 mi) of perennial streams and 48 km (30 mi) of intermittent streams 

flow through the park. The entire park has a direct hydrological link to the Chesapeake Bay. 

Numerous streams, creeks, and ponds with major portions of their drainage basin upstream and 

outside of park boundaries flow through the park and feed directly into the York River or James 

River. As freshwater tributaries flow through the park and approach the James and York rivers, 

they become tidally influenced, estuarine waters, and many support large estuarine wetlands. 

Major tributaries that flow through the park into the York River include Felgates Creek, Indian 

24



Field Creek, King Creek, West Branch Wormley, and Yorktown Creek. Tributaries that flow 

through the park into the James River include Baptist Run Creek, Beaver Dam Creek, Black 

Duck Gut, College Creek, Great Run Creek, Half-Way Creek, Passamore Creek, and Powhatan 

Creek. The park has several large freshwater and brackish ponds formed by impoundments, 

including Bracken's Pond, Jones Mill Pond, and Wormley Pond. A freshwater spring and a 

small creek are found at Green Spring and a series of springs and seeps originate on Yorktown 

Battlefield. Numerous sinkholes that hold water for a portion of the year occur in the Yorktown 

Battlefield and along the Colonial Parkway between Yorktown and College creeks. These 

features have formed over the past several hundred thousand years due to the dissolution of the 

underlying carbonate-rich shell marl deposits. 

Topographic relief in the park is typical for the Coastal Plain, where broad uplands are gently 

dissected by streams. Locally, the relief can be quite rugged where short, high gradient streams 

have incised steep ravine systems. Elevations range from sea level along the York and James 

rivers and along tidal tributaries, to 27 m (90 ft) at Swanns Point on the south slopes over the 

James River. 

25



Project Scoping and Planning 

Methods 

In early 2001, the Northeast Region of the National Park Service approached VADNH to help 

develop a vegetation classification and maps for seven NPS units in the Piedmont and Coastal 

Plain of Virginia (Appomattox Court House National Historical Park, Booker T. Washington 

National Monument, Colonial National Historical Park, Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania 

National Military Park, George Washington Birthplace National Monument, Petersburg National 

Battlefield, and Richmond National Battlefield Park). Later that year a meeting was convened 

with representatives from the NPS Northeast Region Inventory and Monitoring Program, 

NatureServe (then the Association of Biodiversity Information), NCSU-CEO, and VADNH to 

identify the scope of the project and clarify roles and responsibilities. 

The three entities and the NPS worked cooperatively to develop accurate vegetation maps and a 

regional vegetation classification to apply to the vegetation of all seven parks. Ecologists at 

VADNH took the primary role in field data collection, data analysis, regional classification 

development, map editing, and accuracy assessment. They developed the local association 

descriptions, finalized the field key to vegetation classes, and wrote the final reports. 

NatureServe reviewed the vegetation classification developed by VADNH and ensured that the 

USNVC standard was followed. They also took responsibility for entering all new information 

into the USNVC databases and completed global association descriptions. They developed the 

draft field key to the vegetation classes, and provided in-the-field consultation on problematic 

vegetation types. Researchers at NCSU-CEO were responsible for aerial photography 

acquisition and processing, and preliminary photo interpretation. They also wrote the 

corresponding sections of the final reports. 

Preliminary Data Collection and Review of Existing Information 

Previous studies conducted at Colonial National Historical Park were reviewed for information 

pertinent to the park’s vegetation. These studies included a series of tidal marsh inventories by 

the Virginia Institute of Marine Sciences (Silberhorn 1974, Moore 1980, Moore 1981) and 

various inventories by VADNH (Ludwig et al. 1993, VanAlstine et al. 2001, Weber and Coulling 

2002). Existing aerial photography (Virginia Geographic Information Network 2002), 

topographic maps, digital raster graphics (DRGs), National Wetland Inventory maps, the soil 

surveys for James City, Surry, and York counties, Virginia, and digital soil survey data 

(SSURGO) were gathered for use in planning fieldwork and to use as ancillary data layers. 

Additional spatial data was acquired from the park including a layer depicting an exotic species 

inventory (Gounaris and Grubbs 2000), locations of sinkhole ponds, and a vegetation coverage 

for Jamestown Island (Weber and Coulling 2002). Vegetation plot data collected during 

previous VADNH inventories in the park were reviewed prior to planning fieldwork. A 

preliminary classification of vegetation in Virginia's Piedmont and inner Coastal Plain (Fleming 

2001) was used to develop a list of vegetation associations likely to occur in the park. Lists of 

the USNVC formations and alliances likely to occur in the park were generated from 

NatureServe databases. 

26



Aerial Photography Acquisition and Processing 

Two sets of digital orthophoto mosaics, leaf-on (fall) and leaf-off (spring), were created for 

Colonial National Historical Park. To achieve manageable file sizes, each set is made up of five 

files that, together, cover the entire geographic extent of the park. Kucera International acquired 

color infrared, stereo pair 1:6,000 scale aerial photography for the leaf-on mosaics on October 

26, 2001 and, for the leaf-off mosaics on March 1, 2002. The photography was delivered to the 

National Park Service (NPS), quality checked, accepted as provided, and sent to NCSU-CEO. 

Upon receipt at NCSU-CEO, the air photos were counted to make sure that none were missing, 

scanned and saved in .tif format, and placed in the air photo archive maintained at NCSU-CEO 

for the NPS Northeast Region Inventory and Monitoring Program. Associated data and 

information provided by Kucera International, and also stored in the air photo archive, include 

the airborne global positioning system (GPS) and inertial mapping unit (IMU) data files, the 

camera calibration certificates for the cameras, and the hardcopy flight reports for the 

photography that crosswalk the airborne GPS and IMU data to the photo frame numbers. 

The leaf-on and leaf-off mosaics were produced from 328 and 280 color infrared air photos, 

respectively, scanned at 600 dpi with 24-bit color depth. For each of the ten mosaics (five leafon 

and five leaf-off), scanned .tif images of the relevant air photos were imported into ERDAS 

Imagine (.img) format where a photo block was created using airborne GPS and IMU data that 

Kucera International supplied with the aerial photography. Each photo block was manipulated 

until it could be triangulated with a root mean square error of less than 1. At this point, single 

frame orthophotos (one for each air photo) were generated within Imagine and exported to 

Imagine .lan format. Then the .lan files were imported into ER Mapper’s native (.ers) format, 

and an ER Mapper algorithm was created which contains the color balancing information and the 

cutlines created for each of the final mosaics. In ER Mapper, band interleaved by line (.bil) 

image and header files for each mosaic were generated, the .bil images were imported into 

Imagine .img format, and, finally, the .img images were compressed using MrSID software with 

a 20:1 compression ratio. The final mosaics, in both .img and MrSID formats, are stored in the 

NCSU-CEO data archive. 

Preliminary Photointerpretation 

A preliminary vegetation dataset for Colonial National Historical Park was created by 

interpreting the digital orthophoto mosaics to delineate vegetation polygons to the formation 

level defined in the USNVC (FGDC 1997, Grossman, et al. 1998). To create the formation level 

vegetation database, a photo interpreter, viewing the leaf-off and leaf-on mosaics in two 

dimensions, delineated visible areas of homogenous vegetation, land cover, and land use using 

ArcMap’s onscreen digitizing tools. The minimum mapping unit was 0.5 hectares (1.25 acres); 

however, the photo interpreter was able to delineate polygons as small as 0.2 hectares (0.5 acres). 

After polygons were delineated for the entire park area, the photo interpreter created and 

populated three fields in the attribute table, entering a unique polygon identification number, the 

formation-level vegetation class or land use/land cover code, and notes if the interpreter was 

unsure of the appropriate code or could not assign a code. In accordance with USGS-NPS VMP 

protocols, the Level II land use and land cover classification system developed by Anderson, et 

al. (1976) was used to attribute urban and water dominated land covers (USGS 1994). In 

addition, user-defined codes were used to attribute agricultural and beach areas. Next, the photo 

27



interpreter examined each polygon in three dimensions using ERDAS Imagine’s Stereo Analyst 

software, checked the vegetation class code entered in the attribute table, and entered a corrected 

vegetation class code if appropriate. The final formation-level vegetation database is archived in 

ESRI shapefile and geodatabase formats in the NCSU-CEO data archive. 

Field Data Collection 

Leaf-on and leaf-off photomosaics and the formation-level line work were obtained from NCSU 

CEO in May 2004. Ecologists from VADNH conducted field data collection in Colonial 

National Historical Park in May and June 2003, June through September 2004, and April and 

May 2005. The objectives of the fieldwork were to evaluate the formation-level line work and to 

collect information to help attribute and edit the line work to reflect the alliance level of the 

USNVC. Additionally, detailed quantitative data from the least disturbed areas of the park were 

needed to augment data available for a regional vegetation classification. 

The evaluation and editing of the line work required extensive field reconnaissance throughout 

the park. Ecologists navigated to vegetation polygons represented on the formation-level map 

using a GarminMap76S GPS. Once within the target polygon, qualitative observations were 

made that described any variation of vegetation or environment within the polygon. The 

dominant vegetation class and any inclusion communities were noted following Fleming (2001). 

Dominant and characteristic vascular plant species were listed by strata with an indication of 

their prevalence in the stand (i.e. dominant, common, or rare). When possible, the entire polygon 

was traversed and additional GPS points were collected to mark significant vegetation change 

within a polygon. Only areas within the park boundary were surveyed. 

Additional detailed quantitative data were collected only in the highest quality stands of 

floristically and structurally homogeneous vegetation. These were middle-to-late successional 

stands with a composition of mostly native species and with a consistent environmental setting. 

Within these areas, specific plot locations were chosen subjectively in order to distribute plots 

across a range of site conditions and to capture vegetation types that were relatively dominant, 

homogenous, and covered at least the minimum mapping unit area of 0.5 ha (1.24 ac). An 

attempt was made to find at least one undisturbed sampling location for each mid-to-late 

successional community type in the park. Early-successional forests and heavily disturbed areas 

within the park were not sampled using quantitative methods. These areas are spatially, 

temporally, and compositionally dynamic. Since their floristics are often in flux and subject to 

stochastic factors, groups of plots of heavily modified vegetation (even groups dominated by the 

same species) usually lack the compositional consistency to allow for ecologically meaningful 

patterns to be found using quantitative data analysis. Thus, sample plots from these types often 

perform as statistical outliers in quantitative analyses and frequently fail to aggregate into 

convincing groups by accepted statistical standards. Instead, qualitative data collected from 

vegetation polygons were used to describe and map early-successional forests and heavily 

disturbed areas within the park. 

In order to be maximally compatible with existing regional plot data, plots were sampled using 

the relevé method (sensu Peet et al. 1998), following standard procedures employed by VADNH 

and modified slightly to accommodate entry into the PLOTS database (NatureServe 2004). As a 

rule, 100 m 2 plots with 10 x 10 m, or 5 x 20 m configurations were used to sample shrubland or 

28



herbaceous vegetation and 400 m 2 plots were used to sample forested vegetation. The 

configuration of the plot was flexible (e.g. 20 x 20 m, 16 x 25m, 13.33 x 30 m, 10 x 40 m) to 

accommodate special site conditions and vegetation pattern. If a forest had particularly large 

diameter trees or a diverse canopy composition, a 1000 m 2 plot (20 x 50m) was used to fully 

capture tree species composition. 

Within each plot, the percent cover of each vascular plant taxon was visually estimated as a 

vertical projection of above-ground biomass onto the full plot area and assigned to one of nine 

numerical cover classes (Table 2). In addition to this total cover value, cover was estimated for 

each species in the following height/lifeform classes: 

herb (field) layer (all herbaceous plants, woody plants 1 to 6 m 

tree layer, >6 to 10 m 



tree layer, >35 m 

The overall cover of mosses, lichens, and liverworts was estimated, but the individual cover of 

non-vascular taxa was not estimated. The cover of vines climbing into the canopy or subcanopy 

was recorded in the maximum height stratum attained by the plant. Vascular plants thought to be 

characteristic of the sampled community, but located outside the plot, were recorded 

parenthetically if visible from the boundary, and assigned a cover class of 1. 

Additional vegetation information collected included the estimated height and total vegetative 

coverage of each stratum, the leaf type and leaf phenology of each stratum, and the 

physiognomic class represented by the stand. The maximum canopy height was measured using 

a clinometer. 

Table 2. Cover-class scores used in field sampling and data analysis. 

Area of Coverage 

Cover Class Percent Cover Range for a 400 m 2 Cover Class 

plot Percent Cover Midpoint 

1



A standard set of environmental data was measured or estimated at each plot (Table 3). Slope 

inclination was measured with a clinometer, and slope direction (aspect) was evaluated using a 

compass. Both measurements were taken to the nearest degree from the plot center. In plots 

with variable microtopography, slope was measured at several points and averaged. The percent 

cover of different surface substrates was estimated visually, with precision varying such that 

values sum to 100%. Topographic position, slope shape (both horizontally and vertically), soil 

drainage class, soil moisture regime, and inundation were assessed using scalar values. 

Landform was assessed at the landscape level using a topographic map and assigned to values 

from a standard landform classification (Driscoll et al. 1984). When conditions permitted, a 

digital photo was taken of each sampling location. Each vegetation sample was georeferenced 

using a GarminMap76s global positioning system (GPS), when possible. If a satellite reading 

could not be obtained, UTM coordinates were derived from the estimated position on a 

topographic quadrangle map. Elevation was also derived from the position on a topographic 

quadrangle map. 

When possible, soil samples were collected from the top 10 cm (4 in) of mineral soil (below the 

surficial litter and humus). Depth of surface duff, soil color, and texture were evaluated in the 

field and recorded on the plot forms. 

Evidence of any past or ongoing vegetation disturbance was carefully recorded at each sampling 

site. Other information was recorded in the form of a narrative qualitative assessment and notes. 

This narrative could include information concerning landscape context, estimated size of stand, 

hydrologic condition, approximate distance and direction to proximate water sources, spatial 

variation of vegetation pattern, or any other unusual features of the vegetation. 

The plot survey form used to collect quantitative vegetation samples is provided in Appendix A. 

All field data for quantitative vegetation samples were entered into the PLOTS database version 

2.0 (NatureServe 2004) and are provided as a supplement to this report. Plot data collected in 

the park as part of previous studies from May 1997 through October 2001, using the same field 

methodology as in the current study, were also entered into the PLOTS database. Nomenclature 

follows the PLANTS 3.5 Database developed by the Natural Resource Conservation Service in 

cooperation with the Biota of North America Program (United States Department of Agriculture, 

National Resources Conservation Service 2004). 

In the context of this report, a nonnative species (sometimes referred to as an exotic or alien 

species) is a species that is not thought to be a native component of Virginia’s flora (Townsend 

2007). Native species are those that occur in the region in which they evolved, changing over 

time in response to physical and biotic processes characteristic of a region. Plants that exhibit 

invasive tendencies and threaten rare native plants and natural communities are referred to as 

invasive. For this report, invasive nonnative plant species include those on the VADNH list of 

Invasive Exotic Plant Species in Virginia (Heffernan et al. 2001, VADCR 2003). 

30



Table 3. Topographic / hydrologic environmental data recorded at each plot sample location. 

Topographic Position: 

crest 

upper slope 

middle slope 

lower slope 

toe slope 

plain/level/bottom 

basin/depression 

Surface Substrate (% cover): 

Soil Drainage Class: 

very poorly drained 

poorly drained 

somewhat poorly drained 

moderately well drained 

well drained 

rapidly drained 

Inundation: 

bedrock never 

boulders and stones infrequently 

gravel and cobbles 

regularly; for < 6 months 

litter / organic matter 

regularly; for > 6 months 

decaying wood always submerged by shallow water (< 30cm) 

water 

always submerged by deep water (>30 cm) 

mineral soil / sand 

other 

Measured Aspect (degrees) Soil Moisture Regime: 

Measured Slope (degrees) 

very xeric (moist for negligible time after precipitation) 

Slope Shape: 

xeric (moist for brief time) 

vertical 

somewhat xeric (moist for short time) 

concave 

submesic (moist for moderately short time) 

convex 

mesic (moist for significant time) 

straight 

subhygric (wet for significant part of growing season; mottle 

horizontal 



Vegetation Classification and Characterization 

The vegetation classification used to map seven mid-Atlantic NPS units in Virginia was 

developed through successive approximations. The initial classification from 2001 (Fleming 

2001) was improved upon by two additional analyses, in 2003 and in 2006, each progressively 

using a larger regional dataset, with the objective of producing a more robust classification. 

All plot data collected in mid-Atlantic national parks as of November 2002 were combined into a 

regional data set of 1342 plots from throughout the Virginia Piedmont and Coastal Plain and 

from selected NPS units in Maryland and the District of Columbia. The resulting preliminary 

vegetation classification was reviewed by NPS ecologists and Natural Heritage Program 

ecologists from Virginia, Maryland, and West Virginia. In December 2006, with the addition of 

plot data collected since 2002 from Virginia, Maryland, and West Virginia, a regional dataset of 

2,250 plots was used to develop the final vegetation classification for the project. 

All data were examined using a combination of cluster analysis, ordination, and tabular 

(statistical) analysis. In general, the analytical process was designed to progressively fragment 

the large datasets into more workable subsets, using cluster analysis to identify groups, statistical 

analysis to validate those groups, and lastly ordination studies to examine compositional 

gradients between groups and correlations with important environmental gradients. In practice, 

the process was iterative as increasingly finer groups were identified and analyzed. 

The general steps included 1) data preparation and transformation, 2) numerical classification 

(cluster analysis), 3) summary statistics, 4) gradient analysis (ordination), and 5) assignment of 

classification units to the standard (crosswalking to USNVC). Each of these steps is outlined 

below. 

Data Preparation and Transformation 

Plot data collected during field work were combined with existing data from throughout the Mid- 

Atlantic Coastal Plain and Piedmont using databases created with Microsoft Access 2000. The 

final dataset consisted of 2,250 plots (1,452 upland and palustrine wetland plots; plus 798 tidal 

plots). 

Since individual plant taxa are not always identified to the same taxonomic level in plot 

sampling, botanical nomenclature for the whole analysis dataset was reviewed and standardized. 

As a rule, taxa were treated at the highest level of resolution possible, but treatment at the 

subspecific level was not always possible and a few groups of species had to be merged into 

"pseudospecies." For example, various plots had Polygonatum biflorum, Polygonatum biflorum 

var. biflorum, or Polygonatum biflorum var. commutatum; these were merged at the species 

level. Species richness was calculated for each plot using all taxa (including unidentified 

species) rooted within plot boundaries. However, taxa identified only at generic or higher levels 

(e.g., “Carex sp.” or “unidentified woody seedling”) were deleted from the dataset prior to 

analysis to eliminate "noise" and potentially erroneous correlations between generic entities. 

32



Prior to analysis, most environmental variables were transformed, either to normalize frequency 

distributions or to assign numeric values to categorical variables. Topographic position and 

slope were converted to ordinal variables (Table 4). Aspect was transformed using the cosine 

method of Beers et al. (1966), using the formula A' = cos (45º - A) + 1, where A' = transformed 

aspect and A = aspect in degrees. The Beers transformation is a commonly used formula for the 

conversion of the circular measure of slope aspect in degrees into linear values that can be used 

in correlation and regression analysis. Beers transformation yields values between 0 and 2 that 

are used to relate aspect to topographic moisture and solar exposure. Drier, solar exposed slopes 

(SW, 225 o ) have the lowest values and moist, sheltered slopes (NE, 45 o ) the highest transformed 

values. Surface substrate values were converted to decimals and arcsine transformed to 

normalize their distributions. 

A synthetic Topographic Relative Moisture Index (TRMI) was calculated for each plot using a 

procedure modified from Parker (1982). TRMI is a scalar index ranging from 0 (lowest moisture 

potential) to 50 (highest moisture potential) and is computed by combining three topographic 

variables that potentially influence water runoff, evapotranspiration, and soil moisture retention: 

• Slope inclination (10-point scale; per Parker [1982]) 

• Aspect (20-point scale) = Beers-transformed aspect X 10 

• Topographic position (20-point scale; per Parker [1982]) 

Normally slope shape would be included as an additional 10-point scale but, unfortunately, data 

on slope shape were not consistently collected from the plots in this study. Because of this 

omission, as well as assumptions of the formula that may not apply as well to Piedmont and 

Coastal Plain topography as to montane topography, TRMI as calculated for this study, should be 

regarded as strictly experimental. 

Soil samples collected from plots were oven-dried, sieved (2 mm), and analyzed for pH, 

estimated nitrogen release (ENR), phosphorus (P), soluble sulfur (S), exchangeable cations 

(calcium [Ca], magnesium [Mg], potassium [K], and sodium [Na] in ppm), extractable 

micronutrients (boron [B], iron [Fe], manganese [Mn], copper [Cu], zinc [Zn], and aluminum 

[Al], in ppm), cation exchange capacity (CEC; m.e.q./100g), total base saturation (%TBS), and 

percent organic matter (%OM). Chemical analyses were conducted by Brookside Laboratories, 

Table 4. Ordinal values for topographic position and slope inclination used in data analysis. 

Topographic Position Slope Inclination 

basin/depression = -1 0–3º = 1 (flat) 

plain/level/bottom = 0 4–6º = 2 (gentle / undulating) 

toe slopes = 1 7–13º = 3 (sloping / rolling) 

lower slope = 2 14–20º = 4 (moderate / hilly) 

middle slope = 3 21–40º = 5 (steep) 

upper slope = 4 41º+ = 6 (very steep) 

crest = 5 

33



Inc., New Knoxville, Ohio. Extractions were carried out using the Mehlich III method (Mehlich 

1984) and percent organic matter was determined by loss on ignition. Values for all soil 

variables except pH were natural log-transformed to normalize their distributions and make the 

values more biologically interpretable (Palmer 1993). A calcium:magnesium ratio and a 

synthetic fertility index ([cation exchange capacity X total base saturation] / 100) were also 

calculated for each plot. 

Cluster Analysis 

In order to identify groups of compositionally similar plots samples, a hierarchical, 

agglomerative, polythetic, cluster analysis was implemented using the software program PC 

ORD (version 5.0; McCune and Mefford 1999). In this type of numerical classification, sample 

units (plots) are compared and joined into clusters based on their relative similarity. This type of 

cluster analysis results in a treelike diagram called a “dendrogram” that depicts the progressive 

joining of individual plots into larger and larger clusters. Ecologists can use the dendrogram to 

identify classes (subsets of plots) to subject to further analyses. In the context of this type of 

analysis, hierarchical means that large clusters are composed of smaller clusters. Agglomerative 

means that the analysis proceeds by joining clusters rather than by dividing clusters. Polythetic 

means that many attributes of the items are used to decide the optimum way to combine or divide 

clusters (McCune and Grace 2002). 

Plot by species matrices for cluster analysis were constructed using raw species cover class 

scores. The Lance-Williams Flexible-Beta linkage method (Lance and Williams 1966, 1967) 

and either the Bray-Curtis (Sorensen) dissimilarity measure (Bray and Curtis 1957) or Relative 

Euclidian distance were used to identify compositionally similar groups of plots. The Flexible- 

Beta method is a generalized sorting strategy, the performance of which varies with userspecified 

emphasis (beta) on different measures of between-group distance. In general, beta 

settings ranging from the default of –0.25 to –0.5 produce optimal results with vegetation data, 

performing very similarly to minimum-variance clustering, i.e., Ward’s method (Ward 1963). 

The Bray-Curtis coefficient (also known as the Sorensen coefficient) has been used with 

demonstrable success in a wide range of ecological studies (Beals 1984). Among available 

measures of ecological “distance,” represented as a mathematical dissimilarity between samples, 

the Bray-Curtis coefficient is a balanced measure that places some emphasis on dominant (i.e., 

high-cover) species while still giving minor (i.e., low-cover) species considerable weight in the 

analysis (Gauch 1982). Relative Euclidian distance is conceptually similar, except that 

abundance values are relativized such that the total abundances for all plots are equal. 

Using these procedures, the 2,250-plot dataset was progressively fragmented by identifying one 

or more homogeneous subsets at each iteration, removing those subsets, and re-clustering the 

remaining plots. These data subsets were then subjected to more comprehensive cluster, 

statistical, and ordination analyses. 

34



Summary Statistics 

Summary tables of compositional statistics were calculated to evaluate the adequacy of groups 

recognized in cluster analysis and ultimately to assist in naming and describing the community 

types. Total mean cover and total frequency across all plots were determined for every taxon. 

To compute mean cover, cover class scores were converted to the midpoints of their respective 

percent ranges, the midpoints were averaged, and resulting values were back-transformed to 

cover class scores. For each taxon in each group under consideration, the following summary 

statistics were then calculated: 

• Frequency – the number of samples in a group in which a species occurs. 

• Mean Cover – back-transformed cover class value corresponding to mean percent cover 

calculated from midpoint values of cover class ranges. All samples assigned to a group were 

considered when calculating mean cover, not just those in which a taxon was present; 

absences were assigned a cover value of 0. 

• Relative Cover – the arithmetic difference between mean cover (for a given group of 

samples) and total mean cover (for the entire data set) (= Mean Cover – Total Mean Cover). 

Expressed by plus or minus symbols, this value provides a relative approximation of how 

much more, or less, abundant a particular species is in a community type compared to the 

overall data set. 

• Constancy – the proportion of samples in a group in which a species occurs, expressed as a 

percentage (= [Frequency / Number of samples in group]×100). 

• Fidelity – the degree to which a species is restricted to a group, expressed as proportion of 

total frequency that frequency in a given group constitutes (= [Frequency / Total Frequency] 

× 100). An accidental or nonnative species can have maximal (100) fidelity to a type if it 

occurs in only one sample in the entire data set. As a result, fidelity alone can perform 

poorly as a criterion for identifying characteristic species and distinguishing among types. 

• Diagnostic Value (DV) (= [Constancy × Fidelity] / 100). A synthetic value indicating 

species that are both frequent within and relatively restricted to a group of plots. 

• Diagnostic Value Adjusted by Cover, Scaled (Adj DV [scaled]) (= [Diagnostic Value × 

Mean Cover] / 9). By dividing DV x Mean Cover by 9, the maximum possible cover value, 

this statistic synthesizes information about frequency, diagnostic value, and mean abundance. 

A species entirely restricted to a particular community type, occurring in every sample of that 

type, and attaining maximum mean cover will have a Scaled Adjusted DV of 100 for that 

type. Empirically, taxa most characteristic of a type will have a much lower Adjusted DV, 

although the exact range of values in any given type or data set may vary considerably. 

• Diagnostic Value Adjusted by Cover, Unscaled (Adj DV [unscaled]) (=Diagnostic Value X 

2 relative cover ). An alternative, unscaled synthetic measure of adjusted DV, using relative cover 

as the modifier of DV. Since cover classes form a logarithmic, rather than linear scale of 

values, Unscaled Adjusted DV is a statistically more legitimate means of incorporating 

35



information on cover, and has the advantage of not favoring only dominant species and better 

identifying species that are considerably more abundant within a given type than in the data 

set as a whole. This statistic is sensitive, however, to vegetation types containing few 

samples and to species with low overall frequency. Additionally, the following statistics 

were generated for each group: 

• Mean Species Richness – the average number of species present per plot; only species rooted 

inside plot boundaries were included in this calculation. 

• Homoteneity – the average constancy of the S-most constant species, where S = mean 

species richness for the type. This value (sensu Curtis 1959) can be considered an index of 

the relative uniformity of a group of plots; higher values for homoteneity indicate greater 

uniformity in species composition among plots. Although homoteneity is not independent of 

group size, often increasing as the number of group members decreases, it can be used to 

evaluate whether community types have been defined at an appropriate level. 

Environmental Summary Statistics 

Mean values for continuous and ordinal environmental variables were calculated for each group 

to aid in describing the units and identifying the differences between them. These calculations 

were performed with raw (untransformed) values, which were averaged across all plots 

representing a given group. Environmental variables were summarized only for groups with at 

least half the plots containing data. Mean aspect was calculated as the average position along an 

arc defined by the range of aspect values. 

Ordination 

The ordination method of non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS; Kruskal 1964) was used 

to examine classified units in a multidimensional space, detect compositional variation and 

trends that are obscured in cluster analysis, and aid in identifying the environmental gradients 

along which vegetation classes and community types are distributed. NMDS is a type of indirect 

gradient analysis that assigns samples to coordinates in ordination space in a way that 

maximizes, to the extent possible, the rank-order (i.e., non-parametric) correlation between intersample 

distance in ordination space and inter-sample dissimilarity (i.e., ecological distance; 

Minchin 1987). A detailed discussion of NMDS and other ordination techniques can be found in 

McCune and Grace (2002). 

Ordination studies were conducted for each major compositional group identified in cluster 

analysis, as well as for selected smaller groups of closely related community types. The software 

program PC-ORD (version 5.0; McCune and Mefford 1999) was used to implement NMDS 

ordination analysis. The Bray-Curtis coefficient (Sorensen) or Relative Euclidean, the same 

measure used in cluster analysis, was used to calculate dissimilarity and VARIMAX rotation was 

employed to optimize axis placement in all ordination runs. Each ordination was computed 

using 100 random starting configurations, and configurations with the lowest stress levels were 

used for interpretation. Prior to running ordination analysis, outlier plots that would have 

undesirable effects on the ordination results were identified and removed using the outlier 

analysis function in PC-ORD. 

36



Based on preliminary plots of stress vs. dimensionality, most ordinations were extracted in three 

dimensions (some were in two dimensions). Pearson’s r 2 correlations between environmental 

variables and ordination axes were calculated, and significant correlations were displayed 

through joint plot overlays. A joint plot is a diagram that shows the relationship of a set of 

variables and ordination scores. Radiating lines (vectors) representing environmental variables 

are depicted within ordination space. The angles and lengths of the radiating lines indicate the 

direction and strength of the relationship between the variable and the ordination scores. The 19 

soil variables and 10 topographic variables used in ordination analyses are listed in Table 5. 

Table 5. Environmental variables used in ordination joint plots. Only variables correlated with 

plot ordination scores are shown in the joint plot diagrams. 

Topographic variables and percentage substrate 

Beers Aspect 

Slope Value 

Topo position 

TRMI 

Bedrock 

Boulders and Stones 

Gravel and Cobbles 

Decaying Wood 

Water 

Mineral Soil_Sand 

Soil chemistry variables 

Al 

B 

Base Saturation (%TBS) 

Ca 

CaMgRatio 

CEC 

Cu 

Fe 

Fertility 

K 

Mg 

Mn 

N 

Na 

OM 

P 

pH 

S 

Zn 

transformed aspect (Beers et al. 1966) 

ordinal value for slope 

ordinal value for topographic position 

Topographic Relative Moisture Index 

percentage cover by bedrock in plot 

percentage cover by rocks > 10 cm in plot 

percentage cover by rocks 0.2 - 10 cm in plot 

percentage cover by dead wood in plot 

percentage cover by water in plot 

percentage cover by bare sand or mineral soil in plot 

extractable aluminum (in parts-per-million) 

extractable boron (in parts-per-million) 

percent total base saturation 

exchangeable calcium (in parts-per-million) 

calcium:magnesium ratio 

cation exchange capacity (m.e.q. / 100 g) 

extractable copper (in parts-per-million) 

extractable iron (in parts-per-million) 

synthetic fertility index (= CEC X Base Saturation / 100) 

exchangeable potassium (in parts-per-million) 

exchangeable magnesium (in parts-per-million) 

extractable manganese (in parts-per-million) 

estimated nitrogen release (in lbs-per-acre) 

exchangeable sodium (in parts-per-million) 

% organic matter (by loss on ignition) 

phosphorus (in parts-per-million) 

measure of acidity based on the activity of hydrogen 

soluble sulpher (in parts-per-million) 

extractable zinc (in parts-per-million) 

37



Crosswalking classification units to the USNVC 

Vegetation classes developed through quantitative analysis were compared to existing units of 

the USNVC. All quantitatively-derived types were either assigned to a conceptually similar 

USNVC association, or used as the basis for a new USNVC association. In selecting nominals 

for new USNVC associations, high-constancy species (especially those with relatively high mean 

cover and high diagnostic value, if available) were favored to facilitate identification of the type 

in the field. A "constant" species was generally considered to be a species occurring in > 67% of 

plot samples within a classified association. In a few cases, species that were less constant in a 

type but had high mean cover and diagnostic value were selected as parenthetical nominals. The 

global USNVC descriptions for existing associations were edited, and global descriptions for 

new associations were drafted. All classifications, crosswalks, and new USNVC associations 

were reviewed by Natural Heritage Ecologists from Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, West 

Virginia and NatureServe. 

In addition to the vegetation classes derived from quantitative analysis, other vegetation classes 

used to describe the vegetation in the seven parks were developed from qualitative observations 

in the parks. Some of these qualitatively-derived units were crosswalked to the USNVC 

association level, while others (i.e. cultural or disturbed vegetation) were not appropriate for 

inclusion in the USNVC, and were described as nonstandard, park-specific vegetation classes. 

Characterization of Vegetation 

Once the regional vegetation classification was complete, vegetation classes across all seven 

parks were assigned a common name based on the Natural Communities of Virginia (Fleming et 

al. 2006) or, if no appropriate name existed in Fleming et al. (2006), the USNVC association 

common name was used, or a park-specific common name was assigned. Park-specific 

descriptions for all vegetation classes occurring at Colonial National Historical Park were drafted 

using data from field observation points and quantitative plots. A dichotomous key to the 

vegetation classes occurring in the park was created for use by park natural resource managers 

and others. A dichotomous key is a tool for identifying unknown entities, in this case, vegetation 

classes. It is structured by a series of couplets, two statements that describe different, mutually 

exclusive characteristics of the vegetation. Choosing the statement that best fits the vegetation in 

question leads the user to the correct vegetation class. The dichotomous key should be used in 

conjunction with the detailed vegetation class descriptions to confirm that the class selected with 

the key is appropriate. 

Vegetation Map Preparation 

Spatial data from field observation points and quantitative plots were used to edit the formationlevel 

maps of Colonial National Historical Park to better reflect vegetation classes. Using 

ArcView 3.3, polygon boundaries were revised onscreen over leaf-off photography. Units used 

to label polygons on the map (i.e. map classes) are equivalent to one or more vegetation classes 

from the regional vegetation classification, or to a land-use class from the Anderson (Anderson 

et al. 1976) Level II classification system. Each polygon on the Colonial National Historical 

Park map was assigned to one of forty map classes based on plot data, field observations, aerial 

photography signatures, and topographic maps. The mapping boundary was based on park 

38



boundary data obtained Colonial National Historical Park in May 2003. The mapping boundary 

includes lands under a scenic easement at Swanns Point and it excludes the Cheatham Annex, an 

area that returned to US Navy ownership in February 2004. The vegetation map was clipped at 

the park boundary because areas outside the park were not surveyed or included in the accuracy 

assessment. 

Accuracy Assessment 

Two sources of potential error in the vegetation map include: 1) horizontal positional accuracy, 

in which a location on the photomosaic does not accurately align with the same location on the 

ground due to errors in orthorectification or triangulation; and 2) thematic accuracy, in which the 

vegetation type assigned to a particular location on the map does not correctly represent the 

vegetation at the same location in the park due to mapping error. The USGS-NPS VMP protocols 

(The Nature Conservancy and Environmental Systems Research Institute 1994c) were followed 

to assess the horizontal positional accuracy of the digital photo mosaics (leaf-on and leaf-off) and 

the thematic accuracy of the vegetation map. 

Positional Accuracy Assessment 

The horizontal positional accuracy of the leaf-on and leaf-off mosaics was assessed using 

guidelines of the USGS-NPS VMP (The Nature Conservancy and Environmental Systems 

Research Institute 1994c). For purposes of accuracy assessment, each set of mosaics (leaf-on 

and leaf-off) was treated as a single entity because the photography for each was acquired in a 

single flight, with the same camera, and with one set of airborne GPS and IMU data. Welldefined 

positional accuracy ground control points were placed throughout all quadrants of each 

set of mosaics in ArcMap. Ground control points and zoomed-in screenshots of each point were 

plotted on hard copy maps with the mosaic as a background. These maps and plots were used to 

locate the ground control points in the field. For each plotted ground control point, field staff 

noted any alterations to the locations in the field, and then recorded the coordinates with a 

Trimble Pro XR/XRS or GeoXT. Mapped ground control points that were physically 

inaccessible were also noted. The field crew correctly located and collected accuracy assessment 

data at 62 ground control points for the leaf-on mosaics and at 69 ground control points for the 

leaf-off mosaics. The coordinate data were collected with real time GPS and post processed with 

differential correction using Pathfinder Office software. Prior to calculating accuracy, five 

ground control points for the leaf-on mosaics and four ground control points for the leaf-off 

mosaics were identified as outliers with SAS’s JMP program and removed. The field-collected 

“true” or “reference” GPS coordinates for the remaining 57 points for the leaf-on mosaics and 65 

points for the leaf-off mosaics were compared to the coordinates obtained from each mosaic 

viewed in ArcMap. Both pairs of coordinates for each point were entered into a spreadsheet in 

order to calculate horizontal accuracy (in meters). The accuracy calculation formula is based on 

root mean square error (FGDC 1998b; Minnesota Governor’s Council on Geographic 

Information and Minnesota Land Management Information Center 1999). Figures 4 and 5 show 

the distribution of the ground control points for the leaf-on and leaf-off mosaics, respectively. 

39



Figure 4. Ground control points used to calculate horizontal positional accuracy of the Colonial National Historical Park leaf-on (fall) 

mosaics. 

40



Figure 5. Ground control points used to calculate horizontal positional accuracy of the Colonial National Historical Park leaf-off 

(spring) mosaics. 

41



Thematic Accuracy Assessment 

The Virginia Natural Heritage Program assessed the thematic accuracy of the vegetation map. A 

stratified random sampling approach was used, proportionally stratifying the samples among 

map classes representing natural or semi-natural vegetation. All polygons less then the minimum 

mapping unit (0.5 ha, 1.2 ac) were excluded from the sampling design. Sample size for each 

class was determined by class abundance and frequency as recommended in section 4.4.2 of the 

USGS-NPS VMP standards, with one “regional modification” (Table 6). Due to the fragmented 

nature of cultural parks, most map classes are rare and a modification of Scenario B was needed 

to accommodate the vegetation pattern seen in these parks. Polygons representing seven 

Anderson land-use classes were not included in the sample design: Beaches; Industrial and 

Commercial Complexes; Mixed Urban or Built-up Land; Other Urban or Built-up Land; 

Residential; Transportation, Communications, and Utilities; and Water. Four classes of cultural 

vegetation, Cultural Meadow, Dense Hardwood Regeneration, Mixed Successional Scrub, and 

Semipermanent Impoundment were also excluded from the accuracy assessment. These classes 

represent very distinct, intensively managed features that were easily delinated from aerial 

photography, or a few, very small polygons that were completely surveyed on-the-ground during 

the mapping phase of the project. Additionally, five map classes that naturally occur in small 

patches and were mapped through chance encounters in the field rather than by photo 

interpretation, were excluded from the sampling design: Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Red 

Maple - Sweetgum - Willow Oak Type), Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo 

Type), Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest, Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath 

Forest, and Successional Sweetgum Forest. These map classes had very few (1-8) polygons, and 

the polygons were mostly below minimum mapping unit (0.5 ha) and were completely surveyed 

on-the-ground during the mapping phase of the project. Since these map classes were mapped 

only through chance encounters it is unlikely they are mapped consistantly 

Table 6. Recommended sample size for accuracy assessment points based on the stratified 

random sampling process (TNC and ESRI 1994c). Modification for Virginia cultural parks 

shown as senario B2. 

Area Recommended 

Polygons occupied number of 

Scenario Description in class by class samples in class 

A Abundant. 

Map class has many polygons that ≥30 ≥50 ha 30 

B 

cover a large area. 

Relatively abundant. Map class has few 

polygons that cover a large area. 

5, ≤20 ≥50 ha 10 

C Relatively rare. Map class has many polygons, 

but covers a small area. 

>30



across the landscape and thus the errors of omission could be high. However, since polygons 

were surveyed completely on-the-ground there is a high probability that they are mapped 

correctly and comission errors would be low. Three map classes were created to indicate 

vegetation that may have formerly represented natural communities, but is now too altered to 

assign to a natural community classification. The polygons in these classes were mapped only 

due to chance encounters, were surveyed completely during the mapping phase of the project, 

and thus were excluded from the accuracy assessment: Disturbed Calcareous Forest, Disturbed 

Depressional Wetland, Disturbed Seepage Swamp. Table 7 summarizes the thematic accuracy 

assessment sampling strategy, showing the allocation of the 183 accuracy assessment points 

among the map classes. 

Prior to selecting sampling locations, all points surveyed during the mapping phase of the project 

(qualitative observation points and quantitative plots) were buffered by 40 m (131 ft) and 

excluded from the sampling universe, effectively excluding all areas that had already been 

observed and classified. The ArcView 3.3 extension, Random Point Generator v. 1.3 (Jenness 

2005), was used to randomly select polygons within each map class, then to randomly select 

points within those polygons. This extension generates random points within a specified 

distance for a set of input theme features (e.g. polygons), producing a new ArcView shapefile 

and/or a results table. Where possible, accuracy assessment points were generated so that they 

were at least 40 m (131 ft) from polygon edges. The size and linearity of some polygons, 

however, made it impossible to meet these criteria for all polygons. Decreasing edge buffer 

distances 30 m, 20 m, or 10 m (98 ft, 66 ft, or 33 ft) were used as necessary based on polygon 

size and shape. Using these methods, three sets of 183 random points (primary, secondary, and 

tertiary) were generated for each the random polygon in each map class. Primary points were 

reviewed over aerial photos and topographic maps, and secondary or tertiary points were 

substituted when there where access limitations or if the point fell on a road or outside the park 

boundary. 

Field staff were provided with maps showing the boundaries of the target polygons and the 

location of accuracy assessment points, as well as a GPS unit preloaded with all the accuracy 

assessment point locations. During August through October 2005, each accuracy assessment 

point was located in the field using a Garmin Map76 WAAS enabled GPS. A john boat was 

used to access remote marsh locations. Field staff determined the map class at the accuracy 

assessment point using a dichotomous key and detailed vegetation descriptions. Dominant and 

characteristic vascular plant species were listed by strata with an indication of their prevalence in 

the stand (i.e. dominant, common, or rare). Qualitative observations were made that described 

any variation of vegetation or environment within the polygon, such as the inclusion of more 

than one class in a polygon. Field staff also estimated the percentage of the target polygon 

observed and any problems using the key or interpreting the vegetation type in the polygon. The 

minimum area of observation around the sampling point was 0.5 ha (1.2 ac) or a circle with a 

radius of approximately 40 m (131 ft). The accuracy assessment data form used in this study is 

shown in Appendix B. Figures 6 and 7 show the locations of the 183 accuracy assessment 

points. Accuracy assessment data collected from these 183 points were entered into the PLOTS 

database version 2.0 (NatureServe 2004) and are provided as a supplement to this report. 

43



Table 7. Thematic accuracy assessment (AA) strategy for Colonial National Historical Park, 

showing number of polygons, mapped hectares, and number of AA points sampled for each 

vegetation-map class. 

number of number of 

number of polygons mapped AA points 

Map class 

polygons > 0.5 ha hectares sampled 

Acidic Oak - Hickory Forest 

11 8 17.9 5 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest (Green 

Ash - Red Maple Type) 

3 3 50.0 3 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest 6 6 72.7 6 

Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp 

11 8 19.5 5 

Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest 

31 26 325.6 20 

Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest 

9 4 20.4 4 

Disturbed Tidal Hardwood Swamp 

3 3 

4.6 3 

Golden Bamboo Shrubland 

3 2 

2.1 2 

Loblolly Pine Plantation 

13 13 51.4 5 

Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest 

58 49 351.6 30 

Non-Riverine Saturated Forest 

4 4 24.9 4 

Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak - Beech / Heath Forest 

9 5 

5.4 5 

Salt Scrub 

10 5 

8.0 5 

Successional Black Walnut Forest 

5 4 

5.6 4 

Successional Tree-of-Heaven Forest 

1 1 

5.2 1 

Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest 

92 81 1228.0 30 

Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland 

7 5 10.8 5 

Tidal Freshwater Marsh 

17 15 124.8 10 

Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh 

18 6 10.3 5 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh 

49 34 398.7 30 

Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) 

5 1 

4.2 1 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Red Maple - Sweetgum - 

Willow Oak Type) 

5 2 

1.8 0 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type) 1 0 

0.3 0 

Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest 

8 3 

5.3 0 

Disturbed Calcareous Forest 

6 6 

8.8 0 

Disturbed Depressional Wetland 

1 0 

1.5 0 

Disturbed Seepage Swamp 

6 4 

5.9 0 

Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath Forest 

1 1 

0.9 0 

Successional Sweetgum Forest 

3 1 

2.9 0 

Beaches 

25 3 11.4 0 

Cultural Meadow 

71 66 363.0 0 

Dense Hardwood Regeneration 

2 2 10.9 0 

Industrial and Commercial Complexes 

1 1 

3.8 0 

Successional Mixed Scrub 

7 5 11.6 0 

Mixed Urban or Built-up Land 

3 3 109.7 0 

Other Urban or Built-up Land 

24 12 38.8 0 

Residential 

4 3 

3.4 0 

Semipermanent Impoundment 

8 6 12.9 0 

Transportation, Communications, and Utilities 

14 10 93.5 0 

Water 

59 17 70.6 0 

TOTAL 3,498.3 183 

44



Figure 6. Locations of thematic accuracy assessment sampling points in the eastern half of Colonial National Historical Park. 

45



Figure 7. Locations of thematic accuracy assessment sampling points in the western half of Colonial National Historical Park. 

46



Data from 183 accuracy assessment points were entered into an Excel spreadsheet listing 

accuracy assessment point ID, vegetation map polygon ID, vegetation map class, and first and 

second (if available) map class determination from accuracy assessment field observations. The 

thematic accuracy of the vegetation map was then tabulated using a contingency matrix that 

compares the map class observed on the ground (accuracy assessment observation) with the map 

class mapped at the same location on the final vegetation map (reference data). The contingency 

table lists reference data values in the columns and accuracy assessment observation values in 

the rows. The number of each reference data and accuracy assessment observation pair for all 

sampling locations is indicated at each row/column intersection in the matrix. Correct mappings 

are indicated on the table where the row and column values are the same and typically occur on 

the diagonal on the matrix. Overall percent accuracy and Kappa index were calculated for the 

map using equations from the USGS-NPS VMP accuracy assessment guidelines (The Nature 

Conservancy and Environmental Systems Research Institute 1994c). Overall percent accuracy 

was calculated by dividing the number of correctly classified accuracy assessment points by the 

total number of accuracy assessment points. The Kappa index is the preferred method of 

reporting overall thematic accuracy because it takes into account that a certain number of correct 

classifications will occur by chance (Foody 1992). The USGS-NPS VMP protocol requires that 

the Kappa index of vegetation maps exceed 80% (The Nature Conservancy and Environmental 

Systems Research Institute 1994c). To calculate the probability that a reference data observation 

has been correctly classified (producer’s accuracy or omission error), the number of reference 

data points correctly classified is divided by the total number of reference data points in that map 

class. To calculate the probability that the mapped vegetation classes represent the vegetation 

actually found on the ground (user’s accuracy or commission error), the number of correctly 

classified reference samples was divided by the total number of samples classified or mapped to 

that vegetation class. The errors of omission and errors of commission for mapped vegetation 

classes should exceed 80%, according to the USGS-NPS VMP protocol (The Nature 

Conservancy and Environmental Systems Research Institute 1994c). 

Metadata Preparation 

All map products are accompanied by detailed Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) 

compliant metadata (FGDC 1998a). Metadata are data about data. They describe the content, 

quality, condition, and other characteristics of the data. Metadata are critical elements of each 

spatial dataset, allowing future users of the data to understand how the dataset was developed, its 

appropriate uses, and to locate specific information within the spatial dataset. Metadata records 

were prepared for each mosaic, for the vegetation map, and for the all georeferenced plot data 

and accuracy assessment point data. 

A metadata record for each set of mosaics was prepared in accordance with the current Federal 

Geographic Data Committee standards (FGDC 1998a). Metadata were produced in notepad and 

parsed using the USGS metadata compiler (USGS 2004). After all errors and omissions 

identified by the parser were corrected, the metadata compiler was used to generate final TXT, 

HTML, and XML versions of each metadata record which are stored in the data archive. Key 

information for the leaf-on (fall) and leaf-off (spring) mosaics and for the formation-level 

vegetation dataset is summarized in Tables 8 and 9, respectively. 

47



Table 8. Summary of key information for Colonial National Historical Park leaf-on (fall) 

mosaics. 

Title of metadata record: Colonial National Historical Park Color Infrared 

Orthorectified Photomosaic - Leaf-on (ERDAS 

IMAGINE .img and MrSID formats) 

Publication date of mosaics (from metadata): March 1, 2003 

Date aerial photography was acquired: October 26, 2001 

Vendor that provided aerial photography: Kucera International 

Scale of photography: 1:6,000 

Type of photography: Color infrared, stereo pairs 

Number of air photos delivered: 328 

Archive location of air photos, airborne GPS and 

IMU files, and camera calibration certificate: 

Scanning specifications: 

North Carolina State University, Center for Earth 

Observation 

600 dpi, 24-bit color depth 

Horizontal positional accuracy of mosaics: 1.047 meters, meets Class 1 National MapAccuracy 

Standard 

Number of ground control points upon which 

estimated accuracy is based: 

Method of calculating positional accuracy: Root mean square error (RMSE) 

Archive location of mosaics and metadata: North Carolina State University, Center for Earth 

Observation 

Formats of archived mosaics: .img (uncompressed) 

57 

and MrSID (20:1 compression) 

Metadata records for the vegetation map and for all georeferenced plot and accuracy assessment 

point data were created using a combination of the NPS Metadata Tools and Editor Version 1.1 

and NPS Database Metadata Extractor MS Access Add-in Version 1.0 (NPS 2006). Each file 

was parsed using the USGS metadata compiler Metaparser (MP) v. 2.8.25 (Schweitzer 1995) and 

the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) configuration file. This process ensures that 

all elements required by the FGDC standard are included in the metadata files. All errors and 

omissions identified by the parser were corrected. 

48



Table 9. Summary of key information for Colonial National Historical Park leaf-off (spring) 

mosaics. 

Title of metadata record: Colonial National Historical Park Color Infrared 

Orthorectified Photomosaic-Leaf-off (ERDAS 

IMAGINE .img and MrSID formats) 

Publication date of mosaics (from metadata): March 1, 2003 

Date aerial photography was acquired: March 1, 2002 

Vendor that provided aerial photography: Kucera International 

Scale of photography: 1:6,000 

Type of photography: Color infrared, stereo pairs 

Number of air photos delivered: 280 

Archive location of air photos, airborne GPS and 

IMU files, and camera calibration certificate: 

Scanning specifications: 

North Carolina State University, Center for Earth 

Observation 

600 dpi, 24-bit color depth 

Horizontal positional accuracy of mosaics: 0.943 meters, meets Class 1 National Map 

Accuracy Standard 

Number of ground control points upon which 

estimated accuracy is based: 

Method of calculating positional accuracy: Root mean square error (RMSE) 

Archive location of mosaics and metadata: North Carolina State University, Center for Earth 

Observation 

Formats of archived mosaics: .img (uncompressed) and 

65 

MrSID (20:1 compression) 

49



Field Surveys 

Results 

Field work was completed in Colonial National Historical Park in 2005. Data were collected 

from 48 quantitative vegetation plots located throughout the park (Figures 8 and 9). One plot 

was sampled at Cheatham Annex, an area that has since returned to U.S. Navy ownership, and 

thus appears outside the park boundary on Figure 8. Species observed during quantitative plot 

sampling and in accuracy assessment observation points are listed in Appendix C. This list 

should not be considered a comprehensive flora for the park, but could be added to existing 

vascular plant lists for the area. Of the 432 vascular plant taxa noted during fieldwork, 38 were 

nonnative species, and, of those, 20 are considered invasive by the Virginia Department of 

Conservation and Recreation (VADCR 2003). Three species noted in the park, pink 

thoroughwort (Fleischmannia incarnata = Eupatorium incarnatum), hoary skullcap (Scutellaria 

incana var. incana), and sandpaper vervain (Verbena scabra), are considered imperiled in the 

state of Virginia (Townsend 2007). All three species have conservation ranks of G5S2, meaning 

that, while secure throughout their entire range, the species are at high risk of extirpation within 

the state of Virginia due to very restricted ranges, very few populations (often 20 or fewer), steep 

declines, or other factors. Seven species noted in the park are included on the Vascular Plant 

Watchlist of the Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, Division of Natural 

Heritage (Townsend 2007). Taxa on this list are decidedly uncommon in Virginia, but not scarce 

enough to merit inclusion on the Rare Vascular Plant List. Watchlist species are monitored to 

determine general population trends. Watchlist species noted in the park during fieldwork for 

this project include: rigid sedge (Carex tetanica), creeping burrhead (Echinodorus cordifolius), 

common spikerush (Eleocharis palustris), beaked spikerush (Eleocharis rostellata), hairy 

shadow witch (Ponthieva racemosa), drooping bulrush (Scirpus lineatus), and white crownbeard 

(Verbesina virginica var. virginica). 


Initial cluster analysis of the 2,250 plot regional dataset divided the data into 3 major subsets, 

upland forests (899 plots), non-tidal wetlands (553 plots), and tidal wetlands (798 plots). 

Subsequent cluster analysis divided these groups further into 22 subsets, each representing major 

branches on analysis dendrograms. More comprehensive cluster, statistical, and ordination 

analyses were conducted on these 22 subsets, resulting in a classification of over 100 vegetation 

associations. Over the course of the project, 20 new associations were described for the USNVC 

and 40 existing associations were revised. 

A reduced dataset representing 11 major groupings in the original 2,250 plot cluster analysis was 

extracted and used to illustrate results pertaining to the seven national parks in this study. A 

table showing the distribution of vegetation classes across all seven parks, including Colonial 

National Historical Park is presented in Appendix D. Quantitative analysis classified 35 

associations occurring in the seven national parks in Virginia. An additional 19 associations and 

12 nonstandard park-specific vegetation classes representing disturbed, cultural, or exotic 

vegetation were also recognized from the seven parks, but were not represented by quantitative 

plot data, and thus not included in the quantitative analyses. Global and subnational (state) 

50



Figure 8. Locations of quantitative vegetation plots in the eastern half of Colonial National Historical Park. 

51



Figure 9. Locations of quantitative vegetation plots in the western half of Colonial National Historical Park. 

52



conservation ranks used in Appendix D are defined in Appendix E, and a summary of select 

environmental variables for associations derived from the analysis of regional quantitative plot 

data is presented in Appendix F. 

All 11 major vegetation groups in the regional analysis are represented at Colonial National 

Historical Park. The groups are 1) oak / heath forests, 2) pine - oak forests, 3) mesic acidic 

forests, 4) oak - hickory forests, 5) basic mesic and calcareous forests, 6) seepage wetlands, 7) 

alluvial forests, 8) swamp forests, 9) nonriverine forests, 10) tidal herbaceous marshes, and 

11) tidal forests and shrublands. Cluster dendrograms, ordination scatterplots, and joint plots 

resulting from quantitative analysis of regional data from plots in these groups are presented in 

Appendix G. Compositional summary statistics for each association present in Colonial National 

Historical Park derived from the analysis of regional quantitative plot data are presented in 

Appendix H. 

The analysis results presented in Appendix G support the classification of plot samples into the 

11 major vegetation groups represented at Colonial National Historical Park. Classification 

dendrograms illustrate the compositional similarity among each group of plots in a vegetation 

association. The classifications are further supported by the ordination diagrams, which show 

the same groups of plots in ordination space. 

The percentage variance represented by each ordination for the major vegetation groups in the 

park is presented in Table 10. Environmental variables significantly correlated with ordinations 

axes are illustrated with joint plot diagrams. All vegetation associations resulting from the 

regional analysis are shown in the dendrograms and ordination diagrams, even those not present 

in Colonial National Historical Park. In this way, species and environmental relationships 

among associations can be examined in a regional context. 

Table 10. Proportion of variance represented by each axis, based on coefficients of 

determination (r 2 ) between ordination distances and distances in the original n-dimensional space 

for the major vegetation groups at Colonial National Historical Park. Two-dimensional 

ordinations have "n/a" listed in Axis 3 column. 

Vegetation Group 

oak / heath forests 

pine - oak forests 

mesic acidic forests 

oak - hickory forests 

basic mesic and calcareous forests 

seepage wetlands 

alluvial forests 

swamp forests 

nonriverine forests 

tidal herbaceous marshes 

tidal forests and shrublands 

Axis 1 

Increment 

Axis 2 Axis 3 

0.356 0.223 0.238 

0.602 0.312 n/a 

0.124 0.426 0.233 

0.083 0.155 0.543 

0.341 0.272 0.215 

0.329 0.531 n/a 

0.094 0.767 n/a 

0.369 0.189 0.244 

0.064 0.539 0.225 

0.291 0.220 0.214 

0.718 0.126 n/a 

Cumulative 

0.817 

0.914 

0.783 

0.781 

0.828 

0.860 

0.861 

0.802 

0.818 

0.725 

0.843 

53



The classification of 93 oak / heath forest sample plots is illustrated in Figures G1-G2 of 

Appendix G. Plot samples cluster into two compositionally distinct groups in both the 

dendrogram and the three-dimensional ordination (Appendix G, Figures G1 and G2). The two 

associations, Coastal Plain Mixed Oak / Heath Forest (CEGL006269) and Piedmont / Low 

Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath Forest (CEGL008521) separate along axis three of the ordination 

diagram. There were no environmental variables that were significantly correlated with the 

ordination axes. The single oak / heath sample plot from Colonial National Historical Park is 

classified as Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath Forest (CEGL008521). 

Environmental variables from plot samples classified as Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed Oak / 

Heath Forest (CEGL008521) are summarized in Appendix F. A compositional summary based 

on 75 sample plots of this association is presented in Appendix H, Table H1. The plot sample 

from Colonial National Historical Park is fairly typical of the association, both compositionally 

and environmentally. The Colonial National Historical Park plot sample contained most of the 

constant species, but lacked common serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea), striped prince's pine 

(Chimaphila maculata), scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), and sassafras (Sassafras albidum). 

Instead of pignut hickory (Carya glabra) or mockernut hickory (Carya alba), the Colonial 

National Historical Park example had sand hickory (Carya pallida). Piedmont / Low Elevation 

Mixed Oak / Heath Forest is found in three of the seven national parks included in this study 

(Appendix D). 

Figures G3 and G4 of Appendix G illustrate the classification of 25 plots of pine - oak forest into 

two compositionally distinct groups. Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest (CEGL004766) 

was classified from eight plot samples from Colonial National Historical Park. Eastern White 

Pine – Hardwood Forest (CEGL008539) is an association found primarily in the Piedmont and 

mountains, which was documented at Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania National Military Park. 

The two associations separate along axis 1 of the two-dimensional ordination, which represents 

60% of the variance in the data (Table 10). Although there were no significant environmental 

variables separating the associations in analysis, samples of Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak 

Forest occurred on flat topography over very infertile soils, while samples of Eastern White Pine 

– Hardwood Forest were found on moderately steep to steep rocky slopes with slightly more 

fertile soils (Appendix F). Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest was only documented at 

Colonial National Historical Park and is not in any of the other parks in this study (Appendix D). 

Classification results for the mesic acidic forest group are presented in Appendix G, Figures G5 

G7. Plot samples cluster into two compositionally distinct groups in both the dendrogram and 

the three-dimensional ordination (Appendix G, Figures G5 and G6). Axis three of the joint plot 

(Appendix G, Figure G7) is highly correlated with joint plot vectors representing pH, and the soil 

cations calcium, magnesium, manganese, and iron. The two associations classified within the 

mesic acidic forests group are Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest (CEGL006075) and Piedmont / 

Coastal Plain Oak – Beech / Heath Forest (CEGL006919). Although both associations can occur 

in the same landscape, Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak – Beech / Heath Forest is found on steeper, 

more exposed slopes with less fertile soils than Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest. A summary of 

environmental variables for the two associations is presented in Appendix F. Both associations 

occur at Colonial National Historical Park. Two plot samples from the park represent Piedmont / 

Coastal Plain Oak – Beech / Heath Forest and three represent Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest. A 

compositional summary for 26 sample plots of Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak – Beech / Heath 

Forest is presented in Appendix H, Table H4 and a compositional summary for 170 sample plots 

54



of Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest is presented in Appendix H, Table H3. Plot samples of 

Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak – Beech / Heath Forest from Colonial National Historical Park are 

fairly representative of the association. However, one sample lacked the nominal species 

American beech (Fagus grandifolia), and both plot samples lacked the parenthetical nominals 

chestnut oak (Quercus prinus) and black oak (Quercus velutina), although these species were 

seen in other examples in the park that were not quantitatively sampled. Colonial National 

Historical Park was the only park in this study where this community was documented 

(Appendix D). Plot samples of Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest from Colonial National 

Historical Park are compositionally representative of the association, with all or most of the 

nominal and constant species. Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest was documented in five of the 

seven national parks included in this study (Appendix D). 

The results of the regional analysis of the oak - hickory forest group are illustrated in Figures 

G8-G10 of Appendix G. Plot samples cluster into two compositionally distinct groups in both 

the dendrogram (Appendix G, Figure G8) and the three-dimensional ordination (Appendix G, 

Figure G9). Strong correlations of soil fertility variables with axis three of the ordination suggest 

that soil nutrients have an important influence on vegetation patterns within this group 

(Appendix G, Figure G10). Two associations, Acidic Oak-Hickory Forest (CEGL008475) and 

Basic Oak - Hickory Forest (CEGL007232) were recognized from the analysis and there is much 

variation within each group of plot samples along a gradual cline of site conditions, soil 

chemistry, and floristic composition. Only Acidic Oak-Hickory Forest was classified from 

Colonial National Historical Park. The single plot sample from the park has somewhat typical 

species composition for the association (Appendix H, Table H5). It lacked the three nominal 

species northern red oak (Quercus rubra), deerberry (Vaccinium stamineum), and nakedflower 

ticktrefoil (Desmodium nudiflorum), but had many of the constant species. Examples of Acidic 

Oak - Hickory Forest from Colonial National Historical Park had greater than average cover for 

chestnut oak (Quercus prinus) and post oak (Quercus stellata). Acidic Oak-Hickory Forest is 

found on acidic soils that are common throughout the Piedmont. Acidic Oak-Hickory Forest 

occurs in six of the seven national parks included in this study (Appendix D). The other 

association classified within the oak - hickory forest group, Basic Oak – Hickory Forest 

(CEGL007232), is not present at Colonial National Historical Park. Compared to Acidic Oak - 

Hickory Forest, Basic Oak - Hickory Forest is associated with soils that are more alkaline and 

characterized by high cation levels (Appendix F). This forest is the typical basic oak-hickory 

forest of the southern Virginia Piedmont and, although it is widely distributed in the Piedmont 

from Virginia to Alabama, it is an uncommon community type that is strongly restricted to mafic 

substrates and subject to ongoing threats from cutting and conversion of hardwood stands to pine 

silvicultures. 

The classification of 77 basic mesic and calcareous forest sample plots is illustrated in Figures 

G11–G13 of Appendix G. Plot samples cluster into three compositionally similar groups in both 

the dendrogram and the three-dimensional ordination (Appendix G, Figures G11 and G12). Two 

associations in this group, Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest (CEGL007748) and Coastal Plain 

Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest (CEGL007181), are restricted to the Coastal Plain where they 

are found in association with Tertiary shell deposits. Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest is 

represented in the analysis results by 24 sample plots, including six from Colonial National 

Historical Park. Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest is represented in the analysis 

results by 22 sample plots, including one from Colonial National Historical Park. The third 

55



association in this group, Inner Piedmont / Lower Blue Ridge Basic Mesic Forest 

(CEGL006186), is known from steep rocky sites of sub-montane landscapes in the western and 

northern Piedmont and on lower slopes of the Blue Ridge. All associations in this group have 

high soil fertility relative to all other upland forest types (Appendix F), but even within this 

group, soil nutrients have a strong influence on vegetation pattern. Axis one of the joint plot 

(Appendix G, Figure G13) is highly correlated with the joint plot vectors representing pH, 

calcium:magnesium ratio, and fertility index. In the context of this ordination, plot samples 

representing the calcareous forests at Colonial National Historical Park are correlated with the 

highest soil fertility values and lower values of Topographic Relative Moisture Index (TRMI). 

Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest is known from steep, usually south-facing, erosive ravine 

slopes that have cut down into deposits of shells and limesands. Plots classified as this 

association have the highest average soil pH values (6.5) and soil calcium (4707 ppm) of any 

upland forests in the study (Appendix F). A compositional summary of the association is 

presented in Appendix H, Table H7. The six plot samples from Colonial National Historical 

Park are compositionally representative examples of Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest. This 

association is also found at George Washington Birthplace National Monument, but is not at any 

of the other parks included in this study (Appendix D). A compositional summary of Coastal 

Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest is presented in Appendix H, Table H6. Coastal Plain 

Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest occurring on shell substrates may be confused with Coastal 

Plain Dry Calcareous Forest, and the two forests types may intergrade on the landscape. Coastal 

Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest is distinguished by the closed forest canopy, the lush forbdominated 

herb layer, and by the presence of mesophytic species. The single plot from Colonial 

National Historical Park is very representative of the association, with all of the nominal species 

and many of the most-constant species. Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest has a very 

restricted range, known only from four counties around Colonial National Historical Park and the 

City of Suffolk in southeastern Virginia. The association is not in any other parks included in 

this study (Appendix D). 

Classification results for the seepage wetland group are presented in Figures G14-G16 of 

Appendix G. Plot samples from 72 seepage wetlands cluster into three compositionally distinct 

groupings in both the dendrogram and the two-dimensional ordination (Appendix G, Figures 

G14 and G15). Axis one of the joint plot (Appendix G, Figure G16) is highly correlated with the 

joint plot vectors representing pH, calcium:magnesium ratio, base saturation, and fertility index, 

while axis two is significantly correlated with percent cover of boulders. Together these axes 

represent 86% of the variance in the data (Table 10). The only seepage wetland present in 

Colonial National Historical Park is Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp (CEGL006413). 

Plots classified as this association have the highest average soil pH value in the group and very 

high levels of base cations (Appendix F). A compositional summary of the association is 

presented in Table H8 of Appendix H. The three plots from the park are very typical of the 

association, with all the nominal and most of the constant species. Coastal Plain Calcareous 

Seepage Swamp is restricted to the bottoms of highly calcareous, central Virginia Coastal Plain 

ravines that have cut into Tertiary shell deposits. This association is not found in any of the 

other national parks included in this study (Appendix D). The remaining two seepage wetland 

associations, Coastal Plain / Piedmont Acidic Seepage Swamp and Southern New England Red 

Maple Seepage Swamp, occur at opposite ends the soil fertility gradient (Appendix G, Figure 

G16). All three seepage wetland associations are considered either globally rare or uncommon 

in the state of Virginia (Appendix D). 

56



The regional analysis of alluvial forest sample plots is illustrated in Figures G17-G19 of 

Appendix G. Plot samples cluster into three compositionally distinct groups in both the 

dendrogram and the two-dimensional ordination. Plot samples segregate along axis two, which 

represents 77% of the variance in the data (Table 10). The joint plot (Appendix G, Figure G19) 

shows the correlation of soil fertility variables with axis two of the ordination, suggesting that 

soil nutrients have an important influence on vegetation patterns within this group. The 48 plot 

samples representing the only alluvial forest association found at Colonial National Historical 

Park, Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest (CEGL004418), are at the low 

end of the soil fertility gradient (Appendix G, Figure G19) and have the lowest averages in the 

group for soil variables indicative of fertility (Appendix F, Table F2). Coastal Plain / Piedmont 

Small-Stream Floodplain Forest develops over acidic soils along small streams in the Coastal 

Plain of Maryland and Virginia and west across the Virginia and North Carolina Piedmont to the 

Cumberland Plateau and Ridge and Valley. Piedmont / Mountain Alluvial Forest 

(CEGL006492) is found on small to medium sized streams over more fertile alluvium, while 

Piedmont / Mountain Floodplain Forest (CEGL006217) is found on the large floodplains of 

major mid-Atlantic rivers over the most fertile alluvium (Appendix F). A compositional 

summary of Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest is presented in Appendix 

H, Table H9. The single plot sample from Colonial National Historical Park is representative of 

the association, with all the nominal species and many of the constant species. This association 

is found in four of the seven national parks in this study (Appendix D). 

The classification of 70 swamp forest sample plots is illustrated in Figures G20-G22 of 

Appendix G. Plot samples cluster into two compositionally distinct groups in the dendrogram 

and into two less distinct groupings in the three-dimensional ordination (Appendix G, Figures 

G20 and G21). The joint plot shows strong correlations of soil fertility variables with axis three 

of the ordination, suggesting that soil nutrients have an important influence on vegetation 

patterns within this group (Appendix G, Figure G22). Plot samples classed as the only swamp 

forest association present at Colonial National Historical Park, Coastal Plain / Piedmont 

Floodplain Swamp Forest (Green Ash - Red Maple Type) (CEGL006606), are at the high end of 

the soil fertility gradient (Appendix G, Figure G22) and have the highest averages in the group 

for soil variables indicative of fertility (Appendix F, Table F2). These forests also tend to have 

longer hydroperiods and deeper flooding than forests classed as Coastal Plain / Piedmont 

Floodplain Swamp Forest (Mixed Oak - Red Maple Type) (CEGL006605), although these 

variables were not measured directly. The two plot samples from Colonial National Historical 

Park are compositionally typical of the association (Appendix H, Table H10), with all nominal 

species and many of the constant species. In this study, Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain 

Swamp Forest (Green Ash - Red Maple Type) was only found at Colonial National Historical 

Park. 

The nonriverine forest group is presented in Appendix G, Figures G23–G25. Plot samples from 

62 nonriverine forest plots cluster into four compositionally distinct groups in the dendrogram, 

the two-dimensional ordination, and the three-dimensional ordination (Appendix G, Figures 

G23–G24). In terms of species composition, the associations show the greatest separation along 

axis two of the ordinations (Table 10; Appendix G, Figure G25). Ordination scores were not 

significantly correlated with available environmental data; however, as a group, these forests 

have low values for soil chemistry variables, indicating acid soils with low fertility (Appendix 

F). Three of the four associations occur at Colonial National Historical Park, Coastal Plain 

57



Depression Wetland (Red Maple - Sweetgum - Willow Oak Type) (CEGL006110), Coastal Plain 

Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type) (CEGL006223), and Non-Riverine Saturated Forest 

(CEGL004644). The fourth association, Upland Depression Swamp (CEGL007403) is an 

isolated wetland association found in the Piedmont of Virginia and the Carolinas. Compositional 

summaries for all three associations found in Colonial National Historical Park are presented in 

Appendix H. One example of Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Red Maple - Sweetgum - 

Willow Oak Type) was sampled in Colonial National Historical Park and it is compositionally 

representative of the association, but lacks one nominal, swamp doghobble (Leucothoe 

racemosa). Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type) was not plot sampled in 

Colonial National Historical Park. The two plot samples of Non-Riverine Saturated Forest from 

the park are compositionally representative of the association, containing all but one of the 

nominal species and all of the most-constant species. The plots in Colonial National Historical 

Park lack coastal sweetpepperbush (Clethra alnifolia), but have higher than average species 

richness (51 and 62 species per 400 m 2 ). Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Red Maple - 

Sweetgum - Willow Oak Type) was also documented in Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania 

National Military Park. Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type) was only 

documented in Colonial National Historical Park. Non-Riverine Saturated Forest occurs in four 

of the seven national parks included in this study. All four of the nonriverine forest associations 

recognized in this analysis are uncommon to rare in the mid-Atlantic region and three are 

globally rare (Appendix D). 

Classification of 129 tidal herbaceous marsh plots is illustrated in Appendix G, Figure G26. The 

dendrogram shows eight distinct compositional groups that correspond to eight tidal marsh 

associations. The ordination of the tidal herbaceous plots does not show a clear separation of 

associations along the three ordination axes (Appendix G, Figure G27). The eight associations 

were grouped into three units used to map tidal herbaceous marshes (see next section of report); 

Tidal Freshwater Marsh, Tidal Oligohaline Marsh, and Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh. 

Figure G28 illustrates how these three groups separate along all three ordination axes. 

Environmental relationships were not explored due to a lack of environmental data for the 

majority of the tidal herbaceous plot samples. All eight associations illustrated in the 

dendrogram (Appendix G, Figure G26) are found at Colonial National Historical Park, and ten 

quantitative plot samples from the park were included in the regional analysis. Compositional 

summaries for the eight associations are presented in Appendix H, Tables H14 - H21. These 

eight tidal marsh associations are considered common in the mid-Atlantic region, but have not 

yet been assigned conservation ranks. Four of the associations are also found at George 

Washington Birthplace National Monument, while the other four were only documented at 

Colonial National Historical Park in this study (Appendix D). 

Figure G29 in Appendix G illustrates the classification of 94 tidal forest and shrubland plot 

samples. The groups segregate on axis one of the two-dimensional ordination (Figure G30) 

which represents 72% of the variance in the compositional data (Table 10). Environmental 

relationships were not explored due to lack of environmental data for the tidal forest and 

shrubland plot samples. Three of the four associations classified in this group are present at 

Colonial National Historical Park, Salt Scrub (CEGL003921), Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle 

Type) (CEGL004656), and Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland (CEGL004654). A 

compositional summary of each association is presented in Appendix H, Tables H22-H24. The 

fourth association, Tidal Shrub Swamp (Iva Type) was identified only from George Washington 

58



Birthplace National Monument. The three tidal forest and shrubland associations identified from 

Colonial National Historical Park were not found in the other six national parks in this study 

(Appendix D). All are common tidal communities in the mid-Atlantic region except for the 

globally rare Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland, which is found only in Virginia and 

Maryland in very specific environmental settings. 

In addition to the vegetation classes derived from quantitative analysis, other vegetation classes 

used to describe the vegetation in the seven parks were developed from qualitative observations 

in the parks. Many of these qualitatively-derived units were crosswalked to the USNVC 

association level, while others were not appropriate for inclusion in the USNVC, and were 

described as nonstandard, park-specific vegetation classes. Nineteen associations and 12 

nonstandard park-specific vegetation classes representing disturbed or cultural vegetation were 

recognized from the seven parks. Colonial National Historical Park has 14 of these cultural or 

disturbed vegetation classes. Seven of these vegetation classes were crosswalked to the 

association level of the USNVC and seven represented vegetation that had no defined 

classification in the USNVC. These seven vegetation classes were given nonstandard, parkspecific 

names to describe the vegetation in Colonial National Historical Park. All vegetation 

classes from the regional classification, their relationship to the USNVC, and their distribution 

across all seven parks in this study are shown in Appendix D. 

Vegetation Community Descriptions and Map Classes 

Forty map classes were used in the vegetation map for Colonial National Historical Park. Map 

classes are equivalent to one or more vegetation classes from the regional vegetation 

classification, or to a land-use class from the Anderson (Anderson et al. 1976) Level II 

classification system. Table 11 lists the 40 map classes used to map the park and shows the 

relationships to standard classifications and to the regional vegetation classes developed for the 

seven parks in this study. Twenty-six of the 40 map classes were crosswalked to the finest level 

of the USNVC (association). Seven of the 40 map classes were described as nonstandard, parkspecific 

vegetation classes, and seven were crosswalked to the Anderson (Anderson et al. 1976) 

Level II classification. Detailed local descriptions for each USNVC association or other map 

class present at Colonial National Historical Park were written based on information collected 

within the park boundary. Two map classes, Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh, and Tidal 

Oligohaline Marsh, are crosswalked to multiple USNVC associations. Polygons mapped as 

Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh represent vegetation belonging to one or two 

associations. Polygons mapped as Tidal Oligohaline Marsh represent one to five associations, 

occurring individually or as a complex of multiple associations. A detailed local description was 

written for each association within both of these map classes. All map classes crosswalked to the 

association level of the USNVC include range wide descriptions (i.e. global descriptions). Global 

descriptions of the USNVC associations were extracted from the September 27, 2007 version of 

the USNVC (NatureServe 2007). 

Detailed local and global descriptions of the USNVC associations are contained in Appendix I. 

Local descriptions for other map classes (nonstandard, park-specific vegetation classes and landuse 

classes) are also provided. The descriptions are indexed by the regional vegetation class or 

59



Table 11. Vegetation-map classes and corresponding USNVC associations (NatureServe 2007) or other classification for Colonial 


Map Class USNVC Association (association code) 

Regional Vegetation or Land-use Class * (name source) 

Acidic Oak - Hickory Forest Quercus alba - Quercus rubra - Carya alba / Cornus florida / 

Vaccinium stamineum / Desmodium nudiflorum Piedmont Forest 

(CEGL008475) 

Acidic Oak – Hickory Forest (Fleming et al. 2006) 

Beaches Not defined - Anderson land-use class Beaches (72) (Anderson et al. 1976) 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Acer rubrum - Fraxinus pennsylvanica / Saururus cernuus Forest Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest (Green Ash - 

Forest (Green Ash - Red Maple Type) 

(CEGL006606) 

Red Maple Type) (Fleming et al. 2006) 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Liquidambar styraciflua - Liriodendron tulipifera / Lindera benzoin / Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest (park- 

Floodplain Forest 

Arisaema triphyllum Forest (CEGL004418) 

specific name) 

Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp Acer rubrum - Fraxinus pennsylvanica / Packera aurea - Carex 

bromoides - Pilea fontana - Bidens laevis Forest (CEGL006413) 

Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp (NatureServe 2007) 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Red Maple - Liquidambar styraciflua - Acer rubrum - Quercus phellos / Leucothoe Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Red Maple - Sweetgum - 

Sweetgum - Willow Oak Type) 

racemosa Forest (CEGL006110) 

Willow Oak Type) (Fleming et al. 2006) 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Swamp Liquidambar styraciflua - Acer rubrum - Nyssa biflora / Carex joorii Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type) 

Tupelo Type) 

Forest (CEGL006223) 

(Fleming et al. 2006) 

Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest Quercus muehlenbergii / Cercis canadensis / Dichanthelium boscii - 

Bromus pubescens - Erigeron pulchellus var. pulchellus - Aquilegia 

canadensis Forest (CEGL007748) 

Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest (Fleming et al. 2006) 

Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest Pinus taeda - Quercus (alba, falcata, stellata) Southeastern Interior 


Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest (park-specific name) 

Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest Fagus grandifolia - Acer barbatum - Quercus muehlenbergii / Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest (Fleming et al. 

Sanguinaria canadensis Forest (CEGL007181) 

2006) 

Cultural Meadow 

Dactylis glomerata - Phleum pratense - Festuca spp. - Solidago spp. 

Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL006107) 

Cultural Meadow (park-specific name) 

Dense Hardwood Regeneration Not defined - nonstandard, park-specific vegetation class 

Dense Hardwood Regeneration (park-specific name) 

Disturbed Calcareous Forest 

Not defined - nonstandard, park-specific vegetation class Disturbed Calcareous Forest (park-specific name) 

Disturbed Depressional Wetland 

Not defined - nonstandard, park-specific vegetation class Disturbed Depressional Wetland (park-specific name) 

Disturbed Seepage Swamp 

Not defined - nonstandard, park-specific vegetation class Disturbed Seepage Swamp (park-specific name) 


Not defined - nonstandard, park-specific vegetation class 

Disturbed Tidal Hardwood Swamp (park-specific name) 


Phyllostachys aurea Shrubland (CEGL008560) Golden Bamboo Shrubland (NatureServe 2007) 

Industrial and Commercial Complexes Not defined - Anderson land-use class Industrial and Commercial Complexes (15) (Anderson et al. 1976) 


Pinus taeda Planted Forest (CEGL007179) Loblolly Pine Plantation (NatureServe 2007) 

Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest Fagus grandifolia - Quercus (alba, rubra) - Liriodendron tulipifera / 

(Ilex opaca var. opaca) / Polystichum acrostichoides Forest 

(CEGL006075) 

Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest (Fleming et al. 2006) 

Mixed Urban or Built-up Land 

Not defined - Anderson land-use class 

Mixed Urban or Built-up Land (16) (Anderson et al. 1976) 


Quercus (phellos, pagoda, michauxii) / Ilex opaca var. opaca / Clethra Non-Riverine Saturated Forest (Fleming et al. 2006) 

alnifolia / Woodwardia areolata Forest (CEGL004644) 

60



Table 11. Vegetation-map classes and corresponding USNVC associations (NatureServe 2007) or other classification for Colonial 

National Historical Park (continued). 

Map Class USNVC Association (association code) Regional Vegetation or Land-use Class * (name source) 

Other Urban or Built-up Land Not defined - Anderson land-use class Other Urban or Built-up Land (17) (Anderson et al. 1976) 

Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak - Beech / Heath Fagus grandifolia - Quercus (alba, velutina, prinus) / Kalmia latifolia Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak - Beech / Heath Forest (Fleming et 

Forest 


al. 2006) 

Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath Quercus alba - Quercus (coccinea, velutina, prinus) / Gaylussacia Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath Forest (Fleming et 

Forest 

baccata Forest (CEGL008521) 

al. 2006) 

Residential Not defined - Anderson land-use class Residential (11) (Anderson et al. 1976) 

Salt Scrub Iva frutescens / Spartina patens Shrubland (CEGL003921) Salt Scrub (Fleming et al. 2006) 

Semipermanent Impoundment Not defined - nonstandard, park-specific vegetation class Semipermanent Impoundment (park-specific name) 

Successional Black Walnut Forest Juglans nigra / Verbesina alternifolia Forest (CEGL007879) Successional Black Walnut (NatureServe 2007) 

Successional Mixed Scrub Not defined - nonstandard, park-specific vegetation class Successional Mixed Scrub (park-specific name) 

Successional Sweetgum Forest Liquidambar styraciflua Forest (CEGL007216) Successional Sweetgum Forest (NatureServe 2007) 

Successional Tree-of-Heaven Forest Ailanthus altissima Forest (CEGL007191) Successional Tree-of-Heaven Forest (NatureServe 2007) 

Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest Liriodendron tulipifera - Pinus taeda Forest (CEGL007521) Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest (NatureServe 2007) 

Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland Taxodium distichum / Carex hyalinolepis Woodland (CEGL004654) Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland (Fleming et al. 2006) 

Tidal Freshwater Marsh Peltandra virginica - Pontederia cordata Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation Tidal Freshwater Marsh (Fleming et al. 2006) 

(CEGL004706) 

Spartina alterniflora - Distichlis spicata Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Low Salt Marsh) (park- 

(CEGL006586) 



OR 

Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Transitional Marsh) 

Spartina alterniflora - Polygonum punctatum - Amaranthus 

cannabinus Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL006418) 

(park-specific name) 

Phragmites australis Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL004187) Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Common Reed Tidal Marsh) (park- 

OR 


Spartina cynosuroides Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL004195) Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Big Cordgrass Type) (Fleming et al. 

OR 

2006) 


Hibiscus moscheutos - Polygonum punctatum - Peltandra virginica 

Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL006181) 

OR 

Peltandra virginica - Schoenoplectus (pungens, tabernaemontani) 

Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL006578) 

OR 

Schoenoplectus americanus - Spartina patens Herbaceous Vegetation 

(CEGL006612) 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Mixed Forbs Type) (Fleming et al. 

2006) 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Interior Depression Marsh) (parkspecific 

name) 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Saltmeadow Cordgrass - Olney Three- 

Square Low Interior Marsh Type) (Fleming et al. 2006) 

Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) Morella cerifera - Rosa palustris / Thelypteris palustris var. pubescens Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) (park-specific name) 

Shrubland (CEGL004656) 

Transportation, Communications, and Utilities Not defined - Anderson land-use class Transportation, Communications, and Utilities (14) (Anderson et 

al. 1976) 

Water Not defined - Anderson land-use class Water (5) (Anderson et al. 1976) 

* Equivalent to the Common name (Park-specific) as used in detailed descriptions in Appendix I. 

61



land-use class name. Representative photographs of most of the vegetation classes are provided 

after the descriptions. 

Photographs were taken by VADNH staff unless otherwise indicated. A bibliography for the 

sources cited in the global vegetation descriptions from the USNVC is also provided in 

Appendix I. 

Fields used in the local and global descriptions are defined in Appendix J. Each USNVC 

association is also crosswalked to the state classification for Virginia (Fleming et. al 2006). The 

state conservation rank (S Rank), global conservation rank (G Rank), and classification 

confidence for state and global classifications are included in the descriptions. Definitions of the 

conservation ranks are listed in Appendix E. 

The dichotomous key to the vegetation classes of Colonial National Historical Park is presented 

in Appendix K. The dichotomous key should be used in conjunction with the detailed vegetation 

descriptions. 

Accuracy Assessment 

Positional Accuracy 

The final horizontal positional accuracies of the leaf-on and leaf-off mosaics are 1.047 meters 

and 0.943 meters, respectively, both of which meet Class 1 National Map Accuracy Standards 

(FGDC 1998b). A copy of each spreadsheet, containing the x and y coordinates for each ground 

control point and the accuracy calculation formula, is included in the NCSU-CEO data archive. 

Thematic Accuracy 

The results of thematic accuracy assessment for the original vegetation map were calculated with 

a contingency matrix (Table 12). The Kappa Index for the original vegetation map was 72.8% ± 

5.7%, with an overall accuracy of 74.3%. This accuracy falls below the USGS-NPS VMP 

requirement of 80%. Nine classes have errors of omission that fall below 80%, and six classes 

have errors of commission that fall below 80%. Errors of omission are errors in classifying the 

accuracy assessment observation and represent the probability that the ground samples have been 

classed correctly. Errors of commission are map errors and denote the probability that the 

mapped vegetation associations represent the associations actually found on the ground 

Since the overall thematic accuracy did not meet the 80% USGS-NPS VMP standard, all cases 

where accuracy assessment observations differed from the mapped data were reviewed to 

determine which errors were acceptable or understandable and which errors could be easily 

corrected to increase the accuracy of the map. Examination of the errors associated with each 

observation shows that they can be attributed to below minimum mapping unit inclusions of 

other vegetation types within the target polygons, problems with field keys and/or descriptions 

that lead to user error, accuracy assessment points falling within ecotones or transitional areas, 

seasonal constraints on vegetation identification, compositional similarities among map classes 

making them difficult to discern in the field, or to the misclassification of polygons during initial 

photo interpretation. 

62



Problems with the field keys were addressed by modifying the keys to better help the user make 

distinctions between similar vegetation types. Descriptions of map classes were modified, where 

needed, to include comments about similar vegetation classes or seasonal constraints on 

vegetation identification. Polygons that could be confidently reclassified using accuracy 

assessment data were reattributed in the final version of the map and minor refinements to the 

map were made using information collected during accuracy assessment. 

The following revisions were made to the vegetation map: 

• The ecotonal area between two polygons mapped as Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small- 

Stream Floodplain Forest and Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest (Green 

Ash – Red Maple Type) was edited to better reflect what was observed on the ground. 

• Two polygons initially mapped as Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest 

(Green Ash – Red Maple Type) were reclassified as Non-Riverine Saturated Forest based 

on accuracy assessment data and the landscape position. 

• Three polygons initially mapped as Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest were 

reclassified as Successional Tuliptree – Loblolly Pine Forest. 

• A 0.6 hectare inclusion of Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland was split out of a 

polygon initially mapped as Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest. 

• Three polygons initially mapped as Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest were reclassified as 

Acidic Oak – Hickory Forest, Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak - Beech / Heath Forest, and 

Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest. 

• The boundary between a polygon mapped as Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest and the 

adjacent Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest was refined to better 

reflect what was observed on the ground. 

• One polygon initially mapped as Non-Riverine Saturated Forest was reclassified to 

Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest. 

• One polygon initially mapped as Salt Scrub was reclassified to Coastal Plain Loblolly 

Pine - Oak Forest . 

• A 1.2 ha inclusion of Tidal Oligohaline Marsh was split out of a polygon initially mapped 

as Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest . 

• A portion of the single polygon mapped as Successional Tree-of-Heaven Forest was 

remapped to split out an area of Sucessional Tuliptree – Loblolly Pine Forest. 

• Seven polygons initially mapped as Tidal Oligohaline Marsh were reclassified to the map 

class Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh. 

• A new polygon of Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest encountered during accuracy 

assessment, in transit between sampling points, was split out of an area initially mapped 

as Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest. 

A second contingency matrix was constructed using the revised vegetation map as reference 

data. The final contingency matrix based on the revised vegetation map is presented in Table 13. 

The Kappa Index for the final vegetation map was 83.8% ± 4.7%, with an overall accuracy of 

84.7%. Errors of omission in the final vegetation map equal or exceed 80% for all but five map 

classes: Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine – Oak Forest (76%), Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous 

Ravine Forest (25%), Successional Black Walnut Forest (75%), Successional 

63



Table 12. Contingency matrix and calculated errors for the thematic accuracy assessment of the original vegetation map for Colonial National Historical Park. Cells highlighted in gray show the number of sampling points 

that were correct. 

Accuracy Assessment Observation 


Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp 

Forest (Green Ash - Red Maple Type) 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream 


Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp 

Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest 

Mapped Vegetation Class (Reference Data) 

Acidic Oak - Hickory Forest 5 2 7 71% 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest (Green Ash - Red Maple Type) 1 2 1 4 25% 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest 4 4 100% 

Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp 5 5 100% 

Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest 12 1 1 14 86% 

Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest 1 1 100% 

Disturbed Tidal Hardwood Swamp 3 3 100% 

Golden Bamboo Shrubland 2 2 100% 

Loblolly Pine Plantation 4 4 100% 

Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest 3 24 1 3 31 77% 

Non-Riverine Saturated Forest 2 2 4 50% 

Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak - Beech / Heath Forest 1 4 5 80% 

Salt Scrub 4 4 100% 

Semipermanent Impoundment 1 1 NA 

Successional Black Walnut Forest 3 3 100% 

Successional Mixed Scrub 1 1 1 3 NA 

Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest 6 1 3 1 1 25 37 68% 

Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland 1 5 6 83% 

Tidal Freshwater Marsh 6 7 86% 

Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh 1 4 7 12 33% 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh 3 1 21 25 84% 

Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) 1 1 100% 

Grand Total 5 3 6 5 20 4 3 2 5 30 4 5 5 4 1 30 5 10 5 30 1 183 

Error of Omission (Percent Correct) 100% 33% 67% 100% 60% 25% 100% 100% 80% 80% 50% 80% 80% 75% 0% 83% 100% 60% 80% 70% 100% 

Total points correct 136 

Overall Accuracy 74.3% 

Kappa Index 

72.8% 

90% Confidence Interval 5.7% 

Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine 

Forest 






Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak - Beech / 

Heath Forest 

Salt Scrub 

Successional Black Walnut Forest 



Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland 




Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) 

Grand Total 

Error of Commission (Percent Correct) 

64



Table 13. Contingency matrix and calculated errors for the final edited vegetation map for Colonial National Historic Park. Cells highlighted in gray show the number of sampling points that were correct. 

Accuracy Assessment Observation 


Acidic Oak - Hickory 

Forest 

6 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp 

Forest (Green Ash 

- Red Maple Type) 



Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage 

Swamp 

Coastal Plain Loblolly 

Pine - Oak Forest 

Mapped Vegetation Class (Reference Data) 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest (Green Ash - Red Maple Type) 2 1 1 4 50% 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest 5 5 100% 

Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp 5 5 100% 

Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest 13 1 14 93% 

Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest 1 1 100% 

Disturbed Tidal Hardwood Swamp 3 3 100% 

Golden Bamboo Shrubland 2 2 100% 

Loblolly Pine Plantation 4 4 100% 

Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest 3 23 1 3 30 77% 

Non-Riverine Saturated Forest 4 4 100% 

Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak - Beech / Heath Forest 5 5 100% 

Salt Scrub 4 4 100% 

Semipermanent Impoundment 1 1 N/A 

Successional Black Walnut Forest 3 3 100% 

Successional Mixed Scrub 1 1 1 3 N/A 

Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest 3 1 2 1 30 37 81% 

Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland 6 6 100% 

Tidal Freshwater Marsh 6 1 7 86% 

Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh 1 11 12 92% 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh 3 1 21 25 84% 

Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) 1 1 100% 

Grand Total 6 2 6 5 17 4 3 2 5 26 5 6 4 4 1 35 6 10 12 23 1 183 

Error of Omission (Percent Correct) 100% 100% 83% 100% 76% 25% 100% 100% 80% 88% 80% 83% 100% 75% 0% 86% 100% 60% 92% 91% 100% 

Total points correct 155 

Overall Accuracy 84.7% 

Kappa Index 83.8% 

90% Confidence Interval 4.7% 

Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest 

Disturbed Tidal Hardwood 

Swamp 




1 

Non-Riverine Saturated 

Forest 

Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak 

- Beech / Heath 

Forest 

Salt Scrub 

Successional Black 

Walnut Forest 



Tidal Bald Cypress 

Forest / Woodland 


Tidal Mesohaline and 

Po lyhaline Marsh 


Tidal Shrub Swamp ( Wax 

Myrtle Type) 

Grand Total 

7 

Error of Co mmission (Percent 

Correct) 

86% 

65



Tree-of-Heaven Forest (0%), and Tidal Freshwater Marsh (60%). Four accuracy assessment 

points that fell in areas mapped as Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine – Oak Forest were not 

classified in agreement with the map. These errors can be attributed to below minimum 

mapping unit inclusions of other vegetation types within the target polygons and incomplete 

inspection of polygons. Since the compositional data collected in accuracy assessment 

support the original mapped class, a misunderstanding of the key or descriptions seems a 

likely cause of error. Only 25% of the accuracy assessment points that fell into Coastal Plain 

Calcareous Ravine Forest were in agreement with the map. This is an understandable error 

since confirmation of this vegetation in the field can depend on the visibility of several 

indicator species that are only apparent early in the growing season. Modifications were 

made to the local descriptions noting that, late in the season when some herb species are not 

evident, Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest may be confused with Mesic Mixed 

Hardwood Forest. The one polygon of Successional Black Walnut Forest that was classified 

as Successional Mixed Scrub was transitional in composition and structure and could not be 

confidently reclassified based on accuracy assessment data. The error of omission for 

Successional Tree-of-Heaven Forest is 0% since it is mapped as only one polygon and the 

polygon was identified as Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest during accuracy 

assessment. Examination of accuracy assessment data revealed that only a small portion of 

the polygon was observed and that tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima) may have been 

misidentified as black walnut (Juglans nigra). Four polygons mapped as Tidal Freshwater 

Marsh were identified as other tidal marsh map classes in accuracy assessment. Vegetation at 

some of these locations was transitional between concepts and difficult to classify from 

accuracy assessment data. 

The error of commission exceeds 80% for all classes in the final vegetation map except 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest (Green Ash - Red Maple Type) (50%) and 

Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest (77%). One area mapped as Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small- 

Stream Floodplain Forest and one area mapped as Non-Riverine Saturated Forest were 

incorrectly identified as Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest (Green Ash – Red 

Maple Type) in the accuracy assessment. These map classes can be difficult to distinguish in 

the field, particularly in ecotonal or disturbed areas, and on photography since all are 

deciduous wetland forests that have similar photosignatures. Three areas mapped as Coastal 

Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest and three areas mapped as Successional Tuliptree – 

Loblolly Pine Forest were identified as Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest in accuracy 

assessment. On the ground, Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest may be confused 

with Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest, particularly late in the growing season when some of the 

indicator species are not visible. The two map classes are both deciduous upland forests with 

similar canopy composition and similar landscape positions, and thus could easily be 

confused in photo interpretation. Confusion between Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine 

Forest and Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest both on the ground and in photointerpretation is 

also understandable since some stands of these map classes can be compositionally similar, 

and both map classes can have virtually identical photo signatures. The error of commission 

could not be calculated for Semipermanent Impoundment or Sucessional Mixed Scrub since 

these classes were not included in the accuracy assessment. Both classes are present in the 

contingency matrix to indicate when accuracy assessment observations identified sample 

points as these classes. 

66



Vegetation Map Production 

The final vegetation map for Colonial National Historical Park is shown in Figures 10, 11, 

and 12 and a summary of the map class distribution and abundance is provided in Table 14. 

The mapping boundary was based on park boundary data obtained from Colonial National 

Historical Park in May 2003. The mapping boundary includes lands under a scenic easement 

at Swanns Point and it excludes the Cheatham Annex, an area that returned to US Navy 

ownership in February 2004. The vegetation map was clipped at the park boundary because 

areas outside the park were not surveyed or included in the accuracy assessment. The original 

vegetation map was revised based on the accuracy assessment sampling data to correct certain 

map class errors and create a more accurate map. Specific map edits are listed in the 

Accuracy Assessment results section of ths report. 

Polygons that are attributed with Anderson Level II class 14 (Transportation, Communication, 

and Utilities) are further attributed in the comment field of the vegetation map attribute table 

to identify what finer feature they represent (transportation or utilities). The map class 

Cultural Meadow includes mowed roadsides larger than 0.5 ha. Those polygons representing 

mowed roadsides are indicated as such in the comment field of the map attribute table. 

Mowed roadsides smaller than 0.5 hectare are included either with the adjacent road 

(Anderson Level II class 14 - Transportation, Communication, and Utilities) or the adjacent 

vegetation polygon. Cultural Meadow polygons not representing mowed roadsides are 

indicated with the term “field” in the map attribute table. Other Urban or Built-up Land 

polygons are further distinguished in the comment field of the map attribute table if they 

represent a golf course, riprap, or a spillway. Disturbed examples of Non-Riverine Saturated 

Forest that do not have the typical species composition are labeled as "disturbed" in the 

comment field of the vegetation map attribute table. 

A field was included in the map attribute table to indicate which United States Fish and 

Wildlife Service (USFWS) wetland system (sensu Cowardin et al. 1979) a map class 

represents. Polygons representing wetland formations (i.e. those with temporarily flooded, 

seasonally flooded, saturated, semipermanently flooded, or tidal hydrologic modifiers) are 

tagged to the appropriate system in the USFWS wetland classification. Polygons representing 

vegetation that is not classed as a wetland have the value of “upland” in this field. Polygons 

representing deepwater areas without emergent vegetation are labeled as “open water” in this 

field. Maps of polygons representing the wetland map classes are shown in Figures 13 and 

14. These maps do not show jurisdictional wetlands, but rather the distribution of wetland 

map classes with USNVC formations containing wetland modifers. The hydrology of the 

map class may not represent the hydrology on the ground and small areas of wetlands may be 

included within polygons classed as “upland”. 

Project Deliverables 

Final products of the vegetation mapping project are shown in Table 15. All products have 

been delivered to the National Park Service by the Virginia Department of Conservation and 

Recreation, Division of Natural Heritage with this report or at an earlier date by NCSU-CEO. 

67



Figure 10. Vegetation and Anderson Level II map classes for Colonial National Historical Park, Yorktown Battlefield north to Bellfield Plantation . 

68



Figure 11. Vegetation and Anderson Level II map classes for Colonial National Historical Park, Poley Point to College Creek. 

69



Figure 12. Vegetation and Anderson Le vel II map classes for Colonial National Historical Park, Jamestown Island, Swanns Point, and Green Spring. 

70



Table 14. Number of polygons, total mapped hectares (acres), and number of quantitative plots 

sampled for 40 vegetation-map classes at Colonial National Historical Park. 

Number Total Total Number 

of mapped mapped of plots 

Map class 

polygons hectares acres sampled 

Acidic Oak - Hickory Forest 12 18.9 46.8 1 

Beaches 25 11.4 28.2 0 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest (Green Ash - Red Maple Type) 1 30.9 76.4 2 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest 7 65.9 162.9 1 

Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp 11 19.5 48.3 3 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Red Maple - Sweetgum - Willow Oak Type) 5 1.8 4.4 1 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type) 1 0.3 0.7 0 

Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest 9 5.8 14.4 6 

Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest 29 310.7 767.8 8 

Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest 9 20.4 50.3 2 

Cultural Meadow 71 363.0 897.0 0 

Dense Hardwood Regeneration 2 10.9 26.9 0 

Disturbed Calcareous Forest 6 8.8 21.7 1 

Disturbed Depressional Wetland 1 1.5 3.7 0 

Disturbed Seepage Swamp 6 5.9 14.7 0 

Disturbed Tidal Hardwood Swamp 3 4.6 11.4 1 

Golden Bamboo Shrubland 3 2.1 5.3 0 

Industrial and Commercial Complexes 1 3.8 9.4 0 

Loblolly Pine Plantation 13 51.4 127.1 0 

Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest 55 338.2 835.8 3 

Mixed Urban or Built-up Land 3 109.7 271.1 0 

Non-Riverine Saturated Forest 5 53.4 132.0 2 

Other Urban or Built-up Land 

24 38.8 95.8 0 

Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak - Beech / Heath Forest 10 7.6 18.7 2 

Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath Forest 1 0.9 2.2 1 

Residential 4 3.4 8.3 0 

Salt Scrub 9 5.5 13.6 0 

Semipermanent Impoundment 8 12.9 31.9 0 

Successional Black Walnut Forest 5 5.6 13.8 0 

Successional Mixed Scrub 7 11.6 28.6 0 

Successional Sweetgum Forest 3 2.9 7.1 0 

Successional Tree-of-Heaven Forest 1 4.0 10.0 0 

Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest 98 1250.5 3090.0 0 

Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland 9 12.0 29.6 3 

Tidal Freshwater Marsh 17 124.8 308.4 2 

Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh 24 42.7 105.6 1 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh 43 367.8 908.9 8 

Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) 5 4.2 10.4 0 

Transportation, Communications, and Utilities 14 93.5 231.1 0 

Water 59 70.6 174.3 0 

TOTAL 619 3498.4 8644.5 48 

71



Figure 13. Distribution of wetland vegetation-map classes in the eastern half of Colonial Nationa l Historical Park. 

72



Figure 14. Distribution of wetland vegetation-map classes in the western half of Colonial National Historical Park. 

73



Table 15. Summary of products resulting from the classification and mapping of vegetation at 

Colonial National Historical Park. 

FGCD-complaint 

Product spatial metadata 

Park orthophoto mosaics (leaf-on and leaf-off) Yes 

Vegetation plot sampling data in the PLOTS 2.0 database Not applicable 

Vegetation plot point data (ArcView shapefile) Yes 

Thematic accuracy assessment sampling points (ArcView shapefile) Yes 

Digital photos representative of vegetation types Not applicable 

Association-level vegetation polygon map Yes 

Final report with vegetation keys and descriptions in digital and hardcopy format Not applicable 

74




Discussion 

A comprehensive regional analysis resulted in the classification of over 100 USNVC 

associations, spanning nearly all major physiographic provinces in the region. Thirty-five of the 

associations are represented in the seven national parks included in this study. An additional 19 

associations and 12 nonstandard, park-specific classes representing disturbed, cultural, or exotic 

vegetation were also recognized from the seven parks. This study at Colonial National Historical 

Park identified and characterized 40 map classes, representing 31 USNVC associations, seven 

Anderson Level II land-use classes (Anderson et al. 1976), and seven nonstandard, park-specific 

vegetation classes (Table 11). The diversity seen in the vegetation map reflects the varied 

environmental settings of Colonial National Historical Park, as well as the park’s location in the 

midst a rapidly developing urban/suburban area, and its mandate to preserve historic and cultural 

features. 

Transitional vegetation and cultural map classes cover 56.7% of the land in Colonial National 

Historical Park. Transitional vegetation alone covers 37.4% of the land in the park (1308.4 ha 

[3233.0 ac]). This vegetation is the result of relatively recent (20-80 years) abandonment of pine 

plantations and fields, or tree canopy removal by disturbances such as pine bark beetle 

infestation, wind, beaver activity, and timber harvests or other silvicultural practices. 

Transitional uplands are dominated by early successional, weedy tree species in the canopy and 

subcanopy, and can have high cover of nonnative plants in the shrub and herbaceous layers. 

Transitional vegetation is also found fringing roadways and parking areas where upland and 

wetland vegetation has been disturbed or fragmented by road construction. Beaver-disturbed 

areas, or areas artificially impounded, typically occur as semipermanently flooded habitats 

variously dominated by trees, shrubs, herbs, or open water. Where roads or berms have altered 

the natural tidal flooding regime of formerly tidal vegetation, disturbed wetlands exist that are 

transitional between oligohaline and freshwater systems. Each of these map classes are rapidly 

changing in species composition and vegetation structure. In the absence of beaver and 

nonnative plant species invasions, some of these stands would eventually succeed into one of the 

later successional forest types mapped in the park. Map classes representing transitional 

vegetation include: Disturbed Calcareous Forest, Disturbed Depressional Wetland, Disturbed 

Seepage Swamp, Disturbed Tidal Hardwood Swamp, Semipermanent Impoundment, 

Successional Black Walnut Forest, Successional Mixed Scrub, Successional Sweetgum Forest, 

Successional Tree-of-Heaven Forest, and Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest. These 

map classes are described in Appendix I. 

Cultural map classes cover 19.3% of the park’s acreage (676.6 ha [1671.9 ac]). Cultural map 

classes include Anderson land-use classes as well as vegetation resulting from planting or active 

cultivation. Cultural Meadow is the most common cultural map class in the park, covering 363.0 

ha (897.0 ac). Cultural Meadow includes all mowed or maintained fields and agricultural leases 

in the park, as well as mowed roadsides over 0.5 ha in size. Most of the Cultural Meadow areas 

are managed to keep an open landscape similar to the open farmland conditions found during the 

18th century. Other cultural map classes include Dense Hardwood Regeneration, Golden 

Bamboo Shrubland, Loblolly Pine Plantation, Industrial and Commercial Complexes, Mixed 

75



Urban or Built-up Land, Other Urban or Built-up Land, Residential, and Transportation, 

Communications, and Utilities. These map classes are described in Appendix I. 

Wetland map classes account for 23.8% of the park area or about 835.9 ha (2065.4 ac). These 

map classes include areas of open water on the coastline where the park boundary falls within 

large water bodies. Open water is also found on larger tidal creeks in and around Jamestown 

Island, and in ponds, and is mapped as a total of 70.6 ha (174.3 ac). Wetland map classes also 

include tidal wetlands (568.5 ha [1404.7 ac]), nontidal wetlands (171.9 ha [424.7 ac]), and other 

transitional or disturbed wetland vegetation as described above (25.0 ha [61.7 ac]). Tidal 

wetlands (including intertidal beaches) cover 16.3% of the park area. Tidal vegetation is 

represented by the map classes Salt Scrub, Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland, Tidal 

Freshwater Marsh, Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh, Tidal Oligohaline Marsh, and Tidal 

Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type). 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh is the most common tidal vegetation in the park (367.8 ha [908.9 ac]) 

and occurs at Swanns Point, Jamestown Island, Kingsmill / College Creek, and as small patches 

along King Creek. It is dominated by species indicative of oligohaline conditions, where salt 

concentrations are between 0.5 and 5 ppt. This map class includes five associations which can 

occur singly or in a complex. Much of the vegetation mapped as Tidal Oligohaline Marsh is 

either the association Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Mixed Forbs Type) or Tidal Oligohaline Marsh 

(Big Cordgrass Type). Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Mixed Forbs Type) is dominated by variable 

mixtures of tidal forbs such as dotted smartweed (Polygonum punctatum), green arrow arum 

(Peltandra virginica), crimsoneyed rosemallow (Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos), and 

narrowleaf cattail (Typha angustifolia). It is currently documented from Virginia, Maryland, and 

New Jersey. Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Big Cordgrass Type) is dominated by big cordgrass 

(Spartina cynosuroides), and often forms tall, extensive, nearly monospecific stands, particularly 

along edges of the main tidal channels. It is a common marsh association, ranging from Georgia 

north to New Jersey. Other associations included in areas mapped as Tidal Oligohaline Marsh 

include dense stands of the invasive, nonnative grass, common reed (Phragmites australis), and 

less common associations that occur on the interior of larger marshes. Tidal Oligohaline Marsh 

(Common Reed Tidal Marsh) ranges from Texas to Florida and north to Canada. Tidal 

Oligohaline Marsh (Interior Depression Marsh) is currently only documented from Virginia. 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Saltmeadow Cordgrass - Olney Three-Square Low Interior Marsh 

Type) has been documented from Virginia to New Jersey, but may extend south to Georgia. Due 

to the difficulty of delineating the five associations separately over large areas, these associations 

were combined into a single map class that was used in all parks in this study. 

Tidal Freshwater Marsh is mapped as 124.8 ha (308.4 ac) and is found at Jamestown Island in 

the vicinity of Sandy Bay and the upper portions of the Back River, at Papermill Creek, and at 

College Creek / Kingsmill along Halfway Creek. Tidal Freshwater Marsh is distinguished from 

other tidal marsh vegetation in Colonial National Historical Park by occurring in areas where 

there is enough freshwater input to influence the vegetation composition so that the dominant 

species include green arrow arum (Peltandra virginica) and annual wildrice (Zizania aquatica 

var. aquatica). This association is found on the Atlantic Coast from Maine to Virginia, 

excluding New Hampshire and Rhode Island, and occupies a relatively uncommon, specialized 

habitat. Many examples have been impacted by the damming of tidal rivers and by pollution in 

urban areas. It is estimated that less than 200 high quality examples remain throughout its range. 

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Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh covers 42.7 ha (105.6 ac) in the park and is found as 

small pocket marshes along the York River from Ringfield / King Creek to Yorktown Creek and 

in the vicinity of College Creek / Kingsmill. This tidal vegetation is characterized by plants 

associated with mesohaline or polyhaline conditions, where salt concentrations are between 5 

and 18 ppt or 18 to 30 ppt, respectively. Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh can be one of 

two associations, but were combined into one map class since they cannot be mapped separately 

based on photo signatures. Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Low Salt Marsh) is the 

more common of the two associations and is distinguished by the dominance of smooth 

cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) occurring with species indicative of mesohaline conditions such 

as saltmeadow cordgrass (Spartina patens) and inland saltgrass (Distichlis spicata). Tidal 

Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Transitional Marsh) is distinguished by the dominance of 

smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) occurring with species indicative of more oligohaline or 

freshwater conditions such as big cordgrass (Spartina cynosuroides), green arrow arum 

(Peltandra virginica), and annual wildrice (Zizania aquatica var. aquatica). Little is known 

about the conservation status of these associations. They have been documented from Virgina, 

Maryland, and Delaware. 

Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland (12.0 ha [29.6 ac]) is found along the James River at 

Swanns Point with small, disturbed examples mapped at Jamestown Island. This forest forms a 

fringe between open tidal water and tidal marsh, and can occur along the riverfront or on 

protected shorelines. This globally rare association occupies very specialized habitats in 

Maryland and Virginia. Salt Scrub (5.5 ha [13.6 ac]) occurs as small, linear patches along the 

York River north of Yorktown, and along the James River in the vicinity of Kingsmill. This 

sandy, tidal shrubland is often found in a complex with tidal herbaceous vegetation. Salt Scrub 

is a common coastal association found from South Carolina to Massachusetts. Tidal Shrub 

Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) covers only 4.2 ha (10.4 ac) in the park and is found in small patches 

in the vicinity of Yorktown, along Colonial Parkway, Ringfield / King Creek, and at College 

Creek / Kingsmill. These dense shrublands occur adjacent to tidal marshes and are dominated by 

the shrub wax myrtle (Morella cerifera) in association with narrowleaf cattail (Typha 

angustifolia). Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) is known from North Carolina, Virginia, 

and Maryland. 

Nontidal forested wetlands include six map classes that cover 171.9 ha (424.7 ac) in the park. 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest (65.9 ha [162.9 ac]) and Coastal Plain / 

Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest (Green Ash - Red Maple Type) (30.9 ha [76.4 ac]) are found 

on the floodplains of small streams in the park. The majority of Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small- 

Stream Floodplain Forest is mapped in Yorktown Battlefield where it is found along Baptist Run 

and Great Run over deep, sandy alluvial soils that are subject to occasional, brief flooding, 

typically once or twice a year. Small areas classed as Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream 

Floodplain Forest are also found along Colonial Parkway, just north of Jones Millpond. Coastal 

Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest is characterized by species adapted to welldrained 

alluvial soils such as tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), American sycamore (Platanus 

occidentalis), New York fern (Thelypteris noveboracensis), Christmas fern (Polystichum 

acrostichoides), and nodding fescue (Festuca subverticillata). The deep, moist, well drained 

soils of Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest are highly susceptible to 

nonnative species invasion, and thus it is important not to site trails and roads in the active 

floodplain and to mitigate impacts from surrounding development. Coastal Plain / Piedmont 

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Small-Stream Floodplain Forest is a relatively common association (G4), but high quality, 

undisturbed examples are rare. It is widespread from the Coastal Plain of Maryland and Virginia 

through the Piedmont of Virginia and North Carolina to the Cumberland Plateau. Coastal Plain / 

Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest was mapped in four of the seven parks included in this 

study. Along Beaverdam Creek in Yorktown Battlefield, Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream 

Floodplain Forest grades into Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp (Green Ash – Red 

Maple Type), which is found on poorly drained portions of the floodplain, with pronounced 

seasonal flooding. Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp (Green Ash – Red Maple Type) 

typically has high cover of green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) and/or red maple (Acer rubrum) 

and more cover by species favoring longer hydroperiods and poorly drained, mucky soils such as 

lizard's tail (Saururus cernuus) and threeway sedge (Dulichium arundinaceum). Much of the 

area mapped as Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp (Green Ash – Red Maple Type) has 

been altered by beaver activity, which threatens to convert this area to Semipermanent 

Impoundment. Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp (Green Ash – Red Maple Type) is 

known from the Chesapeake Bay region from Virginia north through Deleware, and into the 

Coastal Plain of New Jersey. Colonial National Historical Park is the only park in this study 

where this association was documented. 

The four remaining nontidal wetland map classes are considered non-alluvial wetlands. Non- 

Riverine Saturated Forest is mapped as 53.4 ha (132.0 ac) on a nearly flat, broad stream terrace 

in the vicinity of Powhatan Creek and Green Spring. This wetland forest is distinguished by its 

landscape position in an inactive floodplain and the high frequency of hydric oaks and other 

characteristic herbaceous species. Most of the area mapped as Non-Riverine Saturated Forest at 

Green Spring is regeneration of sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) codominating with loblolly 

pine (Pinus taeda), but there are a few patches of more mature hydric oaks scattered throughout 

the stand, representing the historic condition of the forest. Non-Riverine Saturated Forest is 

restricted to extensive, flat terraces and very wide, ancient floodplains that are no longer subject 

to alluvial processes, but are saturated or seasonally flooded due to a high water table. These 

specialized wetland habitats were probably never common on the landscape, and mature, 

undisturbed examples of this globally rare association are quite rare. Non-Riverine Saturated 

Forest is only known from about 25 sites in 13 counties in Virginia and it may range into 

Maryland. Much of the suitable habitat for the association has been lost to agriculture, 

hydrologic alterations, and conversion of hardwood forests to silvicultural pine plantations. 

The non-alluvial wetland Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp forms over moderately to 

highly base-rich substrates in the bottoms of ravines that have downcut into Tertiary shell 

deposits or limesands. The association is endemic to the central Virginia Coastal Plain and is 

known only from ravines within the James and York River drainages in James City, Surry, and 

York counties, Virginia. In Colonial National Historical Park, this vegetation covers 30.9 ha 

(76.3 ac) and is mapped at Swanns Point, along Colonial Parkway near Papermill Creek, and in 

various ravine bottoms in the vicinity of Yorktown Battlefield. Coastal Plain Calcareous 

Seepage Swamp is easily recognized in the field by its occurrence in narrow ravine bottoms and 

the characteristic canopy and herbaceous flora. The examples mapped at Swanns Point represent 

a unique variant of this association that is codominated by bald cypress (Taxodium distichum). 

High-quality examples of Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp are uncommon throughout 

the range of this globally rare association. Areas of Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp 

are relatively small in size and threatened by beaver activities, agricultural pollutants, hydrologic 

78



disturbances, and logging. Because of their isolated hydrology and small size, these forested 

wetlands are often exempt from protective wetland regulations and much of the habitat 

throughout its range is vulnerable to destruction by indirect development impacts such as 

siltation, canopy removal, and subsequent nonnative species invasions. Despite considerable 

efforts to inventory this community over the years, fewer than 50 patches of this vegetation are 

known, covering an aggregate area of perhaps 121 ha (300 ac). In Colonial National Historical 

Park, wetlands mapped as Disturbed Seepage Swamp may have once been this association, but 

now lack the species composition to confidently classify them as Coastal Plain Calcareous 

Seepage Swamp. 

Two associations representing non-alluvial, coastal plain depression wetlands are mapped as 

small, isolated features in the vicinity of Yorktown Battlefield and together cover 2.0 ha (4.9 ac). 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Red Maple - Sweetgum - Willow Oak Type) and Coastal 

Plain Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type) occur as seasonally flooded, deciduous forests 

in an otherwise upland landscape. These wetlands have fluctuating, seasonally perched water 

tables, and are believed to be sinkhole features that formed through dissolution of underlying 

carbonate-rich, shell marl deposits. The marl deposits are too deep to influence soil or water 

chemistry of the depressions, which are strongly acidic. Coastal Plain Depression Wetland 

(Swamp Tupelo Type) is subject to deeper flooding and has a longer hydroperiod than Coastal 

Plain Depression Wetland (Red Maple - Sweetgum - Willow Oak Type). Coastal Plain 

depression wetlands are known from the Coastal Plain of Virginia north to New York, and can 

range into the eastern edge of the Piedmont in Virginia. Coastal Plain Depression Wetland 

(Swamp Tupelo Type) is the less common of the two associations, known only from Virginia 

and Delaware. These associations are naturally small in size, occurring in complexes over no 

more than 10 ha (25 ac) and, on average, covering much smaller areas. The greatest threat to this 

vegetation is incompatible human use of surrounding lands, generally agriculture with 

insufficient buffers to protect from pesticide and fertilizer use. Since these associations depend 

on intact hydrology, another major threat is altered hydrology from ditching or over-pumping of 

groundwater. 

Seven upland forest map classes that represent later successional vegetation cover 702.5 ha 

(1,736.0 ac) or just over 20% of park land in upland areas that have not been converted to pine 

forests or other transitional vegetation. The most common upland forest map class is Mesic 

Mixed Hardwood Forest which covers almost 10% (338.2 ha [835.8 ac]) of the park land and is 

found on mesic lower slopes and ravines. Some of the forested areas in Colonial National 

Historical Park that are mapped as Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest may have been 

Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest prior to canopy removal. Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest is a 

common and widespread community in the Mid-Atlantic Piedmont and Coastal Plain and was 

documented in five of the seven parks in this study. Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest is 

the matrix forest of Jamestown Island and the surrounding area, covering 310.7 ha (767.8 ac). It 

is found in low-lying areas or sandy interfluves surrounded by tidal wetlands, and is 

distinguished by the presence of oaks and coastal shrubs such as as wax myrtle (Morella 

cerifera) and swamp bay (Persea palustris). Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest was only 

documented at Colonial National Historical Park and is not in any of the other parks in this 

study. It is a middle to late successional forest found over sandy soils in the Coastal Plain of 

Virginia and Maryland. It is thought to follow land clearing or cessation of agriculture in nearcoastal 

areas. 

79



The five remaining upland associations occur as small patches in specialized habitats. Two 

associations, Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest (20.4 ha [50.3 ac]) and Coastal Plain 

Dry Calcareous Forest (5.8 ha [14.3 ac]), are found on slopes of ravines that cut into Tertiary 

shell deposits or limesands, including the Pliocene marine shell deposits of the calcium-rich 

Yorktown Formation. Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest is on more mesic, north- to 

northwest-facing slopes and was mapped at College Creek / Kingsmill, as small patches on the 

ravine slopes of Yorktown Creek and its tributary, and on the slopes over Wormley Pond. 

Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest is on dry, convex, southeast- to southwest-facing slopes and 

is mapped in the vicinity of Yorktown Battlefield on the ravine slopes of Ballard Creek, around 

Wormley Pond, and at King Creek / Ringfield. Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest is 

distinguished from Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest by its more open canopy 

structure, more graminoid species cover, the occurrence of eastern redcedar (Juniperus 

virginiana var. virginiana), and the general absence of mesophytic species that characterize 

Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest such as pawpaw (Asimina triloba), northern 

spicebush (Lindera benzoin), bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis), northern maidenhair 

(Adiantum pedatum), and black bugbane (Cimicifuga racemosa). Also, Coastal Plain Mesic 

Calcareous Ravine Forest tends to have a better developed herbaceous strata with upwards of 50 

75% coverage. Both communities have very restricted ranges, and high quality examples are 

uncommon. Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest is endemic to the southeastern 

Virginia Coastal Plain, and Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest is only known from fewer than 

30 scattered locations in the Coastal Plain of Virginia and Maryland. Timber harvest or other 

canopy disturbances degrade this community by allowing additional light and aggressive growth 

of invasive, nonnative plants which thrive in well-lit, calcareous situations and compete with the 

native flora. The examples of these communities in Colonial National Historical Park represent 

some of the few protected examples in the world. Areas mapped as the transitional vegetation 

class Disturbed Calcareous Forest (see above) may have formerly been either Coastal Plain 

Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest or Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest, but now have a species 

composition too altered to assign them a natural community classification. 

Acidic Oak - Hickory Forest, Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak - Beech / Heath Forest, and 

Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath Forest are three upland forest classes that occur 

over acidic, nutrient-poor soils. Acidic Oak - Hickory Forest is mapped on short, steep slopes 

and associated flat areas above tidal marshes at Ringfield / King Creek and at College Creek / 

Kingsmill, covering a total area of 18.9 ha (46.8 ac) in 12 patches. Acidic Oak - Hickory Forest 

ranges through the Piedmont of the Carolinas and Virginia, north into south-central Maryland, 

extending into the inner Coastal Plain in parts of Virginia. Throughout most of its range, it is a 

matrix or large-patch forest. However, on inner Coastal Plain landscapes, such as Colonial 

National Historical Park, Acidic Oak-Hickory Forest is often found as a small patch forest. It is 

not a rare community type (G4G5), but extensive stands and stands older than about 80 years old 

are uncommon, since most of the rolling upland landscapes of the Piedmont have been logged 

repeatedly since European settlement or converted to pine plantations. Acidic Oak – Hickory 

Forest was mapped in six of the seven parks included in this study. Piedmont / Coastal Plain 

Oak - Beech / Heath Forest is mapped on a total of 7.6 ha (18.7 ac) at College Creek / Kingsmill, 

Papermill Creek, and on the ravine slopes of Ballard Creek and Yorktown Creek in the vicinity 

of Yorktown Battlefield. It is distinguished from other forests by its occurrence on steep slopes 

and the presence of a dense shrub layer of mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia). Some polygons 

mapped as this type may be similar to Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest, but usually occupy drier, 

80



steeper sites that support fewer mesophytic plants and a greater abundance of heath shrubs. 

Colonial National Historical Park was the only park in this study where this community was 

documented. In Virginia, Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak - Beech Heath Forest is common in the 

fall-line zone of the Piedmont and adjacent inner Coastal Plain, but is also found on dissected 

landscapes in the outer Piedmont and the northern Coastal Plain north of James River and 

occasionally on short, steep bluffs bordering outer Coastal Plain estuaries. It ranges north to 

New Jersey. Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath Forest is found on xeric sites over 

well-drained, sandy soils derived from fluvial terrace gravels. It is mapped as a single polygon 

in the College Creek / Kingsmill area of Colonial National Historical Park, where it covers 0.9 ha 

(2.2 ac). The vegetation in Colonial National Historical Park was classified as this association 

because of the dominance of black huckleberry (Gaylussacia baccata) and presence of chestnut 

oak (Quercus prinus), two species more typical of oak / heath forests in the Piedmont and low 

elevations of the Central Appalachians. Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath Forest is 

found in three of the seven national parks included in this study. It is a widespread, matrixforming 

forest community known from nutrient-poor uplands of Virginia’s Piedmont and inner 

Coastal Plain, and at low elevations in the northern Blue Ridge and Ridge and Valley. It also 

extends north into Maryland and south to low elevations of Tennessee’s Cumberland Plateau. 

Of the 40 map classes used to map the vegetation at Colonial National Historical Park, eighteen 

are equal to natural communities as defined in the Natural Communities of Virginia 

(http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural_heritage/nctoc.shtml). Exemplary occurrences of these 

communities are tracked by Virginia’s Department of Conservation and Recreation, Division of 

Natural Heritage. In order to be considered an exemplary occurrence, stands have to meet strict 

type-specific criteria of size, condition, and landscape context. Examples of seven natural 

communities mapped at Colonial National Historical Park met the criteria to be considered 

Natural Heritage exemplary natural community occurrences. A portion of the area mapped as 

Non-Riverine Saturated Forest at Green Spring met the criteria to be considered a Natural 

Heritage exemplary natural community occurrence. Examples of Coastal Plain Calcareous 

Seepage Swamp mapped at Swanns Point, in a ravine system in the northern portion of 

Yorktown Battlefield, and in a ravine south of Wormley pond, met the criteria to be considered 

Natural Heritage exemplary natural community occurrences. The other areas mapped as Coastal 

Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp were too disturbed to be considered viable exemplary 

occurrences. The globally rare community Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo 

Type), mapped in the southern portion of Yorktown Battlefield, met the criteria to be considered 

a Natural Heritage exemplary natural community occurrence, and is part of the larger Grafton 

Pond depression pond complex that extends onto property adjacent to Colonial National 

Historical Park. The example of Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland mapped at Swanns Point 

is a Natural Heritage exemplary natural community occurrence. Small areas of Tidal Bald 

Cypress Forest / Woodland mapped at Jamestown Island are disturbed and have been cut off 

from natural tidal flooding regimes and do not meet the criteria to be considered exemplary 

occurrences. The Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forests mapped at Wormley Pond, in 

the ravine system north of Hickory Hill, and at Kingsmill are considered Natural Heritage 

exemplary natural community occurrences. The other areas mapped as this association were 

either not confirmed in the field or are too disturbed to be considered viable exemplary 

occurrences. All areas mapped as the globally rare community Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous 

Forest met the criteria to be considered Natural Heritage exemplary natural community 

occurrences. The Tidal Oligohaline Marsh around Jamestown Island is documented as a Natural 

81



Heritage exemplary natural community occurrence because of its large size and overall high 

quality. Areas representing the other 11 natural communities mapped in Colonial National 

Historical Park do not meet the criteria to be considered Natural Heritage exemplary natural 

community occurrences, but these native plant associations are an important part of the park’s 

natural resources and should be targets for conservation and management. 

Invasive nonnative plant species are one of the main threats to the native vegetation associations 

at Colonial National Historical Park. Thirty-eight nonnative plant species were noted in the 

quantitative plots and accuracy assessment observations. The fertile, eroding soils of Coastal 

Plain Dry Calcareous Forest supported the greatest diversity of nonnative plant species, where 16 

nonnative species were noted. Of the other map classes, wetlands and transitional vegetation had 

the highest cover by invasive, nonnative species. The most common and problematic species 

include Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), Nepalese browntop (Microstegium 

vimineum), and common reed (Phragmites australis). Japanese honeysuckle and Nepalese 

browntop are particularly troublesome because of their shade tolerance and aggressive growth 

habits. These species can be opportunistic invaders of the older, more intact forest communities, 

getting a foothold where roads, trails, tip-up mounds, downfalls, and other gap-disturbances have 

disturbed mineral soil. Once established, colonies are able to more easily expand or spread into 

nearby microhabitats. Common reed is an aggressive, invasive perennial grass that invades tidal 

wetlands. 

Japanese honeysuckle is especially destructive to native vegetation because of its rapid, twining 

growth and dense, semi-evergreen foliage that shades out competitors. The vines frequently 

strangle shrubs and tree saplings, and over-grow more delicate herbs in a variety of settings. 

Nepalese browntop is the fastest spreading, most problematic exotic everywhere in Virginia 

today. Within the past two decades, it has abundantly invaded moist, openly shaded habitats 

throughout the mid-Atlantic region, forming monospecific carpets of tangled culms that tend to 

crowd out competing herbaceous species (Tu 2000). A recent study strongly suggests that 

Nepalese browntop responds to forest canopy disturbances with a sudden increase in biomass 

that impedes woody regeneration and lowers overall species diversity and stem densities (Oswalt 

et al. 2007). Other studies have demonstrated that once established, Nepalese browntop overruns 

native herbaceous competitors and leads to dramatic declines of herb richness within a few 

years (Barden 1987, Hunt and Zaremba 1992). Common reed (Phragmites australis) is an 

aggressive wetland invader that out-competes native plant species, eliminates diverse wetland 

plant communities, and provides little food or shelter for wildlife. It grows in dense singlespecies 

stands and forms a thick mat of roots and rhizomes, spreading by seed and rhizomes. 

Common reed becomes established in areas where soil is exposed through natural (storms, wave 

action) or anthropogenic disturbances (construction, ditching). 

Other highly invasive, nonnative species noted in the park include tree of heaven (Ailanthus 

altissima), autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata var. parvifolia), and Chinese lespedeza 

(Lespedeza cuneata). Species noted that are considered moderately invasive by the Virginia 

Department of Conservation and Recreation (VADCR 2003) include English Ivy (Hedera helix), 

golden bamboo (Phyllostachys aurea), princesstree (Paulownia tomentosa)Canada bluegrass 

(Poa compressa), rough bluegrass (Poa trivialis), white poplar (Populus alba), curley dock 

(Rumex crispus), and Chinese wisteria (Wisteria sinensis). Species considered occasionally 

invasive include orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata), and common periwinkle (Vinca minor). 

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Vegetation Map Production 

The final map for Colonial National Historical Park depicts 40 map classes. Twenty-six map 

classes are crosswalked to USNVC vegetation associations, seven are nonstandard, park-specific 

vegetation classes, and seven are Anderson land-use classes. Because of the difficulty of 

distinguishing certain associations on aerial photography, two map classes, Tidal Oligohaline 

Marsh and Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh, represent more than one USNVC 

association. Polygons mapped as Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh represent vegetation 

belonging to one or two associations. Polygons mapped as Tidal Oligohaline Marsh represent 

one to five associations, occurring singly or as a complex. Polygons representing multiple 

associations were not labeled to the association level. Each polygon representing a single 

USNVC association was attributed with the appropriate USNVC formation and alliance based on 

the hierarchy of the USNVC. Polygons mapped as nonstandard classes were also attributed to 

USNVC formations when possible. The final map table includes 14 formations, 33 alliances, 

and 24 associations. 

The Kappa index for the final vegetation map exceeds the USGS-NPS VMP protocol 

requirement of 80%. Errors of commission and omission reported for seven map classes fall 

below the USGS-NPS VMP protocol requirement of 80%. Examination of the errors associated 

with each observation shows they can be attributed to below minimum mapping unit inclusions 

of other vegetation types within the target polygons, to the incomplete survey of target polygons, 

to seasonal constraints in identifying certain associations in the field, or to observations made in 

ecotonal areas transitional to other vegetation types. Additionally, some of the mapping errors 

were due to the difficulty of distinguishing deciduous associations on aerial photography, since 

many deciduous signatures are virtually identical. 

Aerial photography flown in March 2002 served as the base map for the final vegetation map. 

Since that time, the vegetation in the park has continued to change. In September 2003, 

Hurricane Isabel altered the mapped vegetation in many areas of the park. The temporal 

progression of transitional vegetation and the natural dynamics of coastal areas will continue to 

alter the mapped vegetation, as will the park’s ongoing management of invasive species. Despite 

these changes, the vegetation map produced by this project provides crucial baseline data for the 

park resource managers. 

Recommendations for Future Projects 

Invasive nonnative plant species are the main threat to the native vegetation associations at 

Colonial National Historical Park. Continued monitoring and management of invasive species in 

and around all the natural communities in the park should be a priority for the park’s resource 

managers. Early detection and control of invasive nonnative species on forest edges and along 

trails and roads can help prevent new invasions. The most common and problematic species 

include Japanese honeysuckle, Nepalese browntop, and common reed. Dormant season herbicide 

application can be effective in treating Japanese honeysuckle infestations, but timing is critical. As 

a rule, foliar application of 1.5% glyphosate (e.g., Roundup) after the first killing frost and before 

the first hard frost is most effective (Nuzzo 1997). The annual, Nepalese browntop is a prolific 

seed-producer, and seed banks can persist for at least five years (Tu 2000). Control of the 

species can be very labor intensive (i.e., hand-pulling) or destructive to non-target plants (i.e., 

83



herbicide application). Since the species can germinate following early-season removal, removal 

two or more times a season to more quickly deplete the seed bank has shown promise as a 

technique for discrete, high-priority sites (The Nature Conservancy, Maryland Field Office, 

Invasive Species Biologist, Mary Travaglini, pers. comm. 2007). Twelve species of fungi and 

eight arthropod species are reported as natural enemies of Nepalese browntop in Asia, but no 

biological controls are currently available in the United States (Zheng et al. 2006). Eradication 

of the species from large sites where it is well established is not a realistic goal with the tools 

now available. However, reducing populations to manageable or non-invasive levels, especially 

in rare habitats and vegetation types, should be a high priority for the National Park Service. 

While not a long-term solution, keeping Nepalese browntop in check while more effective 

biological controls are developed is the best strategy available at present and is critical to 

avoiding drastic declines in biodiversity and forest health in the near future. Both mechanical 

and chemical controls may be used to combat infestations of common reed. Mowing, flooding, 

and prescribed fire in combination with successive herbicide treatments have all been shown to 

be effective against this invasive perennial grass (Thompson et al. 1984, Caffrey 1996, Kay 

1995, Monteiro et al. 1999). European insects that feed exclusively on common reed are being 

evaluated for their potential as biological control agents, but any practical tools are years away 

from being available (Tewksbury 2002). Herbicides that contain glyphosate or imazapyr, applied 

to actively growing plants, are the most effective method for controlling extensive invasions of 

common reed. Both chemicals are available in formulations that are approved for use in wetland 

habitats. 

Small patch communities occurring over fertile, calcareous substrates are the most susceptible to 

exotic species invasions. Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp, Coastal Plain Mesic 

Calcareous Ravine Forest, and Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest are some of the rarest natural 

communities in the mid-Atlantic region and should be targeted for monitoring and control of 

invasive, nonnative species. Future invasions may be controlled by ensuring that there are 

adequate, undisturbed woodland buffers surrounding occurrences of these communities. 

The significant wetland community at Green Spring is saturated by groundwater discharged from 

the base of slopes on the north edge of the wetland. Maintenance of requisite habitat conditions 

requires protection of upslope hydrologic recharge zones and sufficient buffer to ensure the 

quality and quantity of both groundwater seepage and surface water. Clearcutting, site clearing, 

road construction, and other development actions are potential sources of groundwater 

perturbation, erosion, run-off, and siltation which could threaten this community Protection of 

the land upslope of this community and south of Monticello Avenue should be a priority for park 

managers. Nepalese browntop was observed with low cover in the Non-Riverine Saturated 

Forest at Green Spring. Monitoring and control of this invasive grass should be a priority in this 

rare and threatened wetland community. 

84



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Barden. L. S. 1987. Invasion of Microstegium vimineum (Poaceae), an exotic, annual, shadetolerant, 

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Appendix A. Quantitative vegetation plot sampling form. 

92



93



94



Appendix B. Accuracy assessment data form for the vegetation map of Colonial National 

Historical Park. 

I. IDENTIFIERS AND LOCATION DATA 

1. AA Point Code _AA______________ 2. Park Code: COLO 3. Date (y/m/d): 2006 / 

4. Observer(s) _________________________________________________________________________________ 

5. GPS unit (circle): Garmin GPSMap76 / Garmin GPSMap76s 

6. DATUM (circle): WGS84 / other (specify _______________) 7. GPS file name ______________ 

8. Estimated accuracy ____________ m 9. Number of points averaged 

____________________ 

10. Receiver status (circle): 2D / 3D / 2D WAAS / 3D WAAS / no signal (estimated location marked on DRG) 

11. Field UTM X ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ m E Y ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ m N 

OR Lat ___________________________ Long __________________________ 

II. ENVIRONMENTAL / SITE DESCRIPTION 

1. Environmental Comments (if site is a wetland, indicate type of hydrology, e.g., seepage wetland, temporarily 

flooded stream bottom, seasonally flooded pond, etc.) 

III. VEGETATION DESCRIPTION (observation is within a 0.5 ha area – approx. a 40 m radius circle) 

1. Prevalent vegetation association within 0.5 ha of observation area, based on field key: 

2. Other vegetation associations present within 0.5 ha observation area: 

3. Representativeness: is the vegetation within the 0.5 ha observation area representative of vegetation in the 

surrounding mapped polygon? If vegetation of the AA point is an anomalous inclusion in the polygon, please note 

4. Approximately what percentage of the mapped polygon did you observe? OR approximate size of area observed? 

(This may be also be drawn on a map. Include 

with form) 

95



COLO AA DATA FORM, p.2 AA POINT CODE ________________ 

IV. VEGETATION STRUCTURE (check maximum cover class in each stratum): 

Stratum / max. ht. 1-25% cover 26-50% cover 51-75% cover 76-100% cover 

35 m 

20 m 

10 m 

6 m 

2 m 

0.5 m + herbs 

V. VEGETATION COMPOSITION (list characteristic species and indicate dominant by a “D,” 

present by a “P,” and rare by “R” in the appropriate strata). 

SPECIES Canopy 

layer 

Sub-canopy 

layer 

Shrub 

layer 

Herb 

layer 

VI. ADDITIONAL COMMENTS (use this space to provide additional comments about vegetation structure 

or composition) 

VII. CLASSIFICATION COMMENTS (use this space to provide additional comments about problems or 

ease in applying the vegetation key at this site, rationale for choice of association if there was doubt, etc. Comments 

for modifying the key are welcome) 

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INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLONIAL NATIONAL HISTORICAL PARK 

VEGETATION MAP ACCURACY ASSESSEMENT 

This observation point field form was developed for the Mid-Atlantic Vegetation mapping project. Its purpose is to 

generate record observations at vegetation polygons and compare them to the mapped data. The general procedure 

you will follow is to navigate to the pre-selected point using a Garmin GPSMap76 or GPSMap76s GPS unit. Try to 

navigate as close as possible to the pre-selected point. The species list is collected at that point and the 0.5 ha 

surrounding the point. Comments re: the vegetation within the entire polygon are also recorded on this form. Once 

at the pre-selected observation point, you will record your location by collecting a waypoint with the GPS unit and 

record the required data in the order that it appears on the field form. 

The materials you should have before you begin are 1) plots of the 7.5’ DRG (and photos if helpful) showing the 

polygon boundaries, but no information about polygon attributes; 2) pre-selected AA point coordinates loaded into 

your GPS unit; 3) the field key to vegetation types, and 4) vegetation type descriptions. You should also carry a 

compass. A measure tape may help for distances and heights. Once you have navigated to an observation point, 

you should closely observe the vegetation within the prescribed data collection area, which in most cases will be a 

approximated circular 0.5 ha area (radius = ca. 40 m). You can simply pace one or more radii of 40 meters from the 

point to assist in gauging the extent of the observation area. Keep the observations within the defined polygon and 

adjust the area surveyed accordingly (i.e. if the polygon is linear or less than 0.5 ha, keep the observation within the 

polygon) 

In cases where an observation point falls in an ecotone, or contains two distinctly different vegetation types, describe 

the type that covers the larger area and provide notes (see section III3) on the second type. In the rare instance 

where an observation area is equally divided between two vegetation types, you will have to complete observation 

point field forms for each type. During navigation to and from a point, generally observe the vegetation in the 

mapped polygon so that you can answer section III2 (see below). 

Specific Instructions for completing the AA field form: 

I.1-4. Self explanatory 

I.5-11. Indicate GPS unit used and record the file name for the location data that you collect. Record the number of 

points averaged, accuracy, and either UTM or Lat/Long coordinates displayed by the GPS unit. In the event that 

GPS locational data cannot be obtained, mark your estimated location on a 7.5’ USGS quad or DRG. 

II.1. Make note of any other environmental characteristics that might assist in interpreting the site. Also use this 

space to record general information on hydrology, if the site is a wetland. 

III.1. Use the field key to determine the vegetation type prevalent at the site. 

III.2. If one or more additional vegetation types occur within the sample site, record them. 

III.3. To the extent possible, and based on general observations made navigating to and from the point, note whether 

the prevalent vegetation of the sample site is representative of the larger polygon in which it is located. It is 

especially important to note instances where the vegetation of the site is an anomaly or local inclusion within the 

polygon. 

III.4. Provide a rough estimate of the percentage of the larger polygon that you observed (e.g., 10%, 20%, etc.). or 

draw the area on your map and include with this form. 

IV. Check the maximum cover class for each vertical vegetation stratum indicated on the table. The heights in the 

left column indicate the maximum height of each stratum. The lowest stratum contains all woody plants < 0.5 m tall 

and all herbaceous plants, regardless of height. 

V. List species you would consider to be characteristic of the vegetation at the site. These generally include 

dominant species and less abundant species that are indicative of specific site conditions such as soil chemistry or 

97



hydrologic regime. Write the species in the left column and note its status in the appropriate layer(s) using the 

symbols “D” for dominant, “P” for present, and “R” for rare (1-3 individuals). 

VI. Use this space to record any additional information or comments about vegetation structure or composition that 

would assist in interpreting this site. 

VII. Use this space to record any additional information about vegetation classification. It is especially important to 

note if problems were encountered applying the field key or interpreting the vegetation. 

98



Appendix C. Vascular plants observed in quantitative vegetation plots and accuracy assessment 

observation points in Colonial National Historical Park in 2003–2005. 

Nomenclature follows the PLANTS 3.5 Database developed by the Natural Resource 

Conservation Service in cooperation with the Biota of North America Program (USDA, NRCS 

2004). 

Family 

Acanthaceae 

Aceraceae 

Alismataceae 

Amaranthaceae 

Anacardiaceae 

Annonaceae 

Apiaceae 

Apocynaceae 

Aquifoliaceae 

Araceae 

Araliaceae 

Aristolochiaceae 

Asclepiadaceae 

Aspleniaceae 

Asteraceae 

Scientific Name Common Name 

Ruellia caroliniensis 

Acer barbatum 

Acer rubrum 

Echinodorus cordifolius 

Sagittaria lancifolia ssp. media 

Sagittaria subulata 

Amaranthus cannabinus 

Rhus copallinum 

Toxicodendron radicans 

Asimina triloba 

Cicuta maculata var. maculata 

Cryptotaenia canadensis 

Daucus carota 

Eryngium aquaticum var. aquaticum 

Hydrocotyle americana 

Hydrocotyle verticillata var. verticillata 

Ligusticum canadense 

Osmorhiza sp. 

Sanicula canadensis 

Trachelospermum difforme 

Vinca minor 

Ilex decidua 

Ilex opaca var. opaca 

Ilex verticillata 

Arisaema triphyllum 

Orontium aquaticum 

Peltandra virginica 

Aralia spinosa 

Hedera helix 

Aristolochia serpentaria 

Hexastylis virginica 

Matelea carolinensis 

Asplenium platyneuron 

Ageratina altissima 

Ageratina aromatica 

Ambrosia artemisiifolia 

Antennaria plantaginifolia 

Antennaria solitaria 

Arnoglossum atriplicifolium 

Baccharis halimifolia 

Bidens bipinnata 

Bidens coronata 

Bidens laevis 

Conoclinium coelestinum 

Carolina wild petunia 

southern sugar maple 

red maple 

creeping burrhead 

bulltongue arrowhead 

awl-leaf arrowhead 

tidalmarsh amaranth 

flameleaf sumac 

eastern poison ivy 

pawpaw 

spotted water hemlock 

Canadian honewort 

e 

Queen Anne's lace 

rattlesnakemaster 

American marshpennywort 

whorled marshpennywort 

Canadian licorice-root 

a sweetroot 

Canadian blacksnakeroot 

climbing dogbane 

e# 

common periwinkle 

possumhaw 

American holly 

common winterberry 

Jack in the pulpit 

goldenclub 

green arrow arum 

devil's walkingstick 

e# 

English ivy 

Virginia snakeroot 

Virginia heartleaf 

maroon Carolina milkvine 

ebony spleenwort 

white snakeroot 

lesser snakeroot 

annual ragweed 

woman's tobacco 

singlehead pussytoes 

pale Indian plaintain 

eastern baccharis 

Spanish needles 

crowned beggarticks 

smooth beggartick 

blue mistflower 

99



Family 


Asteraceae (cont.) Conyza canadensis Canadian horseweed 

Elephantopus carolinianus 

Carolina elephantsfoot 

Erechtites hieraciifolia var. hieraciifolia American burnweed 

Erigeron pulchellus var. pulchellus 

robin's plantain 

Eupatorium capillifolium dogfennel 

Eupatorium hyssopifolium var. laciniatum 

hyssopleaf thoroughwort 

Eupatorium serotinum 

lateflowering thoroughwort 

Fleischmannia incarnata 

pink thoroughwort 

Hieracium gronovii 

queendevil 

Hieracium venosum 

rattlesnakeweed 

Hypochaeris radicata 

hairy catsear e 

Iva frutescens Jesuit's bark 

Lactuca canadensis Canada lettuce 

Leucanthemum vulgare 

e 

oxeye daisy 

Mikania scandens climbing hempvine 

Packera anonyma Small's ragwort 

Packera aurea golden ragwort 

Pityopsis graminifolia narrowleaf silkgrass 

Pluchea odorata sweetscent 

Prenanthes altissima tall rattlesnakeroot 

Prenanthes trifoliolata 

gall of the earth 

Pseudognaphalium obtusifolium rabbittobacco 

Rudbeckia laciniata cutleaf coneflower 

Silphium trifoliatum whorled rosinweed 

Smallanthus uvedalius hairy leafcup 

Solidago caesia wreath goldenrod 

Solidago rugosa wrinkleleaf goldenrod 

Solidago sempervirens seaside goldenrod 

Solidago ulmifolia var. ulmifolia elmleaf goldenrod 

Sonchus asper 

spiny sowthistle e 

Symphyotrichum lanceolatum ssp. lanceolatum white panicle aster 

Symphyotrichum lateriflorum calico aster 

Symphyotrichum novi-belgii var. elodes New York aster 

Symphyotrichum subulatum 

eastern annual saltmarsh aster 

Symphyotrichum tenuifolium perennial saltmarsh aster 

Symphyotrichum undulatum waxyleaf aster 

Taraxacum officinale 

e 

common dandelion 

Verbesina alternifolia 

wingstem 

Verbesina occidentalis 

yellow crownbeard 

Verbesina virginica var. virginica white crownbeard 

Vernonia noveboracensis New York ironweed 

Azollaceae Azolla caroliniana 

Carolina mosquitofern 

Balsaminaceae Impatiens capensis jewelweed 

Berberidaceae Podophyllum peltatum mayapple 

Betulaceae Carpinus caroliniana 

American hornbeam 

Ostrya virginiana 

hophornbeam 

Bignoniaceae Bignonia capreolata crossvine 

Campsis radicans 

trumpet creeper 

Blechnaceae Woodwardia areolata netted chainfern 

Boraginaceae Cynoglossum virginianum var. virginianum wild comfrey 

Myosotis macrosperma largeseed forget-me-not 

Brassicaceae Arabis laevigata var. laevigata smooth rockcress 

100



Family 

Brassicaceae (cont.) 

Campanulaceae 

Caprifoliaceae 

Caryophyllaceae 

Celastraceae 

Ceratophyllaceae 

Clethraceae 

Clusiaceae 

Commelinaceae 

Cornaceae 

Cupressaceae 

Cuscutaceae 

Cyperaceae 


Cardamine pensylvanica 

Pennsylvania bittercress 

Lobelia cardinalis 

cardinalflower 

Lonicera japonica 

e# 

Japanese honeysuckle 

Sambucus nigra ssp. canadensis 

common elderberry 

Symphoricarpos orbiculatus 

coralberry 

Viburnum nudum 

possumhaw 

Viburnum prunifolium 

blackhaw 

Viburnum rufidulum 

rusty blackhaw 

Cerastium fontanum ssp. vulgare 

big chickweed 

Stellaria pubera 

Euonymus americana 

Ceratophyllum demersum 

Clethra alnifolia 

Hypericum hypericoides ssp. hypericoides 

Hypericum hypericoides ssp. multicaule 

Hypericum mutilum 

Triadenum walteri 

Commelina communis 

Commelina erecta 

Murdannia keisak 

Cornus florida 

Cornus foemina 

Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana 

Cuscuta sp. 

Carex aggregata 

Carex albicans 

Carex amphibola 

Carex blanda 

Carex bromoides 

Carex cephalophora 

Carex crinita 

Carex debilis 

Carex digitalis 

Carex festucacea 

Carex glaucescens 

Carex gracillima 

Carex granularis 

Carex hirsutella 

Carex hyalinolepis 

Carex intumescens 

Carex joorii 

Carex laevivaginata 

Carex laxiculmis var. laxiculmis 

Carex laxiflora var. laxiflora 

Carex lupulina 

Carex lurida 

Carex nigromarginata 

Carex oxylepis 

Carex pensylvanica 

Carex radiata 

Carex rosea 

Carex stipata var. maxima 

e 

star chickweed 

strawberry bush 

coon's tail 

coastal sweetpepperbush 

St. Andrew's cross 

St. Andrew's cross 

dwarf St. Johnswort 

greater marsh St. Johnswort 

e# 

Asiatic dayflower 

whitemouth dayflower 

wartremoving herb e# 

flowering dogwood 

stiff dogwood 

eastern redcedar 

a dodder 

glomerate sedge 

whitetinge sedge 

eastern narrowleaf sedge 

eastern woodland sedge 

bromelike sedge 

oval-leaf sedge 

fringed sedge 

white edge sedge 

slender woodland sedge 

fescue sedge 

southern waxy sedge 

graceful sedge 

limestone meadow sedge 

fuzzy wuzzy sedge 

shoreline sedge 

greater bladder sedge 

cypress swamp sedge 

smoothsheath sedge 

spreading sedge 

broad looseflower sedge 

hop sedge 

shallow sedge 

black edge sedge 

sharpscale sedge 

Pennsylvania sedge 

eastern star sedge 

rosy sedge 

stalkgrain sedge 

101



Family 


Cyperaceae (cont.) Carex stipata var. stipata owlfruit sedge 

Carex styloflexa 

bent sedge 

Carex striata var. brevis 

* 

Walter’s sedge 

Carex swanii Swan's sedge 

Carex tetanica rigid sedge 

Carex tonsa shaved sedge 

Carex tribuloides blunt broom sedge 

Cyperus filicinus fern flatsedge 

Cyperus odoratus fragrant flatsedge 

Dulichium arundinaceum threeway sedge 

Eleocharis obtusa blunt spikerush 

Eleocharis palustris common spikerush 

Eleocharis parvula dwarf spikerush 

Eleocharis rostellata beaked spikerush 

Fimbristylis castanea 

marsh fimbry 

Schoenoplectus americanus chairmaker's bulrush 

Schoenoplectus pungens var. pungens common threesquare 

Schoenoplectus robustus 

sturdy bulrush 

Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani 

softstem bulrush 

Scirpus lineatus drooping bulrush 

Scirpus polyphyllus 

leafy bulrush 

Scleria oligantha littlehead nutrush 

Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea oppositifolia 

Chinese yam 

Dryopteridaceae Polystichum acrostichoides 

Christmas fern 

Ebenaceae Diospyros virginiana 

common persimmon 

Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus umbellata var. parvifolia 

e# 

autumn olive 

Ericaceae 

Epigaea repens trailing arbutus 

Gaylussacia baccata black huckleberry 

Gaylussacia frondosa 

blue huckleberry 

Kalmia latifolia 

mountain laurel 

Leucothoe racemosa 

swamp doghobble * 

Oxydendrum arboreum 

sourwood 

Rhododendron periclymenoides pink azalea 

Vaccinium corymbosum 

highbush blueberry 

Vaccinium formosum 

southern blueberry 

Vaccinium fuscatum 

black highbush blueberry 

Vaccinium pallidum 

Blue Ridge blueberry 

Vaccinium stamineum deerberry 

Euphorbiaceae Acalypha virginica Virginia threeseed mercury 

Fabaceae Amphicarpaea bracteata American hogpeanut 

Apios americana 

groundnut 

Baptisia tinctoria horseflyweed 

Cercis canadensis var. canadensis eastern redbud 

Clitoria mariana Atlantic pigeonwings 

Desmodium nudiflorum nakedflower ticktrefoil 

Desmodium paniculatum var. paniculatum panicledleaf ticktrefoil 

Desmodium perplexum 

perplexed ticktrefoil 

Desmodium rotundifolium prostrate ticktrefoil 

Galactia volubilis downy milkpea 

Gymnocladus dioicus 

e 

Kentucky coffeetree 

Kummerowia striata 

Lespedeza cuneata 

e 

Japanese clover 

e# 

Chinese lespedeza 

102



Family 


Fabaceae (cont.) Robinia pseudoacacia black locust 

Vicia caroliniana Carolina vetch 

Wisteria sinensis 

Chinese wisteria e# 

Fagaceae 

Fagus grandifolia American beech 

Quercus alba white oak 

Quercus coccinea scarlet oak 

Quercus falcata southern red oak 

Quercus laurifolia laurel oak 

Quercus lyrata 

overcup oak 

Quercus marilandica 

blackjack oak * 

Quercus michauxii swamp chestnut oak 

Quercus muehlenbergii chinkapin oak 

Quercus nigra water oak 

Quercus pagoda cherrybark oak 

Quercus palustris pin oak 

Quercus phellos willow oak 

Quercus prinus chestnut oak 

Quercus rubra northern red oak 

Quercus stellata post oak 

Quercus velutina black oak 

Gentianaceae Sabatia angularis rosepink 

Haloragaceae Myriophyllum sibiricum shortspike watermilfoil 

Hamamelidaceae Liquidambar styraciflua 

sweetgum 

Hydrangeaceae Decumaria barbara 

woodvamp 

Hydrangea arborescens wild hydrangea 

Iridaceae 

Iris virginica var. virginica Virginia iris 

Sisyrinchium angustifolium narrowleaf blue-eyed grass 

Juglandaceae Carya alba mockernut hickory 

Carya cordiformis bitternut hickory 

Carya glabra 

pignut hickory 

Carya pallida 

sand hickory 

Juglans nigra 

black walnut 

Juncaceae Juncus coriaceus 

leathery rush 

Juncus dichotomus forked rush 

Juncus effusus common rush 

Juncus tenuis poverty rush 

Luzula acuminata hairy woodrush 

Lamiaceae Ajuga chamaepitys 

yellow bugle e 

Lycopus virginicus 

Virginia water horehound 

Mentha arvensis 

wild mint 

Prunella vulgaris ssp. vulgaris common selfheal e 

Salvia lyrata lyreleaf sage 

Scutellaria incana var. incana 

hoary skullcap 

Teucrium canadense Canada germander 

Lauraceae Lindera benzoin northern spicebush 

Persea palustris 

swamp bay 

Sassafras albidum sassafras 

Lemna minor common duckweed 

Liliaceae Allium canadense var. canadense 

meadow garlic 

Allium ampeloprasum var. atroviolaceum broadleaf wild leek e * 

Maianthemum racemosum ssp. racemosum feathery false lily of the vally 

Polygonatum biflorum 

smooth Solomon's seal 

103



Family 


Liliaceae (cont.) Uvularia perfoliata perfoliate bellwort 

Uvularia sessilifolia sessileleaf bellwort 

Lycopodiaceae Lycopodium digitatum fan clubmoss 

Lythraceae Decodon verticillatus swamp loosestrife 

Lythrum lineare 

wand lythrum 

Magnoliaceae Liriodendron tulipifera tuliptree 

Magnolia virginiana sweetbay 

Malvaceae Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos crimsoneyed rosemallow 

Kosteletzkya virginica Virginia saltmarsh mallow 

Menispermaceae Menispermum canadense common moonseed 

Monotropaceae Monotropa uniflora Indianpipe 

Moraceae 

Morus rubra 

red mulberry 

Myricaceae Morella cerifera wax myrtle 

Nyssaceae Nyssa biflora swamp tupelo 

Nyssa sylvatica 

blackgum 

Oleaceae Fraxinus americana 

white ash 

Fraxinus pennsylvanica 

green ash 

Ligustrum sinense 

Chinese privet e# 

Onagraceae Circaea lutetiana ssp. canadensis broadleaf enchanter's nightshade 

Ludwigia palustris 

marsh seedbox 

Ophioglossaceae Botrychium biternatum sparselobe grapefern 

Botrychium virginianum rattlesnake fern 

Ophioglossum vulgatum southern adderstongue 

Orchidaceae Cypripedium acaule moccasin flower 

Goodyera pubescens 

downy rattlesnake plantain 

Liparis liliifolia brown widelip orchid 

Ponthieva racemosa 

hairy shadow witch 

Tipularia discolor crippled cranefly 

Orobanchaceae Epifagus virginiana beechdrops 

Osmundaceae Osmunda cinnamomea var. cinnamomea 

cinnamon fern 

Osmunda regalis var. spectabilis 

royal fern 

Oxalidaceae Oxalis stricta 

common yellow oxalis 

Oxalis violacea 

violet woodsorrel 

Papaveraceae Sanguinaria canadensis 

bloodroot 

Passifloraceae Passiflora lutea yellow passionflower 

Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca americana American pokeweed 

Pinaceae Pinus taeda loblolly pine 

Pinus virginiana Virginia pine 

Platanaceae Platanus occidentalis American sycamore 

Poaceae Agrostis perennans upland bentgrass 

Andropogon virginicus 

broomsedge bluestem 

Brachyelytrum erectum bearded shorthusk 

Bromus pubescens hairy woodland brome 

Chasmanthium latifolium 

Indian woodoats 

Chasmanthium laxum slender woodoats 

Chasmanthium sessiliflorum longleaf woodoats 

Cinna arundinacea 

sweet woodreed 

Dactylis glomerata 

e# 

orchardgrass 

Danthonia spicata poverty oatgrass 

Dichanthelium acuminatum 

tapered rosette grass 

Dichanthelium boscii Bosc's panicgrass 

Dichanthelium clandestinum deertongue 

104



Family 


Poaceae (cont.) Dichanthelium commutatum variable panicgrass 

Dichanthelium dichotomum cypress panicgrass 

Dichanthelium sphaerocarpon var. isophyllum roundseed panicgrass 

Dichanthelium sphaerocarpon var. sphaerocarpon roundseed panicgrass 

Distichlis spicata inland saltgrass 

Echinochloa muricata rough barnyardgrass 

Echinochloa walteri coast cockspur grass 

Elymus hystrix var. hystrix eastern bottlebrush grass 

Elymus villosus hairy wildrye 

Elymus virginicus var. halophilus Virginia wildrye 

Elymus virginicus var. virginicus Virginia wildrye 

Festuca subverticillata 

nodding fescue 

Glyceria septentrionalis floating mannagrass 

Glyceria striata fowl mannagrass 

Leersia oryzoides rice cutgrass 

Leersia virginica whitegrass 

Lolium pratense 

e 

meadow ryegrass 

Melica mutica 

twoflower melicgrass 

Microstegium vimineum 

Nepalese browntop e# 

Muhlenbergia sp. 

a muhly 

Panicum anceps beaked panicgrass 

Panicum virgatum var. virgatum 

switchgrass 

Phragmites australis 

Phyllostachys aurea 

common reed e# e# 

golden bamboo 

Piptochaetium avenaceum blackseed speargrass 

Poa autumnalis 

Poa compressa 

autumn bluegrass 

e# 

Canada bluegrass 

Poa cuspidata 

Poa trivialis 

early bluegrass 

e# 

rough bluegrass 

Saccharum giganteum sugarcane plumegrass 

Schizachyrium scoparium little bluestem 

Setaria magna giant bristlegrass 

Sorghastrum elliottii slender Indiangrass 

Spartina alterniflora smooth cordgrass 

Spartina cynosuroides big cordgrass 

Spartina patens saltmeadow cordgrass 

Sphenopholis intermedia slender wedgescale 

Sphenopholis nitida shiny wedgescale 

Sphenopholis pensylvanica swamp wedgescale 

Tridens flavus purpletop tridens 

Zizania aquatica var. aquatica annual wildrice 

Polygalaceae Polygala sp. a polygala 

Polygonaceae Polygonum arifolium 

halberdleaf tearthumb 

Polygonum caespitosum var. longisetum 

oriental ladysthumb e# 

Polygonum punctatum dotted smartweed 

Polygonum sagittatum arrowleaf tearthumb 

Polygonum setaceum bog smartweed 

Polygonum virginianum 

Jumpseed 

Rumex crispus 

curly dock e# 

Rumex verticillatus swamp dock 

Pontederiaceae Pontederia cordata 

pickerelweed 

Portulacaceae Claytonia virginica Virginia springbeauty 

105



Family 


Primulaceae Samolus valerandi ssp. parviflorus seaside brookweed 

Pteridaceae Adiantum pedatum northern maidenhair 

Pyrolaceae Chimaphila maculata striped prince's pine 

Ranunculaceae Anemone virginiana var. virginiana tall thimbleweed 

Aquilegia canadensis 

Cimicifuga racemosa 

red columbine 

* 

black bugbane 

Hepatica nobilis var. obtusa roundlobe hepatica 

Ranunculus abortivus 

littleleaf buttercup 

Ranunculus bulbosus St. Anthony's turnip e 

Ranunculus recurvatus Blisterwort 

Rhamnaceae Berchemia scandens Alabama supplejack 

Rosaceae Agrimonia rostellata 

beaked agrimony 

Amelanchier arborea common serviceberry 

Duchesnea indica 

e 

Indian strawberry 

Geum canadense white avens 

Geum virginianum cream avens 

Potentilla canadensis 

dwarf cinquefoil 

Prunus serotina var. serotina black cherry 

Rosa palustris 

swamp rose 

Rubus flagellaris 

northern dewberry 

Rubiaceae 

Cephalanthus occidentalis common buttonbush 

Rubiaceae Galium aparine stickywilly 

Galium circaezans 

licorice bedstraw 

Galium obtusum ssp. filifolium bluntleaf bedstraw 

Galium obtusum ssp. obtusum bluntleaf bedstraw 

Galium pilosum 

hairy bedstraw 

Galium triflorum fragrant bedstraw 

Galium uniflorum oneflower bedstraw 

Houstonia caerulea 

azure bluet 

Mitchella repens 

partridgeberry 

Salicaceae 

Populus alba 

e# 

white poplar 

Populus heterophylla swamp cottonwood 

Salix nigra black willow 

Saururaceae Saururus cernuus lizard's tail 

Saxifragaceae Heuchera americana American alumroot 

Scrophulariaceae Chelone glabra 

white turtlehead 

Mimulus sp. a monkeyflower 

Penstemon laevigatus 

eastern smooth beardtongue 

Paulownia tomentosa 

princesstree e#* 

Verbascum thapsus 

common mullein e 

Veronica arvensis 

corn speedwell e 

Selaginellaceae Selaginella apoda 

meadow spikemoss 

Simaroubaceae Ailanthus altissima 

tree of heaven e# 

Smilacaceae Smilax bona-nox saw greenbrier 

Smilax glauca cat greenbrier 

Smilax herbacea smooth carrionflower 

Smilax rotundifolia roundleaf greenbrier 

Smilax walteri coral greenbrier 

Solanaceae Physalis heterophylla clammy groundcherry 

Sparganiaceae Sparganium americanum American bur-reed 

Taxodiaceae Taxodium distichum bald cypress 

106



Family 

Thelypteridaceae 

Typhaceae 

Ulmaceae 

Urticaceae 

Valerianaceae 

Verbenaceae 

Violaceae 

Viscaceae 

Vitaceae 


Phegopteris hexagonoptera 

Thelypteris noveboracensis 

Thelypteris palustris var. pubescens 

Typha ×glauca 

Typha angustifolia 

Typha latifolia 

Celtis laevigata 

Celtis occidentalis 

Ulmus americana 

Ulmus rubra 

Boehmeria cylindrica 

Pilea fontana 

Pilea pumila 

Valerianella radiata 

Callicarpa americana 

Phryma leptostachya 

Phyla lanceolata 

Verbena scabra 

Viola arvensis 

Viola cucullata 

Viola sororia 

Phoradendron leucarpum 

Parthenocissus quinquefolia 

Vitis aestivalis 

Vitis rotundifolia 

Vitis vulpina 

broad beechfern 

New York fern 

eastern marsh fern 

hybrid cattail 

narrowleaf cattail 

broadleaf cattail 

sugarberry 

common hackberry 

American elm 

slippery elm 

smallspike false nettle 

lesser clearweed 

Canadian clearweed 

beaked cornsalad 

American beautyberry 

American lopseed 

lanceleaf fogfruit 

sandpaper vervain 

European field pansy 

marsh blue violet 

common blue violet 

oak mistletoe 

Virginia creeper 

summer grape 

muscadine 

frost grape 

e Species not native to Virginia. 

# Species considered to be invasive nonnative species by the VADCR (VADCR 2003). 

* Species not measured in quantitative plots or accuracy assessment observations, but noted during 

fieldwork and used to characterize a vegetation class in Appendix I. 

e* 

107



Appendix D. Distribution of vegetation classes, derived from the analysis of regional 

quantitative plot data, across seven national parks in Virginia. 

Vegetation was classified and mapped in seven national park units in Virginia: Appomattox 

Court House National Historical Park (APCO), Booker T. Washington National Monument 

(BOWA), Colonial National Historical Park (COLO), Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania National 

Military Park (FRSP), George Washington Birthplace National Monument (GEWA), Petersburg 

National Battlefield (PETE), and Richmond National Battlefield Park (RICH). The classification 

used to map these parks was developed regionally, using quantitative data that were collected 

from all seven parks and combined with existing data from throughout the Mid-Atlantic 

Piedmont and Coastal Plain. Quantitative analysis classified 35 associations occurring in the 

seven parks. An additional 19 associations and 12 nonstandard, park-specific vegetation classes 

representing disturbed, cultural, or exotic vegetation were also recognized from the seven parks, 

but were not represented by quantitative data. The relationship of all vegetation classes to the 

map classes used to map Colonial National Historical Park can be found in Table 11 of the main 

report. Vegetation classes listed with USNVC codes are equivalent to associations in the United 

States National Vegetation Classification (NatureServe 2007). Global and State conservation 

ranks are defined in Appendix E. 

108



Appendix D. Distribution of vegetation classes across seven national parks in Virginia. 

USNVC code 

Global/State 

Conservation 

Ranks BOWA 

APCO 

FRSP 

RICH 

PETE 

COLO 

GEWA 

Plots in 

regional 

analysis 

 

UPLAND FORESTS 

Oak / Heath Forests 93 

Coastal Plain Mixed Oak / Heath Forest CEGL006269 G4G5/S4 x x x 18 

Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath Forest CEGL008521 G5/S5 x x x 75 

Pine - Oak Forests 25 

Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest CEGL004766 GNR/SNR x 8 

Eastern White Pine - Hardwood Forest CEGL008539 G4/S4? x 17 

Mesic Acidic Forests 196 

Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest CEGL006075 G5/S5 x x x x x 170 

Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak - Beech / Heath Forest CEGL006919 GNR/SNR x 26 

Oak - Hickory Forests 137 

Acidic Oak - Hickory Forest CEGL008475 G4G5/S4 x x x x x x 121 

Basic Oak - Hickory Forest CEGL007232 G3G4/S3 x 16 

Basic Mesic and Calcareous Forests 77 

Inner Piedmont / Lower Blue Ridge Basic Mesic Forest CEGL006186 G4?/S4 x x 31 

Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest CEGL007181 G2?/S2 x 22 


NON-TIDAL WETLANDS 

CEGL007748 G1/S1 x x 24 

Seepage Wetlands 72 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Acidic Seepage Swamp CEGL006238 G3?/S3? x x x x 39 

Northern Piedmont / Lower New England Basic Seepage 

Swamp 

CEGL006406 G4G5/S2? x 18 

Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp CEGL006413 G2/S1S2 x 15 

Alluvial Forests 100 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest CEGL004418 G4/S4 x x x x 48 

Piedmont / Mountain Alluvial Forest CEGL006492 G4/S4 x x 14 

Piedmont / Mountain Floodplain Forest CEGL006217 G4/S4 x 38 

Swamp Forests 70 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest (Mixed 

Oak - Red Maple Type) 

CEGL006605 G3G4/S3 x x 47 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest (Green 

Ash - Red Maple Type) 

CEGL006606 GNR/SNR x 23 

Nonriverine Forests 62 

Upland Depression Swamp CEGL007403 G2G3/S2 x 9 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Red Maple - Sweetgum 

Willow Oak Type) 

CEGL006110 G4G5/S3 x x 14 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type) CEGL006223 G2S2 x 18 


TIDAL WETLANDS 

CEGL004644 G2?/S2 x x x x 21 

Tidal Herbaceous Marshes 133 

Tidal Freshwater Marsh CEGL004706 G3G4/SNR x 18 

Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Low Salt Marsh) CEGL006586 GNR/SNR x x 13 

Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Transitional Marsh) CEGL006418 GNR/SNR x 18 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Common Reed Tidal Marsh) CEGL004187 GNA/SNA x x 7 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Interior Depression Marsh) CEGL006578 GNR/SNR x 13 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Big Cordgrass Type) CEGL004195 G4/SNR x x 18 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Mixed Forbs Type) CEGL006181 GNR/SNR x x 32 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Saltmeadow Cordgrass - Olney 

Three-Square Low Interior Marsh Type) 

CEGL006612 GNR/SNR x 14 

Tidal Forests and Shrublands 97 

Salt Scrub CEGL003921 G5/SNR x 13 

Tidal Shrub Swamp (Iva Type) CEGL006848 G5/SNR x 30 

Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) CEGL004656 G4/SNR x 49 

Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland CEGL004654 G2S2 x 5 

109



USNVC code 

Global/State 

Conservation 

Ranks BOWA 

DISTURBED, CULTURAL, EXOTIC VEGETATION 

Upland Forests and Shrublands 

Dense Hardwood Regeneration nonstandard x x x 0 

Disturbed Acidic Slope Forest CEGL007726 GNA/SNA x 0 

Disturbed Calcareous Forest nonstandard x x x 0 

Early-Successional Loblolly Pine Forest CEGL006011 GNA/SNA x x 0 

Golden Bamboo Shrubland CEGL008560 GNA/SNA x 0 

Loblolly Pine - Hardwood Forest CEGL008462 GNA/SNA x x x 0 

Loblolly Pine Plantation CEGL007179 GNA/SNA x x x x x x 0 

Successional Black Locust Forest CEGL007279 GNA/SNA x 0 

Successional Black Walnut Forest CEGL007879 GNA/SNA x x x 0 

Successional Mixed Scrub nonstandard x x x x 0 

Successional Red-cedar Forest CEGL006024 GNA/SNA x x x x 0 

Successional Sweetgum Forest CEGL007216 GNA/SNA x x x 0 

Successional Tree-of-Heaven Forest CEGL007191 GNA/SNA x x 0 

Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest CEGL007521 GNA/SNA x 0 

Successional Tuliptree Forest CEGL007221 GNA/SNA x x x x x 0 

Successional Virginia Pine Forest CEGL002591 GNA/SNA x x x 0 

Virginia Pine Plantation CEGL004730 GNA/SNA x 0 

White Pine Plantation 

Wetland Vegetation 

CEGL007178 GNA/SNA x 0 

Beaver Wetland Complex CEGL005082 G4G5/SNR x x x x 0 

Successional River Birch - Red Maple Floodplain Forest CEGL006976 GNR/SNR x 0 

Successional Tuliptree Floodplain Forest CEGL007330 GNA/SNA x 0 

Disturbed Depressional Wetland nonstandard x 0 

Disturbed Seepage Swamp nonstandard x 0 

Disturbed Tidal Hardwood Swamp nonstandard x 0 

Non-Riverine Saturated Forest - pine subtype nonstandard x 0 

Successional Shrub Swamp 

Cultural Vegetation 

nonstandard x 0 

Cultural Meadow CEGL006107 GNA/SNA x x x x x x x 0 

Forested Earthworks nonstandard x x 0 

Grazed Woodlot nonstandard x 0 

Open Earthworks nonstandard x x 0 

Semipermanent Impoundment 

Nonstandard x x x x 0 

APCO 

FRSP 

RICH 

PETE 

COLO 

GEWA 

Plots in 

regional 

analysis 

110



Appendix E. Definitions of global and subnational (state) conservation ranks. 

NatureServe and the Network of Natural Heritage Programs and Conservation Data Centers 

work together to assign conservation status ranks to elements of biodiversity (plants, animals, 

and ecological communities). These ranks have been developed using range-wide data collected 

by the Natural Heritage Network for nearly three decades and are critical in setting conservation 

priorities. Community types are ranked on a global (G), national (N), and subnational (S) scale 

of 1 to 5, with 1 indicating critical imperilment due to rarity, endemism, and/or threats, and 5 

indicating little or no risk of extirpation or elimination. 

The primary ranking factors used in assessing the appropriate conservation status rank for an 

ecological community element are: (1) the total number of occurrences, and (2) the total area 

(acreage) of the element. Secondary ranking factors, such as the geographic range over which 

the element occurs, the threats to the occurrences, and the viability of the occurrences, also affect 

the rank. 

Additional factors that have been used in arriving at an assessment of a community’s range-wide 

(global) rank include the geographic range over which the type occurs, the long term decline of 

the type across this range, the degree of site specificity exhibited by the type, and the rarity 

across the range based on state ranks assigned by state Natural Heritage Programs. 

To learn more about Natural Heritage Methodology, go to 

http://www.natureserve.org/prodServices/heritagemethodology.jsp. 

111



Global Rank Codes and Definitions 

Global ranks (i.e. range-wide conservation status ranks) are assigned at NatureServe’s 

Headquarters or by a designated lead office in the Heritage/Conservation Data Center Network. 

GX - Extirpated - Eliminated throughout its range, with no restoration potential due to 

extinction of dominant or characteristic species. 

GH - Historical - Presumed eliminated throughout its range, with no, or virtually no, likelihood 

that it will be rediscovered, but with potential for restoration (e.g., Castanea dentata Forest). 

G1 - Critically Imperiled - Critically imperiled globally. Generally 5 or fewer occurrences 

and/or very few remaining acres or very vulnerable to elimination throughout its range due to 

other factor(s). 

G2 - Imperiled - Imperiled globally. Generally 6–20 occurrences and/or few remaining acres or 

very vulnerable to elimination throughout its range due to other factor(s). 

G3 - Vulnerable - Rare or uncommon. Generally 21–100 occurrences; either very rare and local 

throughout its range or found locally, even abundantly, within a restricted range or vulnerable to 

elimination throughout its range due to specific factor(s). 

G4 - Apparently Secure - Uncommon but not rare. Apparently secure, but with cause for 

long-term concern. May be quite rare in parts of its range, especially at the periphery; apparently 

not vulnerable in most of its range 

G5 - Secure - Demonstrably widespread, abundant, and secure. Common, widespread, and 

abundant, although it may be quite rare in parts of its range, especially at the periphery; not 

vulnerable in most of its range. 

GNA - Rank not applicable - Common cultural, ruderal, planted, modified, managed, invasive, 

and/or non-natural type that is not a suitable target for conservation activities. 

GNR - Not Yet Ranked - Status has not yet been assessed. 

GU - Unrankable - Status cannot be determined at this time. 

G#G# - Rank Range - The actual rank of the element is within the range specified by the 

numbers; however, the exact status of the rarity of the element is uncertain. For example, G2G3 

indicates that the rank may be either G2 or G3. 

112



State Rank Codes and Definitions 

State ranks are assigned by the Virginia Division of Natural Heritage and apply to an element 

only as it exists in each state, regardless of its range-wide status. 

SX - Extirpated - Presumed extirpated from the state. Not located despite intensive searches of 

historical sites and other appropriate habitat, and virtually no likelihood that it will be 

rediscovered. 

SH - Historical - Possibly extirpated (Historical). Historically known from the state, but not 

verified for an extended period, usually >15 years; this rank is used primarily when inventory has 

been attempted recently. 

S1 - Critically Imperiled - Critically imperiled in the state because of extreme rarity or because 

of some factor(s) making it especially vulnerable to extirpation from the state; generally with 5 

or fewer occurrences state-wide, and/or covering less than 50 ha (124 ac) in aggregate; or 

covering a larger area but highly threatened with destruction or modification. 

S2 - Imperiled - Imperiled in the state because of rarity or because of some factor(s) making it 

very vulnerable to extirpation from the state. Generally with 6–20 occurrences state-wide, 

and/or covering less than 250 ha (618 ac) in aggregate; or covering a larger area but threatened 

with destruction or modification. 

S3 - Vulnerable - Vulnerable in the state either because rare and uncommon, or found only in a 

restricted range (even if abundant at some locations), or because of other factors making it 

vulnerable to extirpation. Generally with 21–100 occurrences state-wide; or with a larger 

number of occurrences subject to relatively high levels of threat; may be of relatively frequent 

occurrence in specific localities or geographic parts of the state. 

S4 - Apparently Secure - Uncommon but not rare, and usually widespread in the state. Some 

cause for long-term concern due to declines or other factors. 

S5 - Secure - Demonstrably widespread, abundant, and secure in the state, and essentially 

ineradicable under present conditions. 

SNA - Rank not applicable - Common cultural, ruderal, planted, modified, managed, invasive, 

and/or non-natural type that is not a suitable target for conservation activities. 

SNR - Not Ranked - Status has not yet been assessed. As the state vegetation classifications are 

further revised by additional information, the SNR will be changed to a numeric rank based on 

available data. 

SU - Unrankable - Currently unrankable due to lack of information or due to substantially 

conflicting information about status or trends. 

113



S#S# - Rank Range - The actual rank of the element is within the range specified by the 

numbers; however, the exact status of the rarity of the element is uncertain. For example, S1S3 

indicates that the rank may be either S1, S2, or S3. 

114



Global and State Rank Qualifier Codes and Definitions 

? - Inexact or Uncertain - A question mark added to a rank expresses an uncertainty about the 

rank in the range of 1 in either way on the 1–5 scale; for example, a G2? rank indicates that the 

rank is thought to be G2, but could be G1 or G3. 

Q - Questionable taxonomy - A “Q” added to a rank denotes questionable taxonomy; it 

modifies the degree of imperilment and is only used in cases where the type would have a less 

imperiled rank if it were not recognized as a valid type (i.e., if it were combined with a more 

common type); a GUQ rank often indicates that the type is unrankable because of daunting 

taxonomic questions. 

115



Appendix F. Environmental variable averages for associations derived from the analysis of 

regional quantitative plot data. 

Mean values for selected continuous and ordinal environmental variables were calculated for the 

35 associations occurring in seven national parks in Virginia that were derived from the analysis 

of quantitative plot data. Calculations were performed with raw (untransformed) values by 

taking the average across all plots representing a given association. Environmental variables 

were only summarized if at least half the plots in a given association contained data; otherwise 

the table cells are shaded. Mean aspect was calculated as the average position along an arc 

defined by the range of aspect values. Topographic variables and percentage substrate are 

presented in a separate table from soil chemistry variables. 

Column headings are as follows: 

Topographic variables 

Aspect 

Slope Inclination (see Table 4) 

Topographic Position (see Table 4) 

TRMI = Topographic Relative Moisture Index 

Percentage substrate 

%Bedrock = percentage cover by bedrock in plot 

%Large Rocks = percentage cover by boulders and stones (rocks > 10 cm) in plot 

%Small Rocks = percentage cover by gravel and cobble (rocks 0.2–10 cm) in plot 

%Min. Soil = percentage cover by bare sand or mineral soil in plot 

%Litter&Duff = percentage cover by leaf litter and duff in plot 

%Wood = percentage cover by dead wood in plot 

%Water = percentage cover by water in plot 

%NonVasc = percentage cover by nonvascular plants in plot 

Soil chemistry variables are as defined in Table 5. 

Associations present in Colonial National Historical Park are listed in bold font. 

116



Table F1. Environmental variable averages by association – topographic variables and percentage substrate. 

USNVC 

Code Aspect 

Oak / Heath Forests 

Coastal Plain Mixed Oak / Heath Forest CEGL006269 flat to 

SW 

Slope 

Inclination 

Toporaphic 

Position TRMI %Bedrock 

%Large Rocks 

%Small Rocks 

%Min. Soil 

%Litter & Duff 

%Wood 

%Water 

%NonVasc 

gentle to moderate lower to middle slope 26.7 0 0 0 6 91 3 0 1 

Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath Forest CEGL008521 S gentle upper slope 24.6 0 0 1 1 94 4 0 0 

Pine - Oak Forests 

Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest CEGL004766 flat level to gentle plain/level/bottom - 

lower slope 

31.5 0 0 0 1 

96 4 0 1 

Eastern White Pine - Hardwood Forest 

Mesic Acidic Forests 

CEGL008539 NNW moderate to steep middle slope 25.9



Table F1. Environmental variable averages by association – topographic variables and percentage substrate (continued). 

USNVC 

Code Aspect 

Slope 

Inclination 

Nonriverine Forests 

Upland Depression Swamp CEGL007403 flat level to basin / 

Toporaphic 

Position TRMI %Bedrock 

%Large Rocks 

%Small Rocks 

%Min. Soil 

%Litter & Duff 

%Wood 

%Water 

%NonVasc 

various 35.1 1 0 0 1 92 5 2 3 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Red Maple – CEGL006110 flat 

depression 

level to basin / various 37.1 0 0 0 4 86 4 6 16 

Sweetgum – Willow Oak Type) 

depression 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type) CEGL006223 flat level to basin / 

depression 

basin/depression 40.0 0 0 0 1 98 2 0 0 


Tidal Herbaceous Marshes 

CEGL004644 flat level plain/level/bottom 40.0 0 0 0 1 89 7 3 4 

Tidal Freshwater Marsh CEGL004706 flat level to gentle plain/level/bottom 40.0 0 0 0 62 19 0 19 0 

Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Low Salt 

Marsh) 

CEGL006586 flat level plain/level/bottom 40.0 0 0 0 14 17 0 69 0 

Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Transitional 

Marsh) 

CEGL006418 flat level to gentle plain/level/bottom 40.0 0 0 0 43 28 0 28 0 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Common Reed Tidal Marsh) CEGL004187 flat level plain/level/bottom 40.0 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Interior Depression Marsh) CEGL006578 flat level plain/level/bottom 40.0 0 0 0 25 67 0 8 0 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Big Cordgrass Type) CEGL004195 flat level plain/level/bottom 40.0 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Mixed Forbs Type) CEGL006181 flat level plain/level/bottom 40.0 0 0 0 20 53 0 27 0 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Saltmeadow Cordgrass – Olney CEGL006612 

Three-Square Low Interior Marsh Type) 

Tidal Forests and Shrublands 

flat level to gentle plain/level/bottom 40.0 0 0 0 5 71 0 24 0 

Salt Scrub CEGL003921 flat level plain/level/bottom 40.0 

Tidal Shrub Swamp (Iva Type) CEGL006848 flat level plain/level/bottom 40.0 

Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) CEGL004656 flat level plain/level/bottom 40.0 

Tidal Bald Cypress Forest/Woodland CEGL004654 flat level plain/level/bottom 40.0 0 0 0 0 9 1 90 0 

118



Table F2. Environmental variable averages by association – soil chemistry variables. 

USNVC 

Code pH N P S Ca Mg K Na B Fe Mn Cu Zn Al CEC TBS OM CaMgRatio Fertility 

Oak / Heath Forests 

Coastal Plain Mixed Oak / Heath Forest CEGL006269 4.2 79 31 31 132 31 28 12 0.60 282 10 0.41 1.1 634 8.1 19.2 3.3 4.3 1.0 

Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed Oak / 

Heath Forest 

Pine – Oak Forests 

CEGL008521 4.2 90 14 31 135 28 35 12 0.41 295 14 0.57 1.4 764 10.3 12.1 4.6 4.7 1.1 

Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine – Oak 

Forest 

CEGL004766 4.1 90 25 40 165 52 34 11 0.80 324 64 0.59 1.5 697 12.1 13.5 4.1 3.3 1.4 

Eastern White Pine – Hardwood Forest 

Mesic Acidic Forests 

CEGL008539 4.2 95 13 35 205 44 47 12 0.5 297 43 0.6 1.6 852 14.4 10.2 6.1 5.0 1.5 

Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest CEGL006075 4.4 92 28 34 303 68 55 14 0.46 186 66 0.90 2.3 776 11.4 23.3 4.6 4.9 2.3 

Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak – Beech / 

Heath Forest 

Oak – Hickory Forests 

CEGL006919 4.2 88 19 29 155 39 39 12 0.40 279 9 0.53 1.3 746 11.2 15.2 4.2 5.6 1.2 

Acidic Oak – Hickory Forest CEGL008475 4.6 99 18 33 320 80 60 13 0.39 204 80 1.69 2.4 908 10.1 27.1 5.6 4.3 2.5 

Basic Oak – Hickory Forest 

Basic Mesic and Calcareous Forests 

CEGL007232 5.3 106 32 29 1508 241 108 12 0.62 175 215 2.03 3.0 740 14.3 63.5 6.4 7.3 9.9 

Inner Piedmont / Lower Blue Ridge Basic CEGL006186 

Mesic Forest 

5.5 110 29 30 1712 281 139 11 0.72 149 172 2.24 4.0 774 15.2 69.9 8.9 6.0 11.2 

Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine CEGL007181 

Forest 

5.7 93 34 34 2246 96 75 18 0.76 131 78 0.86 2.9 538 14.7 81.5 4.5 24.1 12.3 


Seepage Wetlands 

CEGL007748 6.5 100 40 39 4707 116 113 31 1.10 158 67 1.10 3.7 403 27.4 86.3 5.9 40.7 24.9 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Acidic Seepage 

Swamp 

CEGL006238 4.6 96 19 45 318 90 38 30 0.52 343 13 0.95 3.6 470 34.1 34.0 8.0 4.0 2.5 

Northern Piedmont / Lower New England 

Basic Seepage Swamp 

CEGL006406 5.2 110 24 88 1071 195 58 33 0.74 417 64 2.50 7.1 425 13.0 56.5 7.3 6.4 7.3 

Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage 

Swamp 

Alluvial Forests 

CEGL006413 6.1 114 29 104 3327 93 56 52 1.23 554 31 1.29 9.82 222 21.4 83.5 15 46.6 17.8 



CEGL004418 4.5 88 20 35 603 119 62 25 0.54 264 82 1.51 3.7 585 10.9 42.4 4.4 5.5 4.1 

Piedmont / Mountain Alluvial Forest CEGL006492 5.3 94 32 23 1127 180 62 25 0.67 204 119 3.02 5.8 520 11.1 69.0 4.8 6.3 7.4 

Piedmont / Mountain Floodplain Forest 

Swamp Forests 

CEGL006217 6.7 79 44 42 2570 169 63 19 0.8 242 106 3.0 14.4 309 14.9 97.8 3.8 16.8 14.2 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain 

Swamp Forest (Mixed Oak – Red 

Maple Type) 

CEGL006605 4.5 91 27 47 388 82 53 18 0.57 381 67 1.57 4.5 668 11.6 27.3 4.7 5.5 2.8 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain 

Swamp Forest (Green Ash – Red 

Maple Type) 

CEGL006606 5.2 101 28 99 1471 155 55 44 0.58 343 70 1.87 7.2 447 14.1 62.8 6.6 11.9 9.0 

119



Table F2. Environmental variable averages by association – soil chemistry variables (continued). 

USNVC 

Code pH N P S Ca Mg K Na B Fe Mn Cu Zn Al CEC TBS OM CaMgRatio Fertility 

Nonriverine Forests 

Upland Depression Swamp CEGL007403 4.3 110 47 61 501 130 55 39 0.52 395 23 1.29 4.3 1052 16.0 29.2 7.3 3.8 3.0 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Red CEGL006110 

Maple – Sweetgum – Willow Oak 

Type) 

4.1 109 48 56 193 68 53 17 0.53 297 30 0.90 2.4 890 17.3 10.9 7.0 3.1 1.7 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland 

(Swamp Tupelo Type) 

CEGL006223 


Tidal Herbaceous Marshes 

CEGL004644 4.3 99 32 53 288 62 43 26 0.72 333 6 0.60 2.0 614 14.3 17.8 4.3 6.1 2.3 

Tidal Freshwater Marsh CEGL004706 

Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh CEGL006586 

(Low Salt Marsh) 

Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh CEGL006418 

(Transitional Marsh) 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Common 

Reed Tidal Marsh) 

CEGL004187 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Interior 

Depression Marsh) 

CEGL006578 4.5 126 33 1189 986 990 249 1504 1.25 507 100 2.41 29.6 523 31.2 63.3 15.9 1.4 20.4 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Big 

Cordgrass Type) 

CEGL004195 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Mixed Forbs 

Type) 

CEGL006181 4.6 128 27 906 937 930 206 1845 1.3 560 162 1.29 14.9 487 32.5 65.3 20.7 1.1 21.0 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Saltmeadow 

Cordgrass – Olney Three-Square 

Low Interior Marsh Type) 

Tidal Forests and Shrublands 

CEGL006612 

Salt Scrub CEGL003921 

Tidal Shrub Swamp (Iva Type) CEGL006848 

Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) CEGL004656 

Tidal Bald Cypress Forest/Woodland CEGL004654 

120



Appendix G. Cluster dendrograms, ordination scatterplots, and joint plots resulting from 

quantitative analysis of regional plot data for 11 major vegetation groups present at Colonial 


Major vegetation groups are presented as follows: 

Oak / Heath Forests (Figures G1–G2) 

Pine - Oak Forests (Figures G3–G4) 

Mesic Acidic Forests (Figures G5–G7) 

Oak - Hickory Forests (Figures G8–G10) 

Basic Mesic and Calcarous Forests (Figures G11–G13) 

Seepage Wetlands (Figures G14–G16) 

Alluvial Forests (Figures G17–G19) 

Swamp Forests (Figures G20–G22) 

Nonriverine Forests (Figures G23–G25) 

Tidal Herbaceous Marshes (Figures G26–G28) 

Tidal Forests and Shrublands (Figures G29–G30) 

121



ABSF002 

ABSF013 

ABSF012 

ABSF006 

ABSF009 

FBMR061 

PWFP035 

PHWM007 

PWFP040 

LOUD008 

PHWM003 

PWFP041 

WTFP002 

CHOH.69 

CHOH.74 

GJNF345 

SHNP679 

ABSF015 

PGSF004 

APPO001 

SHNP581 

BUCK001 

SHNP089 

SHNP646 

SHNP672 

APCO.5 

GJNF348 

APPO002 

GFNP012 

DCRC2 

COAVA.1 

COAVA.3 

UPAN.4 

ROCR.4 

UPAN.8 

DCRC48 

ROCR.1 

DCRC49 

ABSF014 

SHNP084 

SHNP083 

FRSP.3 

PGSF003 

PWFP037 

SHNP091 

BESP002 

FRSP.20 

LEMP002 

NACE.1 

NACE.2 

COAVA.2 

CUSF020 

PNWM001 

FLUV001 

FLUV002 

FLUV005 

CHES002 

FRSP.15 

FRSP.6 

DGPT001 

FBMR047 

GFNP018 

GWMP013 

DGPT243 

KERR032 

COLO.23 

MDTS501 

PAMR088 

MDTS431 

MDTS602 

FBMR049 

MDTS131 

MDTS601 

MDTS402 

MDTS422 

MDTS412 

CHOT008p 

RICH.8 

YNWS010 

GRAF202p 

LEMP001 

POSP006 

SUFC009 

SUFC001 

FRSP.19 

PETE.1 

RICH.3 

PETE.5 

POSP009 

HICK003P 

HICK004P 

ZOSF001 

ZOSF003 

Distance (Objective Function) 

9.1E-02 1.2E+01 2.4E+01 3.6E+01 

Information Remaining (%) 

100 75 50 25 

Group 

CEGL006269 

CEGL008521 

Figure G1. Dendrogram resulting from cluster analysis of species coverage data from 93 oak / 

heath forest plots. Plot membership in two oak / heath forest associations is shown. 

CEGL006269 = Coastal Plain Mixed Oak / Heath Forest; CEGL008521 = Piedmont Low 

Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath Forest. Distance on the dendrogram scale is Wishart’s objective 

function (Wishart 1979). 

4.8E+01 

0 

122



Axis 3 

FRSP.3 

FRSP.20 

PETE.1 

FRSP.6 

APCO.5 

PETE.5 

FRSP.19 

FRSP.15 

RICH.3 

Axis 1 

COLO.23 

RICH.8 

Group 

CEGL006269 

CEGL008521 

Figure G2. Scatterplot diagram for three-dimensional NMDS ordination of 92 oak/heath forest 

plots, showing Axis 1 and 3. Plot membership in two oak/heath forest associations is based on 

cluster analysis. CEGL006269 = Coastal Plain Mixed Oak / Heath Forest; CEGL008521 = 

Piedmont Low Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath Forest. Plots from the seven Virginia national 

parks are labeled to the right of or below the symbol. One plot was determined to be an outlier 

and eliminated from the dataset prior to ordination. 

123



BLRP024 

BLRP078 

MNBP018 

BLRP077 

CHOH.41 

SHNP614 

SHNP635 

SHNP674 

SHNP676 

CUSF015 

FLUV004 

FRSP.16 

JGNF509 

MNBP019 

CHOH.622 

CHOH.77 

CHOH.73 

COLO.101 

COLO.102 

COLO.105 

COLO.104 

COLO.106 

COLO.107 

COLO.109 

COLO.25 

5.3E-02 

100 

1.9E+00 

75 


3.8E+00 


50 

5.7E+00 

25 

7.6E+00 

Group 

0 

CEGL004766 

CEGL008539 

Figure G3. Dendrogram resulting from cluster analysis of species coverage data from 25 pine 

oak forest plots. Plot membership in two pine - oak forest associations is shown. CEGL004766 

= Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest; CEGL008539 = Eastern White Pine - Hardwood 

Forest. Distance on the dendrogram scale is Wishart’s objective function (Wishart 1979). 

124



Axis 2 

COLO.25 

COLO.107 COLO.102 Group 

COLO.109 

COLO.106 

COLO.101 

COLO.104 

COLO.105 

Axis 1 

FRSP.16 

CEGL004766 

CEGL008539 

Figure G4. Scatterplot diagram for two-dimensional NMDS ordination of 25 pine - oak forest 

plots. Plot membership in two pine - oak forest associations is based on cluster analysis. 

CEGL004766 = Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest; CEGL008539 = Eastern White Pine - 

Hardwood Forest. Plots from the seven national parks are labeled to the right of or below the 

symbol. 

125



AMHE001 

AMHE002 

APCO.7 

PWFP010P 

APCO.12 

CUSF007 

KERR024 

KERR036 

COLO.2 

POSP008 

GLOU003 

GLOU004 

JAME001 

JAME002 

JAME003 

CHES001 

FBMR056 

PGSF005 

PHWM004 

PWFP039 

FHMR013 

FHMR014 

MDTS401 

MDTS411 

CUSF017 

RICH.10 

KERR038 

SOUT007 

WEST001 

FHMR012 

FRSP.24 

HANO004 

MDTS301 

MDTS311 

MDTS322 

FAIR037 

KERR002 

FHRP001 

PHWM006 

PWFP032 

PWFP033 

FRSP.10 

PETE.7 

FRSP.25 

LASP002 

POSP003 

POSP002 

CHIR016 

PAMR055 

CPSP011 

MDFG14 

GROC010 

COLO.19 

COLO.22 

YNWS008 

YNWS009 

YNWS012 

YNWS013 

GLOU002 

PAMR078 

SUFC002 

SUFC016 

SUFC003 

MATH002 

PAMR071 

MATH003 

NEWK003 

CHOT009p 

PAMR068 

FBMR009 

MATH001 

RICH.4 

CROW003 

FBMR050 

GWMP012 

FBMR029 

PHWM002 

COLO.20 

COLO.21 

CROW004 

YRSP007 

FBMR036 

FBMR042 

FBMR043 

FAIR038 

FLUV007 

FBMR034 

KERR033 

CUSF010 

HANO003 

HRWM004 

MOTT002 

PHWM005 

FHRP002 

PWFP045 

KERR007 

LEMP003 

PAMR087 

4.2E-02 

100 

5.9E+00 

75 


1.2E+01 


50 

1.8E+01 

25 

Group 

CEGL006075 

CEGL006919 

Figure G5. Dendrogram resulting from cluster analysis of species coverage data from 98 mesic acidic 

forest plots. Plot membership in two mesic acidic forest associations is shown. CEGL006075 = Mesic 

Mixed Hardwood Forest; CEGL006919 = Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak - Beech / Heath Forest. Distance 

on the dendrogram scale is Wishart’s objective function (Wishart 1979). 196 plots of this type were 

originally identified in the regional analysis. A reduced dataset is used here for graphical depiction. 

2.3E+01 

0 

126



Axis 2 

COLO.20 

RICH.4 FRSP.10 

PETE.7 

COLO.21 

COLO.19 

COLO.22 

FRSP.25 

Axis 1 

RICH.10 

APCO.7 

COLO.2 

APCO.12 FRSP.24 

Group 

CEGL006075 

CEGL006919 

Figure G6. Scatterplot diagram for three-dimensional NMDS ordination of 98 mesic acidic 

forest plots, showing Axis 1 and 2. Plot membership in two mesic acidic forest associations is 

based on cluster analysis CEGL006075 = Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest; CEGL006919 = 

Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak – Beech / Heath Forest. Plots from the seven Virginia national 

parks are labeled to the right of or below the symbol. 

127



Axis 3 

FRSP.10 

PETE.7 

APCO.7 

APCO.12 

COLO.20 

Fe 

COLO.19 

RICH.10 

COLO.21 

COLO.22 

FRSP.25 

pH Ca 

Mg 

Mn 

Axis 1 

RICH.4 

FRSP.24 

COLO.2 

Group 

CEGL006075 

CEGL006919 

Figure G7. Joint plot showing significant correlations (r 2 = 0.20) of 19 soil variables with 

ordination scores for 87 mesic acidic forest plots on Axis 1 and Axis 3 of the NMDS ordination. 

The angles and lengths of the radiating lines indicate the direction and strength of the 

relationship. Environmental variables used in joint plots are listed in Table 5. Only the 87 plots 

in this group with complete soil chemistry data were included in the ordination. Plots from the 

seven Virginia national parks are labeled to the right of or below the symbol. 

128



ABSF003 

ABSF008 

ABSF007 

ABSF010 

ABSF011 

BULL054 

LOUD007 

ALBE003 

BOWA.1 

AMWM003 

PNWM003 

PGSF002 

PWFP034 

APCO.10 

APCO.13 

CUSF014 

MNBP009 

MNBP020 

MNBP030 

MNBP023 

CUSF016 

FRSP.8 

FRSP.1 

FRSP.4 

HANO005 

MNBP033 

ABSF004 

ALBE001 

MOTT001 

POSP007 

PNWM002 

POSP005 

CAMP003 

SCRU023 

CUSF009 

LUNE005 

PGSF006 

LOUD016 

BOWA.2 

BOWA.6 

CHAR002 

PGSF001 

AMWM005 

AMWM006 

COLO.24 

KERR030 

KERR040 

PITT006 

LUNE002 

PETE.3 

RICH.1 

PETE.6 

RICH.9 

BULL016P 

BULL038P 

WATM044 

WATM056 

WATM058 

BULL052P 

FAIR031 

GFNP011 

MNBP026 

CRSF001 

MNBP021 

CUSF021 

WATM035 

FAIR025 

FAIR028 

LOUD012 

GFNP043 

GFNP044 

GFNP037 

GFNP046 

FRSP.2 

FRSP.21 

HANO006 

PWFP025 

FRSP.23 

PWFP044 

GFNP042 

RIVB014 

PWFP027 

PWFP038 

AMWM002 

CUSF004 

AMWM004 

PNWM005 

SPOT001 

SPOT002 

KERR027 

SRSP003 

HRWM003 

WENT001 

APCO.1 

APCO.2 

APCO.9 

CUSF001 

CUSF008 

KERR013 


3.9E-02 5.3E+00 1.1E+01 1.6E+01 2.1E+01 


100 75 50 25 0 

Group 

CEGL007232 

CEGL008475 

Figure G8. Dendrogram resulting from cluster analysis of species coverage data from 99 oak 

hickory forest plots. Plot membership in two oak - hickory forest associations is shown. 

CEGL007232 = Basic Oak - Hickory Forest; CEGL008475 = Acidic Oak - Hickory Forest. 

Distance on the dendrogram scale is Wishart’s objective function (Wishart 1979). 137 plots of 

this type were originally identified in the regional analysis. A reduced dataset is used here for 

graphical depiction. 

129



Figure G9. Scatterplot diagram for three-dimensional NMDS ordination of 98 oak - hickory 

forest plots. Plot membership in two oak - hickory forest associations is based on cluster 

analysis. CEGL007232 = Basic Oak - Hickory Forest; CEGL008475= Acidic Oak - Hickory 

Forest. One plot was determined to be an outlier and eliminated from the dataset prior to 

ordination. 

130



Axis 3 

PETE.6 

RICH.9 

FRSP.2 

PETE.3 

FRSP.23 

K 

BOWA.1 

Mg 

Ca 

BOWA.6 

RICH.1 

FRSP.4 

FRSP.1 

Axis 1 

Fertility 

Base Saturation 

pH 

FRSP.8 

COLO.24 

BOWA.2 

FRSP.21 

APCO.13 

APCO.10 

APCO.1 

APCO.9 

APCO.2 

Group 

CEGL007232 

CEGL008475 

Figure G10. Joint plot showing significant correlations (r 2 = 0.20) of environmental variables 

with ordination scores for 98 oak - hickory forest plots on Axis 1 and Axis 3 of the NMDS 

ordination. The angles and lengths of the radiating lines indicate the direction and strength of the 

relationship. Environmental variables used in joint plots are listed in Table 5. Plots from the 

seven Virginia national parks are labeled to the right of or below the symbol. 

131



ABSF005 

WATM011 

BULL059P 

MONF002 

BULL062 

BULL063 

WATM034 

BULL008 

BULL009 

MNBP031 

WATM002 

WATM013 

AMHE004 

BLRP080 

BLRP018 

SHNP097 

SHNP099 

APCO.4 

APCO.6 

BOWA.4 

BOWA.5 

FRAN006 

MDGM12 

MDGM90 

BULL004 

BULL007P 

PWFP023 

PWFP031 

GFNP034 

GFNP035 

GFNP036 

ANDE001 

CODJ1 

COLO.16 

COLO.29 

GEWA.3 

GEWA.6 

CROW005 

CROW006 

SURR001 

SURR004 

COLO.13 

COLO.14 

GROC006 

GROC009 

GROC008 

COLO.15 

YNWS005 

YNWS014 

JAME004 

JAME005 

CPSP003 

CPSP004 

CPSP005 

COLO.3 

SUFC019 

YNWS011 

GLOU001 

GROC007 

GLOU007 

YNWS015 

COLO.6 

GROC002 

YNWS002 

YNWS003 

CPSP002 

JAME006 

GROC001 

GROC003 

GROC004 

GROC005 

ISLE007 

SUFC017 

SUFC018 

SUFC020 

SUFC022 

SUFC023 

4.8E-02 

100 

5.2E+00 

75 


1E+01 


50 

1.6E+01 

25 

Group 

CEGL006186 

CEGL007181 

CEGL007748 

Figure G11. Dendrogram resulting from cluster analysis of species coverage data from 77 basic 

mesic and calcareous forest plots. Plot membership in three basic mesic and calcareous forest 

associations is shown. CEGL006186 = Inner Piedmont / Lower Blue Ridge Basic Mesic Forest; 

CEGL007181 = Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest; CEGL007748 = Coastal Plain 

Dry Calcareous Forest. Distance on the dendrogram scale is Wishart’s objective function 

(Wishart 1979). 

2.1E+01 

0 

132



Figure G12. Scatterplot diagram for three-dimensional NMDS ordination of 76 basic mesic and 

calcareous forest plots. Plot membership in three basic mesic and calcareous forest associations 

is based on cluster analysis. CEGL006186 = Inner Piedmont / Lower Blue Ridge Basic Mesic 

Forest; CEGL007181 = Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest; CEGL007748 = Coastal 

Plain Dry Calcareous Forest. One plot was determined to be an outlier and eliminated from the 

dataset prior to ordination. 

133



Axis 3 

COLO.13 

COLO.16 

COLO.14 

GEWA.6 

CaMgRatio 

Fertility 

pH 

COLO.15 

COLO.6 

GEW A.3 

COLO.3 

APCO.6 

Axis 1 

N 

OM 

APCO.4 

COLO.29 

BOWA.5 

Mg 

Boulders 

TRMI 

Al 

BOWA.4 

Group 

CEGL006186 

CEGL007181 

CEGL007748 

Figure G13. Joint plot showing significant correlations (r 2 = 0.290) of environmental variables with ordination scores for 73 basic 

mesic and calcareous forest plots on Axis 1 and Axis 3 of the NMDS ordination. The angles and lengths of the radiating lines indicate 

the direction and strength of the relationship. Boron and Na were also significantly correlated in the same direction as pH and Fertility, 

but were removed from the graphic for clarity. Environmental variables used in joint plots are listed in Table 5. Plots from the seven 

Virginia national parks are labeled to the right of or below the symbol. Only the 73 plots in this group with complete environmental 

data were included in the ordination. 

134



APCO.8 

HICK001P 

PWFP049 

GFNP003 

GFNP005 

ROCR.2 

TURK011 

CHOH.202 

GFNP041 

GFNP004 

MON_NRA1 

WTFP001 

FOXV237 

GFSP235 

GFSP236 

PVSP229 

PVSP234 

PVSP230 

COLO.4 

COLO.8 

COLO.5 

YNWS001 

YNWS004 

CPSP008 

CPSP010 

SURR002 

SURR003 

CPSP009 

YRSP005 

YRSP009 

YRSP010 

YRSP006 

YRSP008 

BARC.2 

FHMR015 

MDZW33 

RICH.2 

MDZW22 

MDZW47 

RICH.6 

FHMR005 

NEWK001 

MDZW8 

FHMR006 

FHMR007 

FHMR018 

CHAR001 

FRSP.27 

FHMR009 

FHMR010 

FHMR019 

FHMR016 

FHMR017 

FRSP.14 

PETE.8 

FRSP.17 

FRSP.7 

FRSP.22 

PETE.4 

NACE.13 

NACE.14 

FBMR010 

FBMR014 

FBMR066 

FBMR068 

PWFP016C 

PWFP046 

PWFP048 

PWFP050 

GEWA.2 

MDTS221 

MDTS321 

4.4E-02 

100 

5.8E+00 

75 


1.2E+01 


50 

1.7E+01 

25 

Group 

CEGL006238 

CEGL006406 

CEGL006413 

Figure G14. Dendrogram resulting from cluster analysis of species coverage data from 72 seepage 

wetland plots. Plot membership in three seepage wetland associations is shown. CEGL006238 = Coastal 

Plain / Piedmont Acidic Seepage Swamp; CEGL006406 = Northern Piedmont / Lower New England 

Basic Seepage Swamp; CEGL006413 = Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp. Distance on the 

dendrogram scale is Wishart’s objective function (Wishart 1979). 

2.3E+01 

0 

135



Axis 2 

FRSP.27 Group 

CEGL006238 

FRSP.22 CEGL006406 

CEGL006413 

FRSP.7 

RICH.2 

FRSP.17 

RICH.6 

PETE.4 

PETE.8 

FRSP.14 

Axis 1 

Figure G15. Scatterplot diagram for two-dimensional NMDS ordination of 71 seepage wetland 

plots. Plot membership in three seepage wetland associations is based on cluster analysis. 

CEGL006238 = Coastal Plain / Piedmont Acidic Seepage Swamp; CEGL006406 = Northern 

Piedmont / Lower New England Basic Seepage Swamp; CEGL006413 = Coastal Plain 

Calcareous Seepage Swamp. Plots from the seven Virginia national parks are labeled to the right 

of or below the symbol. One plot was determined to be an outlier and was eliminated from the 

dataset prior to ordination. 

GEWA.2 

APCO.8 

COLO.4 

COLO.8 

COLO.5 

136



Axis 2 

FRSP.27 Group 

CEGL006238 

CEGL006406 

FRSP.22 

FRSP.7 

PETE.4 

GEWA.2 

CEGL006413 

RICH.2 

FRSP.17 

RICH.6 

PETE.8 

FRSP.14 

Boulders 

Mg 

Axis 1 

Base Saturation 

Mn 

APCO.8 

B 

pH 

CaMgRatio 

Fertility 


with ordination scores for 56 seepage wetland plots on Axis 1 and Axis 2 of the NMDS 

ordination. The angles and lengths of the radiating lines indicate the direction and strength of the 


seven Virginia national parks are labeled to the right of or below the symbol. Only the 56 plots 

in this group with complete environmental data were included in the ordination. 

Ca 

COLO.4 

COLO.8 

COLO.5 

137



ABSF001 

FRSP.13 

HANO007 

PNWM004 

MDTS222 

NACE.11 

NACE.12 

PETE.2 

PWFP030 

COLO.11 

PWFP001P 

PWFP024 

PWFP042 

MDTS302 

MDTS502 

MDTS511 

MDTS421 

FBMR053 

FBMR064 

FBMR058 

LANS005 

MDZW21 

MDZW23 

MDFC12 

MDZW17 

MDFC21 

MDFC22 

MDFC31 

MDFC36 

MDFC34 

MDFC24 

MDFC28 

MDFC32 

MDZW45 

MDZW7 

MDFC33 

MDZW46 

MDFC39 

MDZW2 

MDFC18 

MDFC7 

MDFC29 

MDFC5 

MDFC19 

MDFC8 

MDFP17 

MDTS312 

PAMR090 

APCO.11 

BOWA.3 

HRWM005 

MNBP039 

MNBP040 

CHOH.231 

CHOH.236 

FAIR033 

TURK045 

TURK053 

DCRC65 

DCRC7 

ROCR.3 

DCRC67 

BLRP081 

JGNF741 

LOUD006 

POTO23_1 

CLAR006 

WARR001 

GLNF005 

CUMB002 

HRWM001 

ROCB006 

CLAR004 

HFHP005 

RIVB001 

RIVB003 

RIVB015 

POTO18_1 

POTO20_3 

POTO18_5 

POTO27_7 

TURK036 

POTO41_4 

POTO45_2 

MADS005 

POTO41_2 

POTO49_4 

POTO49_2 

POTO49_3 

MADS021 

POTO27_2 

POTO12_7 

SCRU017 

TURK034 

SCRU015 

SCRU016 

POTO14_4 

POTO29_3 

POTO19_1 

POTO26_2 

3.6E-02 

100 

8.8E+00 

75 


1.7E+01 


50 

2.6E+01 

25 

Group 

CEGL004418 

CEGL006217 

CEGL006492 

Figure G17. Dendrogram resulting from cluster analysis of species coverage data from 100 

alluvial forest plots. Plot membership in three alluvial forest associations is shown. 

CEGL004418 = Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest; CEGL006217= 

Piedmont / Mountain Floodplain Forest; CEGL006492= Piedmont / Mountain Alluvial Forest. 

Distance on the dendrogram scale is Wishart’s objective function (Wishart 1979). 

3.5E+01 

0 

138



Axis 2 

FRSP.13 

COLO.11 

APCO.11 

PETE.2 

BOWA.3 

Axis 1 

Group 

CEGL004418 

CEGL006217 

CEGL006492 

Figure G18. Scatterplot diagram for two-dimensional NMDS ordination of 97 alluvial forest 

plots. Plot membership in three alluvial forest associations is based on cluster analysis. 

CEGL004418 = Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest; CEGL006217= 

Piedmont / Mountain Floodplain Forest; CEGL006492 = Piedmont / Mountain Alluvial Forest. 

Three plots were determined to be outliers and eliminated from the dataset prior to ordination. 

Plots from the seven Virginia national parks are labeled to the right of or below the symbol. 

139



Axis 2 

COLO.11 

APCO.11 

FRSP.13 

CaMgRatio 

Ca 

B 

PETE.2 

P 

pH 

Al 

BOWA.3 

Zn 

Axis 1 

Group 

CEGL004418 

CEGL006217 

CEGL006492 


with ordination scores for 50 alluvial forest plots on Axis 1 and Axis 2 of the NMDS ordination. 



seven Virginia national parks are labeled to the right of the symbol. Only the 50 plots with 

complete environmental data were included in the ordination. 

140



COLO.12 

COLO.17 

JAME008 

PAMR064 

NACE218 

NACE225 

MDFC2 

MDFC6 

MDFC3 

FBMR002 

FBMR003 

FBMR004 

FBMR006 

DRGS006 

DRGS007 

MDZW44 

MDZW39 

MDZW40 

ZOSF005 

MDZW1 

MDZW41 

MDZW27 

MDZW28 

FBMR005 

MDFC4 

FBMR051 

NACE215 

FRSP.12 

PWFP047 

POSP001 

PETE.9 

POSP004 

FRSP.9 

MDFP16 

MDZW15 

MDZW16 

PAMR158 

NACE216 

NACE217 

MDFC13 

PAMR034 

MDFC14 

MDFC15 

MDZW10 

MDZW34 

MDZW38 

MDZW18 

MDZW19 

MDZW48 

MDZW49 

MDZW12 

MDZW50 

MDZW26 

MDZW51 

MDFC16 

MDZW30 

MDZW29 

MDZW43 

MDZW11 

MDZW35 

MDZW36 

MDZW13 

MDZW25 

MDZW20 

MDZW9 

MDZW42 

MDZW3 

MDZW5 

MDZW4 

MDZW6 

4.4E-02 

100 

4.7E+00 

75 


9.3E+00 


50 

1.4E+01 

25 

Group 

CEGL006605 

CEGL006606 


swamp forest plots. Plot membership in two swamp forest associations is shown. CEGL006605 

= Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest (Mixed Oak - Red Maple Type); 

CEGL006606 = Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest (Green Ash - Red Maple 

Type). Distance on the dendrogram scale is Wishart’s objective function (Wishart 1979). 

1.9E+01 

0 

141



Axis 2 

COLO.17 

Axis 1 

COLO.12 

FRSP.9 

PETE.9 

FRSP.12 

Group 

CEGL006605 

CEGL006606 

Figure G21. Scatterplot diagram for NMDS ordination of 70 swamp forest plots. Axis 1 and 2 

are shown from a three-dimensional ordination. Plot membership in two swamp forest 

associations is based on cluster analysis. CEGL006605 = Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain 

Swamp Forest (Mixed Oak – Red Maple Type); CEGL006606 = Coastal Plain / Piedmont 

Floodplain Swamp Forest (Green Ash – Red Maple Type). Plots from the seven Virginia 

national parks are labeled to the right of or below the symbol. 

142



Axis 3 

Al 

FRSP.9 

FRSP.12 

Mg 

Na Base Saturation 

pH 

Axis 1 

Ca 

PETE.9 

Fertility COLO.17 

CaMgRatio 

COLO.12 

Group 

CEGL006605 

CEGL006606 


with ordination scores for 70 swamp forest plots on Axis 1 and Axis 3 of the NMDS ordination. 



seven Virginia national parks are labeled to the right of or below the symbol. Only the 24 plots 

in this group with complete environmental data were included in the ordination. 

143



ACCO012 

ACCO013 

ACCO014 

CHOT004p 

RICH.7 

COLO.18 

COLO.28 

GEWA.1 

NORH006 

YORK003 

YORK004 

FLMR001 

NEWK004 

NEWK006 

HENR001 

ZOSF006 

HENR002 

RICH.5 

RICH.11 

FRSP.18 

FRSP.28 

AMHE006 

FRSP.11 

FRSP.26 

FRSP.5 

BESP001 

LUNE004 

CHOT005p 

NACE205 

FBMR060 

COLO.7 

YNWS006 

FBMR027 

NACE239 

MDFC30 

MDFC35 

APCO.14 

PWFP026 

APCO.3 

CHOH.205 

CUSF003 

CUSF018 

KERR025 

LUNE003 

GRAF030 

GRAF034 

GRAF099 

GRAF146 

GRAF105 

GRAF085 

GRAF051 

GRAF129 

GRAF083 

GRAF092 

GRAF097 

GRAF133 

GRAF123 

GRAF142 

GRAF064 

GRAF109 

GRAF116 

GRAF153 

8.6E-02 

100 

1.2E+01 

75 


2.3E+01 


50 

3.5E+01 


nonriverine forest plots. Plot membership in four nonriverine forest associations is shown. 

CEGL004644 = Non-Riverine Saturated Forest; CEGL006110 = Coastal Plain Depression 

Wetland (Red Maple – Sweetgum – Willow Oak Type); CEGL006223 = Coastal Plain 

Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type); CEGL007403 = Upland Depression Swamp. 

Distance on the dendrogram scale is Wishart’s objective function (Wishart 1979). 

25 

4.6E+01 

0 

Group 

CEGL004644 

CEGL006110 

CEGL006223 

CEGL007403 

144



Axis 2 

APCO.3 

APCO.14 

FRSP.11 

FRSP.5 

COLO.7 

COLO.18 

RICH.5 

FRSP.26 

RICH.7 FRSP.28 

RICH.11 

Axis 1 

COLO.28 

FRSP.18 

GEWA.1 

Group 

CEGL004644 

CEGL006110 

CEGL006223 

CEGL007403 

Figure G24. Scatterplot diagram for two-dimensional NMDS ordination of 62 nonriverine forest 

plots. Plot membership in four nonriverine forest associations is based on cluster analysis. 


Wetland (Red Maple – Sweetgum – Willow Oak Type); CEGL006223 = Coastal Plain 

Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type); CEGL007403 = Upland Depression Swamp. Plots 

from the seven Virginia national parks are labeled to the right of or below the symbol. 

145



Figure G25. Scatterplot diagram for three-dimensional NMDS ordination of 62 nonriverine 

forest plots. Plot membership in four nonriverine forest associations is based on cluster analysis. 


Wetland (Red Maple - Sweetgum - Willow Oak Type); CEGL006223 = Coastal Plain 

Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type); CEGL007403 = Upland Depression Swamp. 

146




0 25 50 75 100 

Group 

CEGL004187 

CEGL004195 

CEGL004706 

CEGL006181 

CEGL006418 

CEGL006586 

CEGL006578 

CEGL006612 

CHIR003 

CHIR004 

CHIR005 

CHIR007 

COLO.119 

PAMR097 

COLO.111 

PAMR113 

PAMR119 

WTCR002M 

CHIR001 

CHIR011 

CHIR008 

MACR020M 

CHIR010 

PAMR101 

MATR076 

PAMR141 

PAMR028 

PAMR010 

PAMR156 

PAMR102 

PAMR202 

PAMR107 

PAMR152 

COLO.108 

PAMR098 

COLO.113 

COLO.118 

COLO.114 

YORR003 

PAMR108 

PAMR110 

PAMR103 

MATR117 

MATR012 

CPSP007 

MATR011 

COLO.112 

RAPR005 

MATR126 

MATR124 

MATR123 

MATR118 

PRSF033M 

PRSF032M 

PAMR123 

PAMR134 

PAMR122 

MATR039 

CHIR014 

CHIR013 

MATR203 

RAPR004 

LANS001 

CHIR006 

CHIR002 

PAMR115 

MATR120 

MATR202 

COLO.110 

PAMR124 

BUSH002P 

NLAR022P 

COPT009M 

PAMR105 

MATR017 

MOCR005M 

MATR013 

BBNR109 

NLAR108 

BBNR111 

BBNR110 

BBNR106 

BBNR104 

BBNR102 

BUSH001P 

CHOT001P 

BBNR101 

CHOT007P 

CHOT002P 

COLO.115 

CHOP010M 

COLO.116 

GEWA.4 

BETH001P 

HUGH006P 

NEWP001P 

DAME002P 

FISH001M 

GEWA.5 

DEAL005M 

JISP003M 

RIMA002M 

CHNR033 

CHNR043 

PAMR162 

PAMR204 

YORR007 

WECR003M 

PAMR150 

PAMR133 

PAMR127 

CPSP006 

MATR026 

MATR006 

MATR007 

MATR010 

PAMR116 

PAMR118 

KING001M 

YORR004 

PAMR163 

YORR005 

MATR002 

MATR008 

PAMR128 

PAMR130 

MATR005 

MATR014 

MATR009 

MATR028 

MATR019 

MATR025 

MATR034 

MATR042 

MATR047 

PAMR201 

MOCR004M 

Tidal Freshwater Marshes 

CEGL004706 – Tidal Freshwater Marsh 

Tidal Oligohaline Marshes 

CEGL006578 –Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Interior Depression 

Marsh) 

CEGL006181 –Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Mixed Forbs Type) 

CEGL004187 –Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Common Reed Tidal 

Marsh) 

CEGL006612 –Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Saltmeadow Cordgrass – 

Olney Three-Square Low Interior Marsh Type) 

CEGL004195 –Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Big Cordgrass Type) 

Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marshes 

CEGL006586 –Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Low Salt 

Marsh) 

CEGL006418 –Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh 

(Transitional Marsh) 

Figure G26. Dendrogram resulting from cluster analysis of species coverage data from 129 tidal 

herbaceous marsh plots. Plot membership in eight tidal herbaceous marsh associations is shown. 

Tidal herbaceous marsh map classes are color coded and represent groupings of associations 

with similar ecological contexts used to map herbaceous tidal vegetation. Distance on the 

dendrogram scale is Wishart’s objective function (Wishart 1979). 

147



Axis 3 

GEWA.5 

GEWA.4 

Axis 1 

COLO.113 

COLO.108 COLO.110 

COL O.115 

COLO.116 

COLO.114 

COL O.118 

COLO.112 

COLO.111 

COL O.119 

Group 

CEGL004187 

CEGL004195 

CEGL004706 

CEGL006181 

CEGL006418 

CEGL006586 

CEGL006578 

CEGL006612 

Figure G27. Scatterplot diagram for three-dimensional NMDS ordination of 129 tidal 

herbaceous marsh plots, showing Axis 1 and 3. Plot membership in eight tidal herbaceous marsh 

associations is based on cluster analysis. CEGL004187 = Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Common 

Reed Tidal Marsh); CEGL004195 = Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Big Cordgrass Type); 

CEGL004706 = Tidal Freshwater Marsh; CEGL006181 = Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Mixed 

Forbs Type); CEGL006418 = Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Transitional Marsh); 

CEGL006578 = Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Interior Depression Marsh); CEGL006586 = Tidal 

Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Low Salt Marsh); CEGL006612 = Tidal Oligohaline Marsh 

(Saltmeadow Cordgrass – Olney Three-Square Low Interior Marsh Type). Plots from the seven 

Virginia national parks are labeled to the right of or below the symbol. 

148



Figure G28. Scatterplot diagram for three-dimensional NMDS ordination of 129 tidal 

herbaceous marsh plots. Plot membership in three tidal marsh map classes is shown. 

149




0 25 50 75 100 

Group 

CEGL003921 

CEGL004654 

CEGL004656 

CEGL006848 

COLO.103 

COLO.26 

COLO.27 

PRSF009M 

PRSF027M 

CHES006M 

KRWN001M 

NWMA002M 

CHRI001M 

CHRI002M 

CHRI004M 

LBLA001M 

LBLA007M 

PRSF028M 

PATU004M 

ACCO002 

CHRI003M 

NLAR031P 

NLAR017P 

NLAR035P 

NLAR118 

NWER007P 

NWER009P 

NWER010P 

NWER027P 

NWER030P 

BACR004M 

MACR015M 

BICR003M 

BICR004M 

BRCR001M 

CHES003M 

CHES004M 

CHOP003M 

NANT003M 

NANT004M 

NANT005M 

LBLA005M 

LBLA006M 

CHRI009M 

PRSF022M 

PRSF020M 

PRSF021M 

KICR001M 

MATR052 

LBLA002M 

LBLA003M 

LBLA004M 

LMCR001M 

LMCR002M 

PRSF026M 

PRSF023M 

PRSF024M 

PRSF025M 

BAIS001M 

CHNR030 

HONG001M 

CHNR038 

HUGH012P 

RIMA007M 

KRWN002M 

MBAY001M 

MBAY002M 

CHES005M 

RIMA001M 

EBAY001M 

BIGA002M 

GOCR001M 

GOCR002M 

GOCR004M 

BIGA003M 

SPCR001M 

HONG002M 

EAVA001M 

DEAL001M 

WYER002M 

GOCR003M 

POCO008M 

EAVA002M 

RIMA006M 

YORR006 

DEAL002M 

DEAL007M 

PATU001M 

PATU005M 

DEAL006M 

PATU006M 

WYER001M 

WYER004M 

WYER003M 

HACR001M 

HACR002M 

GICR001M 

GICR002M 

Figure G29. Dendrogram resulting from cluster analysis of species coverage data from 94 tidal 

forest and shrubland plots. Plot membership in four tidal forest and shrubland associations is 

shown. CEGL003921 = Salt Scrub; CEGL004654 = Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland; 

CEGL004656 = Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type); CEGL006848 = Tidal Shrub Swamp 

(Iva Type). Distance on the dendrogram scale is Wishart’s objective function (Wishart 1979). 

Two plots were determined to be outliers and were eliminated from the dataset prior to 

ordination. 

150



Axis 2 

COLO.27 

COLO.26 

COLO.103 

Axis 1 

Group 

CEGL003921 

CEGL004654 

CEGL004656 

CEGL006848 

Figure G30. Scatterplot diagram for two-dimensional NMDS ordination of 94 tidal forest and shrubland plots. Plot membership in four tidal forest 

and shrubland associations is based on cluster analysis results. CEGL003921 = Salt Scrub; CEGL004654 = Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland; 

CEGL004656 = Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type); CEGL006848 = Tidal Shrub Swamp (Iva Type). Plots from seven Virginia national 

parks are labeled to the right of or below the symbol. Two plots were determined to be outliers and were eliminated from the dataset prior to 

ordination. 

151



Appendix H. Compositional summary statistics for vegetation associations within Colonial 

National Historical Park derived from the analysis of regional quantitative plot data. 

Compositional statistics were calculated to evaluate the adequacy of groups recognized in cluster 

analysis and ultimately to assist in naming and describing vegetation associations. Only 

associations derived from quantitative analysis of the regional plot data are shown. Total mean 

cover and total frequency were determined for every taxon across the entire dataset. 

Compositional statistics are shown only for prevalent species in each vegetation association, 

except for those associations where mean species richness is less than or equal to 10 species. 

Prevalence is an attribute assigned to a portion of the species within a vegetation type (Curtis 

1959). Prevalence is determined by ranking the species of a vegetation type in order of 

descending constancy then, beginning with the most constant species, selecting as prevalent, a 

number of species equal to the mean species richness for the vegetation type. Species shaded in 

green were chosen as primary nominals in the association name, while those in blue are 

parenthetical nominals. 

See Methods - Vegetation Classification and Characterization - Summary Statistics section for an 

explanation of variables shown in each table. 

Vegetation associations are presented as follows: 

Acidic Oak - Hickory Forest .......................................................................................................... Table H5 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest (Green Ash - Red Maple 

Type) ..................................................................................................................................... Table H10 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest ............................................................ Table H9 

Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp .................................................................................... Table H8 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Red Maple - Sweetgum - Willow Oak Type) ..................... Table H11 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type) .......................................................... Table H12 

Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest ............................................................................................. Table H7 

Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest ....................................................................................... Table H2 

Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest .............................................................................. Table H6 

Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest ...................................................................................................... Table H3 

Non-Riverine Saturated Forest .................................................................................................... Table H13 

Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak - Beech / Heath Forest ................................................................... Table H4 

Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath Forest ................................................................... Table H1 

Salt Scrub ..................................................................................................................................... Table H22 

Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland ........................................................................................ Table H24 

Tidal Freshwater Marsh Table H14 

Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Low Salt Marsh) ........................................................ Table H15 

Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Transitional Marsh) ................................................... Table H16 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Big Cordgrass Type) .......................................................................... Table H19 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Common Reed Tidal Marsh) .............................................................. Table H17 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Interior Depression Marsh) ................................................................ Table H18 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Mixed Forbs Type) ............................................................................. Table H20 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Saltmeadow Cordgrass - Olney Three-Square Low 

Interior Marsh Type) ............................................................................................................. Table H21 

Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) ..................................................................................... Table H23 

152



Table H1. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Piedmont / Low 

Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath Forest (CEGL008521). 

Mean Species Richness 25 

Homoteneity 0.663 

Number of Plots 75 

ve 

TOTAL 

TOTAL 

MEAN 

SPECIES FREQ COVER 


810 5 6 + 99 9 9 6 18 


528 4 6 ++ 97 14 13 9 53 

Acer rubrum 

1090 6 6 0 97 7 6 4 6 

Quercus alba 721 6 7 + 93 10 9 7 18 

Gaylussacia baccata 

225 4 7 +++ 89 29 26 20 209 

Sassafras albidum 

521 3 4 + 85 12 10 5 21 

Vaccinium stamineum 373 2 5 +++ 82 16 13 7 108 

Quercus velutina 429 4 5 + 82 14 12 7 23 

Chimaphila maculata 

412 2 2 0 74 13 10 2 10 

Quercus coccinea 

212 4 6 ++ 70 25 17 11 69 

Quercus prinus 

396 5 7 ++ 69 13 9 7 36 

Smilax glauca 

528 2 2 0 66 9 6 1 6 

Amelanchier arborea 

388 2 4 ++ 61 12 7 3 28 

Pinus virginiana 

182 2 4 ++ 59 24 14 6 57 

Carya glabra 

437 4 4 0 58 10 6 3 6 

Smilax rotundifolia 

798 3 2 - 54 5 3 1 1 

Carya alba 

411 4 4 0 50 9 5 2 5 

Prunus serotina var. serotina 

620 2 2 0 50 6 3 1 3 


576 4 4 0 47 6 3 1 3 

Fagus grandifolia 

631 6 4 - - 47 6 3 1 1 

Rhododendron periclymenoides 

275 2 3 + 46 12 6 2 11 


627 4 3 - 46 5 2 1 1 

Diospyros virginiana 

293 2 2 0 46 12 5 1 5 

Quercus falcata 

178 3 4 + 45 19 8 4 17 

Kalmia latifolia 281 4 4 0 42 11 5 2 5 

Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

Adj 

DV 

(scaled) 

Adj 

DV 

(unscaled) 153



Table H2. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Coastal Plain 

Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest (CEGL004766). 




ve 

TOTAL 

TOTAL 

MEAN 


Liquidambar styraciflua 

472 4 6 ++ 100 2 2 1 7 

Smilax bona-nox 

87 1 2 + 100 9 9 2 18 

Smilax rotundifolia 797 3 2 - 100 1 1 0 1 

Pinus taeda 112 2 6 ++++ 88 6 5 4 88 


575 4 4 0 88 1 1 0 1 

Chasmanthium laxum 

76 2 2 0 88 9 8 2 8 

Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana 353 2 2 0 88 2 2 0 2 


520 3 2 - 88 1 1 0 1 

Toxicodendron radicans 747 3 1 - - 88 1 1 0 0 


255 2 2 0 75 2 2 0 2 

Quercus alba 

720 6 6 0 63 1 0 0 0 


810 5 5 0 63 1 0 0 0 

Quercus stellata 

85 2 4 ++ 63 6 4 2 15 

Prunus serotina var. serotina 619 2 3 + 63 1 1 0 1 

Acer rubrum 1090 6 1 - - - - 63 0 0 0 0 

Quercus velutina 428 4 6 ++ 50 1 0 0 2 

Danthonia spicata 

255 2 2 0 50 2 1 0 1 

Carex hirsutella 

98 1 1 0 50 4 2 0 2 

Dichanthelium dichotomum 270 2 1 - 50 1 1 0 0 


899 2 1 - 50 0 0 0 0 

Quercus pagoda 

39 2 6 ++++ 38 8 3 2 46 

Quercus falcata 

178 3 5 ++ 38 2 1 0 3 

Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

Adj 

DV 

(scaled) 

Adj 

DV 

(unscaled) 

154



Table H3. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Mesic Mixed 

Hardwood Forest (CEGL006075). 




ve 

TOTAL 

TOTAL 

MEAN 



630 6 7 + 97 26 25 20 51 

Acer rubrum 

1090 6 6 0 92 14 13 9 13 

Liriodendron tulipifera 

753 5 6 + 92 21 19 13 38 


899 2 2 0 89 17 15 3 15 

Quercus alba 

720 6 6 0 84 20 16 11 16 

Cornus florida 626 4 5 + 82 22 18 10 37 

Quercus rubra 668 5 6 + 77 20 15 10 30 


810 5 5 0 77 16 12 7 12 


619 2 2 0 75 21 15 3 15 

Toxicodendron radicans 747 3 2 - 75 17 13 3 6 


575 4 5 + 73 22 16 9 31 

Polystichum acrostichoides 

414 3 4 + 71 29 20 9 41 

Maianthemum racemosum ssp. racemosum 481 2 2 0 64 23 15 3 15 


462 2 2 0 63 23 15 3 15 


797 3 2 - 62 13 8 2 4 

Asimina triloba 519 5 4 - 61 20 12 5 6 

Euonymus americanus 

433 2 2 0 61 24 15 3 15 

Smilax glauca 

528 2 2 0 60 19 12 3 12 

Carya alba 

410 4 4 0 58 24 14 6 14 

Carpinus caroliniana 

497 4 4 0 58 20 12 5 12 


395 2 2 0 55 24 13 3 13 


527 4 2 - - 52 17 9 2 2 

Carya glabra 

437 4 4 0 51 20 10 5 10 


268 2 2 0 51 32 16 4 16 


412 2 2 0 49 20 10 2 10 


520 3 2 - 49 16 8 2 4 

Desmodium nudiflorum 307 2 2 0 48 27 13 3 13 

Viburnum acerifolium 319 2 3 + 46 24 11 4 22 

Galium circaezans 384 2 2 0 45 20 9 2 9 

Dioscorea quaternata 

339 2 2 0 45 22 10 2 10 

Fraxinus americana 

509 4 2 - - 45 15 7 1 2 


516 2 2 0 44 14 6 1 6 


472 4 4 0 42 15 6 3 6 

Quercus velutina 

428 4 4 0 42 17 7 3 7 

Vitis vulpina 

384 2 2 0 40 18 7 2 7 

Lindera benzoin 

456 4 3 - 39 14 6 2 3 

Amelanchier arborea 387 2 2 0 36 16 6 1 6 


396 5 5 0 34 15 5 3 5 

Epifagus virginiana 

107 1 2 + 34 54 18 4 37 


290 2 2 0 33 19 6 1 6 

Medeola virginiana 

175 1 2 + 29 28 8 2 16 

Eurybia divaricata 

236 2 2 0 28 20 6 1 6 

Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

Adj 

DV 

(scaled) 

Adj 

DV 

(unscaled) 

155



Table H4. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Piedmont / Coastal 

Plain Oak - Beech / Heath Forest (CEGL006919). 




ve 

TOTAL 

TOTAL 

MEAN 


Acer rubrum 1090 6 6 0 100 2 2 2 2 

Kalmia latifolia 281 4 7 +++ 96 9 9 7 68 


630 6 7 + 96 4 4 3 8 


810 5 5 0 88 3 3 1 3 


753 5 3 - - 85 3 2 1 1 


575 4 5 + 77 3 3 1 5 


520 3 4 + 77 4 3 1 6 

Quercus alba 720 6 6 0 73 3 2 1 2 


527 4 4 0 73 4 3 1 3 


275 2 4 ++ 65 6 4 2 16 


626 4 4 0 65 3 2 1 2 


412 2 2 0 65 4 3 1 3 


472 4 3 - 58 3 2 1 1 

Smilax glauca 

528 2 2 0 58 3 2 0 2 


396 5 6 + 54 4 2 1 4 

Quercus rubra 

668 5 5 0 54 2 1 1 1 

Amelanchier arborea 387 2 2 0 50 3 2 0 2 

Quercus velutina 428 4 4 0 46 3 1 1 1 

Carya glabra 

437 4 4 0 46 3 1 1 1 

Epifagus virginiana 

107 1 2 + 46 11 5 1 10 


619 2 2 0 46 2 1 0 1 



395 2 2 0 42 3 1 0 1 

Viburnum acerifolium 

319 2 3 + 35 3 1 0 2 

Hexastylis virginica 

46 1 2 + 35 20 7 2 14 

Desmodium nudiflorum 

307 2 2 0 35 3 1 0 1 

Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana 353 2 2 0 35 3 1 0 1 

Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

Adj 

DV 

(scaled) 

Adj 

DV 

(unscaled) 

156



Table H5. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Acidic Oak - Hickory 

Forest (CEGL008475). 




ve 

(s 

TOTAL 

TOTAL 

MEAN 

SPECIES 

Quercus alba 

FREQ 

720 

COVER 

6 7 + 98 16 16 13 32 

Acer rubrum 1090 6 6 0 96 11 10 7 10 

Cornus florida 626 4 6 ++ 94 18 17 11 68 


899 2 2 0 90 12 11 2 11 


810 5 5 0 88 13 11 6 11 


527 4 4 0 87 20 17 8 17 


462 2 2 0 85 22 19 4 19 

Quercus rubra 

668 5 6 + 83 15 12 8 25 

Vaccinium stamineum 373 2 4 ++ 83 27 22 10 88 



619 2 2 0 80 16 12 3 12 


753 5 5 0 79 13 10 6 10 

Desmodium nudiflorum 

307 2 4 ++ 79 31 24 11 98 


412 2 2 0 79 23 18 4 18 

Carya alba 

410 4 6 ++ 78 23 18 12 72 


509 4 4 0 77 18 14 6 14 

Quercus velutina 428 4 5 + 76 21 16 9 32 

Sassafras albidum 520 3 3 0 76 18 13 4 13 


Carya glabra 

437 4 5 + 66 18 12 7 24 


353 2 2 0 65 22 14 3 14 


290 2 2 0 61 25 15 3 15 

Vitis vulpina 

384 2 2 0 61 19 12 3 12 

Smilax glauca 

528 2 2 0 61 14 8 2 8 

Amelanchier arborea 

387 2 3 + 59 18 11 4 22 

Rubus flagellaris 

329 2 2 0 56 20 11 3 11 


630 6 5 - 53 10 5 3 3 

Danthonia spicata 

255 2 2 0 53 25 13 3 13 


361 2 2 0 52 17 9 2 9 


747 3 2 - 52 8 4 1 2 

Viburnum acerifolium 319 2 4 ++ 51 19 10 4 39 

Dioscorea quaternata 

339 2 2 0 51 18 9 2 9 


797 3 2 - 48 7 3 1 2 

Solidago caesia 

232 2 2 0 47 24 11 3 11 


433 2 2 0 47 13 6 1 6 

Carya ovalis 

160 4 5 + 43 33 14 8 28 

Dichanthelium boscii 

248 2 3 + 43 21 9 3 18 

Uvularia perfoliata 

219 2 2 0 43 24 10 2 10 


268 2 2 0 43 19 8 2 8 

Dichanthelium dichotomum 

270 2 2 0 43 19 8 2 8 


275 2 2 0 43 19 8 2 8 


292 2 2 0 43 18 8 2 8 


497 4 4 0 42 10 4 2 4 


396 5 5 0 41 12 5 3 5 

Rosa carolina var. carolina 

138 1 2 + 39 34 13 3 27 

Quercus coccinea 212 4 4 0 38 21 8 4 8 

Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

Adj DV 

caled) 

Adj DV 

(unscaled) 

157



Table H5. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Acidic Oak - Hickory 

Forest (CEGL008475) (continued). 

ve 

(s 

TOTAL 

TOTAL 

MEAN 

SPECIES 


FREQ 

414 

COVER 

3 2 - 38 11 4 1 2 

Cercis canadensis var. canadensis 248 3 3 0 36 17 6 2 6 

Houstonia purpurea var. purpurea 125 1 2 + 36 34 12 3 25 

Scutellaria elliptica 135 1 2 + 36 32 11 3 23 

Ilex opaca var. opaca 575 4 2 - - 36 7 3 1 1 

Gaylussacia baccata 224 4 3 - 34 18 6 2 3 

Aristolochia serpentaria 153 1 2 + 33 26 9 2 17 

Vitis aestivalis 151 2 2 0 33 26 9 2 9 

Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

Adj 

DV 

caled) 

Adj 

DV 

(unscaled) 

158



Table H6. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Coastal Plain Mesic 

Calcareous Ravine Forest (CEGL007181). 




TOTAL 

MEAN 

Mean 

SPECIES 


TOTAL 

FREQ 

630 

COVER 

6 7 + 100 3 3 3 7 

Ilex opaca var. opaca 575 4 3 - 100 4 4 1 2 

Polystichum acrostichoides 414 3 6 +++ 95 5 5 3 39 

Liriodendron tulipifera 753 5 6 + 95 3 3 2 5 

Carya cordiformis 289 3 6 +++ 91 7 6 4 50 

Toxicodendron radicans 747 3 3 0 91 3 2 1 2 

Galium triflorum 258 2 2 0 91 8 7 2 7 

Mitchella repens 395 2 2 0 91 5 5 1 5 

Prunus serotina var. serotina 619 2 2 0 91 3 3 1 3 

Lonicera japonica 516 2 3 + 86 4 3 1 6 


Vitis vulpina 384 2 2 0 86 5 4 1 4 

Cornus florida 626 4 5 + 82 3 2 1 5 

Arisaema triphyllum 405 2 4 ++ 82 4 4 2 15 

Euonymus americanus 433 2 2 0 82 4 3 1 3 

Parthenocissus quinquefolia 899 2 2 0 82 2 2 0 2 

Ulmus rubra 189 2 4 ++ 77 9 7 3 28 

Sanicula canadensis 307 2 2 0 77 6 4 1 4 

Quercus muhlenbergii 65 3 6 +++ 73 25 18 12 143 

Liquidambar styraciflua 472 4 4 0 73 3 2 1 2 

Viola sororia 252 2 2 0 73 6 5 1 5 


Acer barbatum 56 3 7 ++++ 68 27 18 14 292 

Carpinus caroliniana 497 4 5 + 68 3 2 1 4 

Circaea lutetiana ssp. canadensis 247 2 4 ++ 68 6 4 2 17 

Cercis canadensis var. canadensis 248 3 4 + 68 6 4 2 8 

Acer rubrum 1090 6 3 - - - 68 1 1 0 0 

Botrychium virginianum 206 1 2 + 68 7 5 1 10 

Geum canadense 170 2 2 0 68 9 6 1 6 

Polygonum virginianum 203 2 2 0 68 7 5 1 5 

Festuca subverticillata 268 2 2 0 68 6 4 1 4 

Asimina triloba 519 5 6 + 64 3 2 1 3 

Polygonatum biflorum 462 2 2 0 64 3 2 0 2 

Sanguinaria canadensis 115 2 4 ++ 59 11 7 3 27 

Phegopteris hexagonoptera 81 2 3 + 59 16 9 3 19 

Phryma leptostachya 149 1 2 + 59 9 5 1 10 

Carex albicans 290 2 2 0 59 4 3 1 3 


Lindera benzoin 456 4 4 0 55 3 1 1 1 

Fraxinus americana 509 4 4 0 55 2 1 1 1 

Dichanthelium boscii 248 2 3 + 55 5 3 1 5 

Sassafras albidum 520 3 2 - 55 2 1 0 1 

Quercus alba 720 6 5 - 50 2 1 0 0 

Cynoglossum virginianum var. virginianum 50 1 4 +++ 50 22 11 5 88 

Carex rosea 152 1 2 + 50 7 4 1 7 

Carex digitalis 268 2 2 0 50 4 2 0 2 

Podophyllum peltatum 207 2 5 +++ 45 5 2 1 18 

Quercus velutina 428 4 4 0 45 2 1 0 1 

Luzula acuminata var. carolinae 32 1 2 + 45 31 14 3 28 

Hepatica americana 81 1 2 + 45 12 6 1 11 

Cover 

Relative 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

Adj DV 

(scaled) 

Adj DV 

(unscaled) 

159



Table H6. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Coastal Plain Mesic 

Calcareous Ravine Forest (CEGL007181) (continued). 

ve 

Ad 

TOTAL 

TOTAL 

MEAN 

SPECIES 

Asarum canadense 

FREQ 

53 

COVER 

2 2 0 45 19 9 2 9 

Morus rubra 120 1 2 + 45 8 4 1 8 

Carex blanda 156 2 2 0 45 6 3 1 3 

Vitis rotundifolia 169 2 2 0 45 6 3 1 3 

Brachyelytrum erectum 156 2 4 ++ 41 6 2 1 9 

Quercus rubra 668 5 4 - 41 1 1 0 0 

Nyssa sylvatica 810 5 3 - - 41 1 0 0 0 

Smilax bona-nox 87 1 2 + 41 10 4 1 8 

Galearis spectabilis 41 1 2 + 36 20 7 2 14 

Prenanthes altissima 74 1 2 + 36 11 4 1 8 

Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

j DV 

(scaled) 

Ad 

(uns aled) 

j DV 

c 

160



Table H7. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Coastal Plain Dry 

Calcareous Forest (CEGL007748). 




SPECIES 

Quercus muhlenbergii 







Carya cordiformis 

Cercis canadensis var. canadensis 






Galium circaezans 


Dichanthelium boscii 



Celtis occidentalis 




Phryma leptostachya 

Vitis vulpina 

Smilax bona-nox 

Geum virginianum 

Erigeron pulchellus var. pulchellus 

Ulmus rubra 


Bromus pubescens 

Agrimonia rostellata 

Carex laxiflora var. laxiflora 

Aristolochia serpentaria 

Vitis rotundifolia 


Acer rubrum 




Salvia lyrata 

Asplenium platyneuron 




TOTAL 

FREQ 

66 

627 

354 

748 

576 

900 

620 

289 

249 

754 

519 

473 

517 

308 

385 

798 

249 

291 

209 

205 

293 

631 

362 

150 

385 

88 

101 

35 

190 

156 

103 

124 

141 

154 

170 

463 

1090 

498 

510 

415 

38 

156 

396 

521 

405 

TOTAL 

MEAN 

COVER Mean 

3 

4 

2 

3 

4 

2 

2 

3 

3 

5 

5 

4 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

6 

2 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

6 

4 

4 

3 

1 

1 

2 

3 

2 

Cover 

7 

6 

4 

4 

4 

3 

2 

6 

5 

5 

6 

4 

3 

2 

2 

2 

5 

4 

2 

2 

2 

5 

4 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

3 

2 

4 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

5 

4 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

Relative 

Cover 

++++ 

++ 

++ 

+ 

0 

+ 

0 

+++ 

++ 

0 

+ 

0 

+ 

0 

0 

- 

+++ 

++ 

0 

0 

0 

- 

++ 

+ 

0 

+ 

+ 

+++ 

+ 

0 

++ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

0 

0 

- - - - 

+ 

0 

0 

+ 

+ 

0 

- 

++ 

Constancy 

100 

96 

96 

92 

88 

88 

88 

83 

83 

83 

79 

79 

79 

79 

79 

79 

75 

75 

75 

71 

71 

67 

67 

67 

67 

63 

63 

58 

58 

58 

54 

54 

54 

54 

54 

54 

54 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

46 

Fidelity 

36 

4 

6 

3 

4 

2 

3 

7 

8 

3 

4 

4 

4 

6 

5 

2 

7 

6 

9 

8 

6 

3 

4 

11 

4 

17 

15 

40 

7 

9 

13 

10 

9 

8 

8 

3 

1 

2 

2 

3 

32 

8 

3 

2 

3 

Diagnostic 

Value 

36 

4 

6 

3 

3 

2 

3 

6 

7 

2 

3 

3 

3 

5 

4 

2 

5 

5 

6 

6 

4 

2 

3 

7 

3 

11 

9 

23 

4 

5 

7 

6 

5 

5 

4 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

16 

4 

2 

1 

1 

Adj DV 

(scaled) 

28 

2 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

4 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

0 

3 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

2 

2 

10 

1 

1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

0 

0 

1 

1 

0 

4 

1 

0 

0 

1 

Adj DV 

(unscaled) 

582 

14 

25 

5 

3 

4 

3 

46 

27 

2 

6 

3 

6 

5 

4 

1 

43 

19 

6 

6 

4 

1 

12 

14 

3 

21 

19 

187 

9 

5 

27 

11 

10 

9 

4 

2 

0 

2 

1 

1 

32 

8 

2 

1 

5 

161



Table H7. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Coastal Plain Dry 

Calcareous Forest (CEGL007748) (continued). 

SPECIES 

Arnoglossum atriplicifolium 

Aquilegia canadensis 

Cynoglossum virginianum var. virginianum 

Galium triflorum 

Symphyotrichum lateriflorum 

Smallanthus uvedalius 

Dichanthelium commutatum 

Sanguinaria canadensis 

Ageratina altissima var. altissima 

Solidago caesia 

Amphicarpaea bracteata 



Quercus velutina 

Quercus rubra 

Anemone virginiana var. virginiana 

Desmodium pauciflorum 

Ruellia caroliniensis 

Oxalis dillenii 

Packera aurea 

Juglans nigra 

Viola sororia 

TOTAL 

FREQ 

14 

24 

50 

258 

309 

12 

113 

116 

128 

233 

262 

412 

434 

429 

669 

16 

18 

31 

120 

68 

98 

253 

TOTAL 

MEAN 

COVER Mean 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

5 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

Cover 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Relative 

Cover 

+ 

+ 

+ 

0 

0 

++ 

+ 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

- - 

- 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

0 

0 

0 

Constancy 

46 

46 

46 

46 

46 

42 

42 

42 

42 

42 

42 

42 

42 

42 

38 

38 

38 

38 

38 

38 

38 

38 

Fidelity 

79 

46 

22 

4 

4 

83 

9 

9 

8 

4 

4 

2 

2 

2 

1 

56 

50 

29 

8 

13 

9 

4 

Diagnostic 

Value 

36 

21 

10 

2 

2 

35 

4 

4 

3 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

21 

19 

11 

3 

5 

3 

1 

Adj DV 

(scaled) 

8 

5 

2 

0 

0 

12 

1 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

5 

4 

2 

1 

1 

1 

0 

Adj DV 

(unscaled) 

72 

42 

20 

2 

2 

139 

7 

4 

3 

2 

2 

1 

1 

0 

0 

42 

38 

22 

6 

5 

3 

1 

162




Calcareous Seepage Swamp (CEGL006413). 




SPECIES 


Acer rubrum 

Saururus cernuus 

Decumaria barbara 


Cicuta maculata var. maculata 



Impatiens capensis 

Pilea fontana 


Glyceria striata 


Geum canadense 


Packera aurea 


Leersia virginica 


Carex bromoides ssp. bromoides 

Bidens laevis 

Cornus foemina 




Ranunculus recurvatus 

Juncus effusus 


Scirpus lineatus 



Poa autumnalis 




Polygonum setaceum 



Myrica cerifera var. cerifera 

Carex laevivaginata 





Nyssa biflora 

Rudbeckia laciniata 

Carex styloflexa 

Carex crinita 

Taxodium distichum 

TOTAL 

FREQ 

238 

1090 

91 

27 

229 

47 

226 

258 

203 

25 

238 

152 

747 

170 

575 

68 

456 

201 

308 

38 

16 

33 

261 

405 

797 

101 

121 

516 

9 

45 

472 

70 

307 

497 

255 

12 

156 

519 

29 

46 

203 

208 

395 

899 

12 

35 

39 

85 

11 

TOTAL 

MEAN 

COVER Mean 

4 

6 

2 

1 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

3 

2 

3 

2 

4 

2 

4 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

2 

2 

3 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

4 

2 

2 

4 

2 

1 

2 

5 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

2 

Cover 

7 

7 

6 

4 

4 

5 

3 

2 

6 

5 

5 

4 

3 

2 

2 

6 

5 

4 

2 

6 

5 

4 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

3 

3 

2 

2 

6 

4 

2 

2 

4 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

6 

2 

2 

2 

6 

Relative 

Cover 

+++ 

+ 

++++ 

+++ 

+ 

+++ 

+ 

0 

++++ 

++++ 

++ 

++ 

0 

0 

- - 

++++ 

+ 

++ 

0 

++++ 

+++ 

+++ 

0 

0 

- 

+ 

+ 

0 

+++ 

++ 

- 

0 

0 

++ 

++ 

+ 

0 

- 

++ 

+ 

0 

0 

0 

0 

++++ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

++++ 

Constancy 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

93 

93 

93 

87 

87 

87 

87 

87 

87 

87 

80 

80 

80 

80 

73 

73 

73 

73 

73 

73 

67 

67 

67 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

53 

53 

53 

53 

47 

47 

47 

47 

47 

47 

47 

40 

40 

40 

40 

33 

Fidelity 

6 

1 

16 

56 

7 

30 

6 

5 

6 

52 

5 

9 

2 

8 

2 

18 

3 

6 

4 

29 

69 

33 

4 

3 

1 

10 

8 

2 

100 

20 

2 

13 

3 

2 

3 

67 

5 

1 

24 

15 

3 

3 

2 

1 

50 

17 

15 

7 

45 

Diagnostic 

Value 

6 

1 

16 

56 

7 

28 

6 

5 

6 

45 

5 

7 

2 

7 

2 

14 

2 

5 

3 

21 

50 

24 

3 

2 

1 

7 

6 

1 

60 

12 

1 

8 

2 

1 

2 

36 

3 

1 

11 

7 

2 

2 

1 

0 

20 

7 

6 

3 

15 

Adj DV 

(scaled) 

5 

1 

11 

25 

3 

15 

2 

1 

4 

25 

3 

3 

1 

1 

0 

9 

1 

2 

1 

14 

28 

11 

1 

0 

0 

1 

1 

0 

27 

4 

0 

2 

0 

1 

1 

8 

1 

0 

4 

2 

0 

0 

0 

0 

13 

2 

1 

1 

10 

Adj DV 

(unscaled) 

50 

3 

264 

444 

13 

222 

12 

5 

89 

721 

19 

30 

2 

7 

0 

226 

4 

19 

3 

340 

403 

196 

3 

2 

1 

13 

11 

1 

480 

48 

1 

8 

2 

3 

7 

71 

3 

0 

45 

14 

2 

2 

1 

0 

320 

14 

12 

6 

242 

163



Table H9. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Coastal Plain / 

Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest (CEGL004418). 




SPECIES 








Acer rubrum 



Thelypteris noveboracensis 








Carex debilis 


Athyrium filix-femina var. asplenioides 


Platanus occidentalis 


Onoclea sensibilis 


Circaea lutetiana ssp. canadensis 

Carex intumescens var. intumescens 

Carex radiata 

Festuca subverticillata 


Viburnum dentatum 

Smilax glauca 

Carya cordiformis 

Medeola virginiana 


Betula nigra 




Sambucus nigra ssp. canadensis 

Carex swanii 

Woodwardia areolata 



TOTAL 

FREQ 

753 

456 

747 

472 

899 

575 

797 

1090 

405 

519 

157 

497 

433 

414 

395 

630 

516 

226 

130 

810 

157 

229 

85 

626 

95 

203 

247 

111 

146 

268 

203 

236 

528 

289 

175 

261 

60 

179 

307 

238 

94 

124 

73 

208 

258 

TOTAL 

MEAN 

COVER Mean 

5 

4 

3 

4 

2 

4 

3 

6 

2 

5 

3 

4 

2 

3 

2 

6 

2 

2 

2 

5 

2 

3 

2 

4 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

1 

2 

2 

1 

2 

3 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

Cover 

7 

6 

4 

6 

4 

5 

3 

6 

4 

5 

6 

5 

2 

3 

2 

5 

3 

3 

2 

5 

4 

3 

4 

4 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

2 

5 

2 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Relative 

Cover 

++ 

++ 

+ 

++ 

++ 

+ 

0 

0 

++ 

0 

+++ 

+ 

0 

0 

0 

- 

+ 

+ 

0 

0 

++ 

0 

++ 

0 

+ 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

+ 

0 

+++ 

+ 

0 

0 

+ 

+ 

0 

0 

0 

Constancy 

96 

94 

94 

92 

92 

90 

88 

85 

81 

73 

71 

71 

69 

65 

56 

54 

54 

52 

48 

46 

46 

46 

44 

42 

42 

42 

42 

40 

40 

40 

38 

38 

38 

33 

33 

33 

31 

31 

31 

29 

29 

29 

29 

29 

29 

Fidelity 

6 

10 

6 

9 

5 

7 

5 

4 

10 

7 

22 

7 

8 

7 

7 

4 

5 

11 

18 

3 

14 

10 

25 

3 

21 

10 

8 

17 

13 

7 

9 

8 

3 

6 

9 

6 

25 

8 

5 

6 

15 

11 

19 

7 

5 

Diagnostic 

Value 

6 

9 

6 

9 

4 

7 

5 

3 

8 

5 

15 

5 

5 

5 

4 

2 

3 

6 

8 

1 

6 

4 

11 

1 

9 

4 

3 

7 

5 

3 

3 

3 

1 

2 

3 

2 

8 

3 

2 

2 

4 

3 

6 

2 

2 

Adj DV 

(scaled) 

5 

6 

3 

6 

2 

4 

2 

2 

3 

3 

10 

3 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

1 

3 

1 

5 

1 

2 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

0 

1 

1 

0 

4 

1 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

0 

0 

Adj DV 

(unscaled) 

23 

37 

11 

34 

18 

13 

5 

3 

31 

5 

123 

10 

5 

5 

4 

1 

5 

12 

8 

1 

26 

4 

43 

1 

18 

4 

3 

7 

5 

3 

3 

3 

1 

2 

6 

2 

63 

5 

2 

2 

9 

7 

6 

2 

2 

164



Table H10. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Coastal Plain / 

Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest (Green Ash - Red Maple Type) (CEGL006606). 




SPECIES 


Saururus cernuus 



Acer rubrum 






Ilex verticillata 

Viburnum dentatum 


Glyceria striata 


Carex crinita 

Polygonum arifolium 


Triadenum walteri 

Lobelia cardinalis 




Leucothoe racemosa 

Pilea pumila 

Carex lurida 

Carex tribuloides 

Polygonum punctatum 

Betula nigra 




Quercus lyrata 



Quercus michauxii 

Cornus amomum ssp. amomum 

Galium obtusum 

TOTAL 

FREQ 

238 

91 

226 

52 

1090 

229 

748 

203 

798 

900 

194 

236 

456 

152 

309 

85 

55 

238 

20 

55 

179 

209 

473 

88 

106 

60 

90 

55 

60 

517 

576 

519 

33 

498 

810 

91 

26 

69 

TOTAL 

MEAN 

COVER Mean 

4 

2 

2 

1 

6 

3 

3 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2 

4 

2 

2 

1 

2 

3 

1 

1 

1 

2 

4 

2 

2 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

5 

2 

4 

5 

2 

1 

1 

Cover 

7 

6 

4 

3 

6 

5 

4 

3 

4 

2 

5 

3 

4 

3 

2 

3 

3 

4 

2 

2 

2 

2 

5 

4 

3 

2 

2 

4 

4 

2 

2 

2 

5 

4 

4 

3 

2 

2 

Relative 

Cover 

+++ 

++++ 

++ 

++ 

0 

++ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

0 

+++ 

+ 

0 

+ 

0 

++ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

0 

+ 

++ 

+ 

+ 

0 

++ 

++ 

0 

- - 

- - - 

+++ 

0 

- 

+ 

+ 

+ 

Constancy 

95 

91 

91 

91 

82 

82 

82 

82 

73 

68 

59 

59 

55 

55 

55 

50 

50 

45 

45 

45 

45 

45 

41 

41 

41 

41 

41 

36 

36 

36 

36 

36 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

Fidelity 

9 

22 

9 

38 

2 

8 

2 

9 

2 

2 

7 

6 

3 

8 

4 

13 

20 

4 

50 

18 

6 

5 

2 

10 

8 

15 

10 

15 

13 

2 

1 

2 

21 

1 

1 

8 

27 

10 

ostic 

Diagn 

Value 

8 

20 

8 

35 

1 

6 

2 

7 

1 

1 

4 

3 

1 

4 

2 

6 

10 

2 

23 

8 

3 

2 

1 

4 

3 

6 

4 

5 

5 

1 

1 

1 

7 

0 

0 

2 

9 

3 

Adj DV 

(scaled) 

7 

13 

4 

12 

1 

4 

1 

2 

1 

0 

2 

1 

1 

1 

0 

2 

3 

1 

5 

2 

1 

0 

0 

2 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

0 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

1 

2 

1 

Adj DV 

(unscaled) 

67 

320 

32 

140 

1 

26 

4 

15 

3 

1 

32 

7 

1 

9 

2 

26 

20 

4 

45 

17 

5 

2 

2 

17 

7 

12 

4 

21 

19 

1 

0 

0 

54 

0 

0 

5 

17 

6 

165




Depression Wetland (Red Maple - Sweetgum - Willow Oak Type) (CEGL006110). 




ve 

Ad 

TOTAL 

TOTAL 

MEAN 

Species FREQ COVER 

Quercus phellos 238 4 7 +++ 100 6 6 5 50 

Liquidambar styraciflua 472 4 6 ++ 100 3 3 2 13 

Nyssa sylvatica 810 5 6 + 100 2 2 1 4 

Acer rubrum 1090 6 6 0 100 1 1 1 1 

Smilax rotundifolia 797 3 5 ++ 100 2 2 1 8 


Chasmanthium laxum 76 2 5 +++ 60 12 7 4 57 

Ilex opaca var. opaca 575 4 3 - 60 2 1 0 0 


Juncus effusus 121 1 2 + 53 7 4 1 7 

Leucothoe racemosa 88 2 4 ++ 47 8 4 2 15 

Vaccinium corymbosum 136 2 3 + 47 5 2 1 5 

Liriodendron tulipifera 753 5 3 - - 47 1 0 0 0 


Quercus palustris 126 4 4 0 40 5 2 1 2 

Carex albolutescens 31 1 2 + 40 19 8 2 15 


Quercus alba 720 6 2 - - - - 40 1 0 0 0 

Carex debilis 130 2 4 ++ 33 4 1 1 5 

Betula nigra 60 2 3 + 33 8 3 1 6 

Pinus taeda 112 2 3 + 33 4 1 0 3 

Cinna arundinacea 229 3 3 0 33 2 1 0 1 

Osmunda regalis var. spectabilis 78 2 2 0 33 6 2 0 2 

Magnolia virginiana 87 2 2 0 33 6 2 0 2 

Carex intumescens var. intumescens 111 2 2 0 33 5 2 0 2 

Dichanthelium dichotomum 270 2 2 0 33 2 1 0 1 

Fraxinus pennsylvanica 238 4 2 - - 33 2 1 0 0 

Carex joorii 5 1 4 +++ 27 80 21 9 171 

Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

j DV 

(scaled) 

Adj 

DV 

(unscaled) 

166




Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type) (CEGL006223). 




Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

j DV 

(scaled) 

Adj 

DV 

(unscaled) 

ve 

Ad 

TOTAL 

TOTAL 

MEAN 

SPECIES 

Nyssa biflora 

FREQ 

114 

COVER 

3 7 ++++ 100 16 16 12 253 


Leucothoe racemosa 141 2 3 + 78 10 8 3 15 


Acer rubrum 861 6 6 0 67 1 1 1 1 

Carex joorii 100 2 5 +++ 50 9 5 3 36 

Vaccinium corymbosum 193 3 5 ++ 50 5 2 1 9 

Diospyros virginiana 314 2 4 ++ 44 3 1 1 5 

Clethra alnifolia 93 2 2 0 44 9 4 1 4 

Pinus taeda 154 3 4 + 33 4 1 1 3 

Ilex opaca var. opaca 441 4 2 - - 33 1 0 0 0 

Asimina triloba 506 5 2 - - - 33 1 0 0 0 

167



Table H13. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Non-Riverine 

Saturated Forest (CEGL004644). 




TOTAL 

MEAN 

COVER Mean 

SPECIES 

TOTAL 

FREQ 


Acer rubrum 1090 6 6 0 100 2 2 1 2 

Nyssa sylvatica 810 5 5 0 90 2 2 1 2 

Smilax rotundifolia 797 3 4 + 90 2 2 1 4 

Quercus phellos 238 4 6 ++ 86 8 6 4 26 

Ilex opaca var. opaca 575 4 6 ++ 81 3 2 2 10 



Woodwardia areolata 73 2 5 +++ 71 21 15 8 117 

Quercus michauxii 

91 2 6 ++++ 67 15 10 7 164 

Pinus taeda 

112 2 4 ++ 67 13 8 4 33 

Clethra alnifolia 

52 2 6 ++++ 62 25 15 10 248 

Quercus pagoda 39 2 6 ++++ 57 31 18 12 281 

Carex debilis 130 2 4 ++ 57 9 5 2 21 

Magnolia virginiana 87 2 3 + 57 14 8 3 16 

Vitis rotundifolia 169 2 2 0 57 7 4 1 4 

Viburnum nudum 73 2 4 ++ 52 15 8 4 32 


Chasmanthium laxum 76 2 4 ++ 48 13 6 3 25 

Leucothoe racemosa 88 2 3 + 48 11 5 2 11 


Quercus alba 720 6 5 - 43 1 1 0 0 

Osmunda regalis var. spectabilis 78 2 4 ++ 43 12 5 2 20 

Osmunda cinnamomea 129 2 4 ++ 43 7 3 1 12 

Vaccinium corymbosum 136 2 4 ++ 43 7 3 1 11 

Carex intumescens var. intumescens 111 2 3 + 43 8 3 1 7 

Ilex verticillata 194 2 2 0 43 5 2 0 2 

Liriodendron tulipifera 753 5 2 - - - 43 1 1 0 0 

Carex seorsa 38 2 5 +++ 38 21 8 4 64 

Carpinus caroliniana 497 4 5 + 38 2 1 0 1 

Fraxinus pennsylvanica 238 4 4 0 38 3 1 1 1 

Vaccinium fuscatum 134 2 3 + 38 6 2 1 5 

Campsis radicans 208 2 2 0 38 4 1 0 1 

Viburnum dentatum 236 2 2 0 38 3 1 0 1 

Fagus grandifolia 630 6 2 - - - - 38 1 0 0 0 

Cover 

Relative 

Cover 

ancy 

Const 

ty 

Fideli 

Diagnostic 

Value 

Adj DV 

(scaled) 

Adj DV 

(unscaled) 

168



Table H14. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Tidal Freshwater 

Marsh (CEGL004706). 




Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

j DV 

(scaled) 

Adj 

DV 

(unscaled) 

ve 

Ad 

TOTAL 

TOTAL 

MEAN 

SPECIES 


FREQ 

444 

COVER 

5 7 ++ 94 4 4 3 14 

Zizania aquatica var. aquatica 229 4 5 + 78 6 5 3 10 

Pontederia cordata 253 4 6 ++ 56 4 2 1 9 

Polygonum punctatum 401 4 2 - - 39 2 1 0 0 

Amaranthus cannabinus 193 2 2 0 28 3 1 0 1 

Table H15. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Tidal Mesohaline 

and Polyhaline Marsh (Low Salt Marsh) (CEGL006586). 




Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

ve 

Ad 

TOTAL 

TOTAL 

MEAN 


Spartina alterniflora 108 4 7 +++ 100 11 11 9 89 

Distichlis spicata 102 4 6 ++ 92 11 10 7 40 

Spartina patens 142 5 5 0 50 4 2 1 2 

Limonium carolinianum 28 1 2 + 33 14 5 1 10 

j DV 

(scaled) 

Table H16. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Tidal Mesohaline 

and Polyhaline Marsh (Transitional Marsh) (CEGL006418). 




ve 

Ad 

TOTAL 

TOTAL 

MEAN 

SPECIES 

Spartina alterniflora 

FREQ 

108 

COVER 

4 8 ++++ 100 17 17 15 267 

Spartina cynosuroides 156 4 4 0 83 10 8 4 8 

Polygonum punctatum 401 4 4 0 44 2 1 0 1 

Schoenoplectus robustus 60 3 3 0 39 12 5 2 5 

Peltandra virginica 444 5 4 - 33 1 0 0 0 


Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

j DV 

(scaled) 

Adj 

DV 

(unscaled) 

Adj 

DV 

(unscaled) 

169



Table H17. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Tidal Oligohaline 

Marsh (Common Reed Tidal Marsh) (CEGL004187). 




ve 

Ad 

TOTAL 

TOTAL 

MEAN 


Phragmites australis 84 3 9 ++++++ 100 8 8 8 533 

Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos 298 3 2 - 43 1 0 0 0 

Phyla lanceolata 36 2 2 0 29 6 2 0 2 


Peltandra virginica 444 5 2 - - - 29 0 0 0 0 

Ammannia latifolia 7 1 1 0 14 14 2 0 2 

Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

j DV 

(scaled) 


Marsh (Interior Depression Marsh) (CEGL006578). 




Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

j DV 

(scaled) 

Adj 

DV 

(unscaled) 

Adj 

DV 

(unscaled) 

ve 

Ad 

TOTAL 

TOTAL 

MEAN 

SPECIES 


FREQ 

444 

COVER 

5 6 + 100 3 3 2 6 

Polygonum punctatum 401 4 4 0 77 2 2 1 2 

Zizania aquatica var. aquatica 229 4 5 + 69 4 3 2 5 

Schoenoplectus pungens var. pungens 54 2 6 ++++ 62 15 9 6 146 

Echinochloa walteri 84 2 4 ++ 62 10 6 3 23 

Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani 80 2 4 ++ 46 8 3 2 14 

Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos 298 3 4 + 46 2 1 0 2 

Leersia oryzoides 287 4 2 - - 46 2 1 0 0 

Pluchea odorata 70 2 2 0 38 7 3 1 3 

Amaranthus cannabinus 193 2 1 - 38 3 1 0 0 

Rumex verticillatus 71 2 1 - 31 6 2 0 1 

170




Marsh (Big Cordgrass Type) (CEGL004195). 




Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

ve 

Ad 

TOTAL 

TOTAL MEAN 


Spartina cynosuroides 156 4 9 +++++ 100 12 12 12 369 

Peltandra virginica 444 5 3 - - 67 3 2 1 0 

Polygonum punctatum 401 4 3 - 50 2 1 0 1 

Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos 298 3 3 0 39 2 1 0 1 

Polygonum arifolium 329 4 2 - - 33 2 1 0 0 

j DV 

(scaled) 


Marsh (Mixed Forbs Type) (CEGL006181). 




Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

ve 

Ad 

TOTAL 

TOTAL MEAN 


Polygonum punctatum 401 4 6 ++ 89 8 7 5 28 

Peltandra virginica 444 5 6 + 83 7 6 4 11 

Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos 298 3 5 ++ 83 10 8 5 34 

Polygonum arifolium 329 4 4 0 72 8 6 3 6 

Leersia oryzoides 287 4 5 + 64 8 5 3 10 

Typha angustifolia 181 4 6 ++ 61 12 7 5 30 

Spartina cynosuroides 156 4 6 ++ 58 13 8 5 31 

Pontederia cordata 253 4 4 0 53 8 4 2 4 


Mikania scandens 215 2 3 + 44 7 3 1 7 

Kosteletzkya virginica 88 2 3 + 42 17 7 2 14 

Schoenoplectus robustus 60 3 5 ++ 31 18 6 3 22 

Echinochloa walteri 84 2 3 + 31 13 4 1 8 

Thelypteris palustris var. pubescens 160 2 3 + 28 6 2 1 3 

Asclepias incarnata 82 1 2 + 28 12 3 1 7 

j DV 

(scaled) 

Adj 

DV 

(unscaled) 

Adj 

DV 

(unscaled) 

171




Marsh (Saltmeadow Cordgrass – Olney Three-Square Low Interior Marsh Type) 

(CEGL006612). 




ve 

Ad 

TOTAL 

TOTAL 

MEAN 

SPECIES 

Schoenoplectus americanus 

FREQ 

108 

COVER 

4 7 +++ 100 13 13 10 104 

Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos 298 3 5 ++ 100 5 5 3 19 

Spartina patens 142 5 7 ++ 86 8 7 6 29 

Polygonum punctatum 401 4 6 ++ 79 3 2 1 9 

Typha angustifolia 181 4 6 ++ 64 5 3 2 13 

Kosteletzkya virginica 88 2 4 ++ 64 10 7 3 26 


Eleocharis fallax 111 4 5 + 50 6 3 2 6 

Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani 80 2 3 + 43 8 3 1 6 

Juncus roemerianus 58 4 3 - 43 10 4 1 2 

Spartina alterniflora 108 4 3 - 43 6 2 1 1 

Sagittaria lancifolia ssp. media 82 2 5 +++ 36 6 2 1 17 

Lythrum lineare 40 1 2 + 36 13 4 1 9 

Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

Table H22. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Salt Scrub 

(CEGL003921). 




ve 

Ad 

TOTAL 

TOTAL 

MEAN 

SPECIES 

Iva frutescens 

FREQ 

94 

COVER 

4 7 +++ 100 14 14 11 111 

Toxicodendron radicans 253 3 5 ++ 100 5 5 3 21 

Spartina patens 142 5 7 ++ 85 8 7 5 26 

Baccharis halimifolia 71 3 6 +++ 85 15 13 9 105 

Distichlis spicata 102 4 6 ++ 77 10 8 5 30 

Myrica cerifera var. cerifera 158 4 5 + 77 6 5 3 10 

Panicum virgatum var. virgatum 78 2 3 + 62 10 6 2 13 

Solidago sempervirens 61 2 2 0 62 13 8 2 8 

Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana 36 2 4 ++ 46 17 8 3 31 

Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos 298 3 4 + 46 2 1 0 2 

Pinus taeda 64 2 4 ++ 38 8 3 1 12 

Schoenoplectus americanus 108 4 2 - - 38 5 2 0 0 

Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

j DV 

(scaled) 

j DV 

(scaled) 

Adj 

DV 

(unscaled) 

Adj 

DV 

(unscaled) 

172



Table H23. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Tidal Shrub Swamp 

(Wax Myrtle Type) (CEGL004656). 




SPECIES 

Rosa palustris 

Morella cerifera 

Acer rubrum 

Osmunda regalis var. spectabilis 


Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos 


Polygonum arifolium 

Mikania scandens 

Leersia oryzoides 

Polygonum punctatum 



Apios americana 


Galium obtusum 

Cuscuta gronovii var. gronovii 

Baccharis halimifolia 

Carex stricta 

Typha angustifolia 

Decodon verticillatus 

Symphyotrichum novi-belgii 

Thalictrum pubescens 


Viburnum recognitum 

Ptilimnium capillaceum 

Sium suave 

TOTAL 

FREQ 

183 

158 

206 

172 

253 

298 

160 

329 

215 

287 

401 

444 

143 

163 

172 

137 

132 

71 

105 

181 

99 

80 

99 

149 

106 

71 

103 

TOTAL 

MEAN 

COVER Mean 

3 

4 

4 

4 

3 

3 

2 

4 

2 

4 

4 

5 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

4 

2 

1 

1 

2 

3 

1 

1 

Cover 

6 

6 

5 

6 

5 

4 

3 

4 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

2 

2 

2 

2 

5 

4 

4 

3 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

2 

Relative 

Cover 

+++ 

++ 

+ 

++ 

++ 

+ 

+ 

0 

+ 

0 

0 

- 

++ 

0 

0 

0 

0 

++ 

++ 

0 

+ 

+ 

+ 

0 

0 

+ 

+ 

Constancy 

86 

86 

86 

82 

82 

76 

76 

63 

63 

59 

57 

57 

53 

43 

43 

39 

37 

35 

33 

33 

33 

33 

31 

31 

29 

29 

29 

Fidelity 

23 

27 

20 

23 

16 

12 

23 

9 

14 

10 

7 

6 

18 

13 

12 

14 

14 

24 

15 

9 

16 

20 

15 

10 

13 

20 

14 

Diagnostic 

Value 

20 

23 

17 

19 

13 

9 

17 

6 

9 

6 

4 

4 

10 

6 

5 

5 

5 

8 

5 

3 

5 

7 

5 

3 

4 

6 

4 

Adj DV 

(scaled) 

13 

15 

10 

13 

7 

4 

6 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

4 

1 

1 

1 

1 

5 

2 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Adj DV 

(unscaled) 

157 

91 

35 

76 

52 

19 

35 

6 

18 

6 

4 

2 

39 

6 

5 

5 

5 

33 

20 

3 

11 

13 

9 

3 

4 

11 

8 

173



Table H24. Compositional summary statistics from the regional analysis of Tidal Bald Cypress 

Forest / Woodland (CEGL004654). 




ve 

Ad 

TOTAL 

TOTAL 

MEAN 

SPECIES 

Carex hyalinolepis 

FREQ 

36 

COVER 

3 7 ++++ 100 14 14 11 222 

Taxodium distichum 52 3 7 ++++ 100 10 10 7 154 


Peltandra virginica 444 5 2 - - - 100 1 1 0 0 

Myrica cerifera var. cerifera 158 4 5 + 80 3 2 1 4 

Acer rubrum 206 4 3 - 80 2 2 1 1 

Polygonum punctatum 401 4 2 - - 80 1 1 0 0 

Nyssa biflora 106 3 4 + 60 3 2 1 3 

Liquidambar styraciflua 47 2 3 + 60 6 4 1 8 

Fraxinus pennsylvanica 64 2 3 + 60 5 3 1 6 

Thelypteris palustris var. pubescens 160 2 3 + 60 2 1 0 2 

Leersia oryzoides 287 4 3 - 60 1 1 0 0 

Elymus virginicus 24 1 2 + 60 13 8 2 15 

Saururus cernuus 79 2 2 0 60 4 2 1 2 

Smilax rotundifolia 143 2 2 0 60 2 1 0 1 

Cinna arundinacea 149 2 2 0 60 2 1 0 1 

Polygonum arifolium 329 4 2 - - 60 1 1 0 0 

Fraxinus profunda 77 4 4 0 40 3 1 0 1 

Boehmeria cylindrica 172 2 3 + 40 1 0 0 1 

Teucrium canadense 17 1 2 + 40 12 5 1 9 

Campsis radicans 21 1 2 + 40 10 4 1 8 

Vernonia noveboracensis 24 1 2 + 40 8 3 1 7 

Pilea pumila 28 1 2 + 40 7 3 1 6 

Osmunda cinnamomea var. cinnamomea 31 1 2 + 40 6 3 1 5 

Triadenum walteri 42 1 2 + 40 5 2 0 4 

Carex bromoides ssp. bromoides 24 2 2 0 40 8 3 1 3 

Hydrocotyle verticillata 44 2 2 0 40 5 2 0 2 

Thalictrum pubescens 99 1 2 + 40 2 1 0 2 

Viburnum nudum 52 2 2 0 40 4 2 0 2 

Clethra alnifolia 62 2 2 0 40 3 1 0 1 

Rumex verticillatus 71 2 2 0 40 3 1 0 1 

Panicum virgatum var. virgatum 78 2 2 0 40 3 1 0 1 

Lonicera japonica 98 2 2 0 40 2 1 0 1 


Mean 

Cover 

Relati 

Cover 

Constancy 

Fidelity 

Diagnostic 

Value 

j DV 

(scaled) 

Adj 

DV 

(unscaled) 

174



Appendix I. Local and global descriptions of vegetation associations and other vegetation-map 

classes for Colonial National Historical Park. 

This appendix contains detailed local descriptions for vegetation associations and other 

vegetation-map classes present at Colonial National Historical Park based on information 

collected within the park boundary. Of the 40 map classes used to map Colonial National 

Historical Park, twenty-six were crosswalked to the finest level of the USNVC (association), 

seven were described as nonstandard, park-specific classes, and seven were crosswalked to 

Anderson (Anderson et al. 1976) level II classification. Two map classes are crosswalked to 

more than one association and all associations are described in this appendix. 

All map classes crosswalked to the association level of the USNVC also include range-wide 

descriptions (i.e. global descriptions). Information in the global descriptions of the associations 

was extracted from the September 27, 2007 version of the NatureServe central databases 

(NatureServe 2007). A copywrite notice precedes the report. 

Fields used in the local and global descriptions are defined in Appendix J. Vascular plant 

species nomenclature within the local and global descriptions follows the nationally standardized 

list of Kartesz (1999), with very few exceptions. This nomenclature differs from PLANTS 3.5 in 

only a very few cases, and when this difference occurs, synonymy is indicated parenthetically in 

the local description information. Nomenclature for nonvascular plants follows Anderson (1990) 

and Anderson et al. (1990) for mosses, Egan (1987, 1989, 1990, 1991) and Esslinger and Egan 

(1995) for lichens, and Stotler and Crandall-Stotler (1977) for liverworts/hornworts. English 

names for associations and alliances use NatureServe Central Ecology-accepted names and may 

differ slightly from PLANTS 3.5 common names that are used within the local description 

information and throughout the rest of the report. Sources cited in the local and global 

vegetation descriptions are included in the literature section at the end of this appendix. 

Representative photographs of the vegetation types are provided after the descriptions. 

Photographs were taken by VADNH staff unless otherwise indicated. 

Each association is crosswalked to the Ecological Group level of the state classification for 

Virginia (Fleming et. al 2006), which is the level that is currently tracked in the NatureServe 

databases from which this appendix was created. Ecological Groups contain multiple 

associations, some rare and some common, so a state rank is not appropriate for this level of 

classification. The state name (Sname) field within "Subnational Distribution with Crosswalk 

Data" crosswalks the USNVC association to the Ecological Group level of the Virginia 

Classification of Ecological Communities and the subnational ranking information is qualified 

with a * , indicating that the ranking information is not at the association level. State ranks for 

USNVC associations are managed within the Virginia Division of Natural Heritage and the 

state/subnational conservation rank (SRank) and global conservation rank (GRank) for all 

associations are provided in Appendix D. Definitions of the conservation ranks are in Appendix 

E. Values for the relationship (Rel) and crosswalk confidence (Conf) are defined in Appendix J. 

The dichotomous key to the Colonial National Historical Park vegetation classes is presented in 

Appendix K. The key should be used in conjunction with the detailed descriptions. 

175



Copyright © 2007 NatureServe, 1101 Wilson Blvd, 15 th floor 

Arlington, VA 22209, U.S.A. All Rights Reserved. 

Citations: 

The following citation should be used in any published materials which reference ecological system and/or 

International Vegetation Classification (IVC hierarchy) and association data: 

NatureServe. 2007. International Ecological Classification Standard: Terrestrial Ecological Classifications. 

NatureServe Central Databases. Arlington, VA. U.S.A. Data current as of 27 September 2007. 

Restrictions on Use: Permission to use, copy and distribute these data is hereby granted under the following 

conditions: 

1. The above copyright notice must appear in all documents and reports; 

2. Any use must be for informational purposes only and in no instance for commercial purposes; 

3. Some data may be altered in format for analytical purposes, however the data should still be referenced using 

the citation above. 

Any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by NatureServe. Except as expressly provided above, nothing 

contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any NatureServe copyright. 

Information Warranty Disclaimer: All data are provided as is without warranty as to the currentness, 

completeness, or accuracy of any specific data. The absence of data in any particular geographic area does not 

necessarily mean that species or ecological communities of concern are not present. NatureServe hereby disclaims 

all warranties and conditions with regard to these data, including but not limited to all implied warranties and 

conditions of merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, and non-infringement. In no event shall NatureServe 

be liable for any special, indirect, incidental, consequential damages, or for damages of any kind arising out of or in 

connection with the use of these data. Because the data in the NatureServe Central Databases are continually being 

updated, it is advisable to refresh data at least once a year after receipt. 

NatureServe 

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______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

These data are extracted from: 

NatureServe. 2007. International Ecological Classification Standard: Terrestrial Ecological Classifications. 

NatureServe Central Databases. Arlington, VA. U.S.A. Data current as of 27 September 2007. 

_______________________________________________________________________ 

176



UPLAND FORESTS AND WOODLANDS 

Acidic Oak - Hickory Forest ...................................................................................................... 214 

Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest ......................................................................................... 220 

Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest .................................................................................. 263 

Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest ......................................................................... 185 

Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest ................................................................................................ 191 

Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak - Beech / Heath Forest ............................................................... 198 

Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath Forest ............................................................... 227 

NONTIDAL WETLAND VEGETATION 

Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp ................................................................................ 258 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest ........................................................ 232 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest (Green Ash - Red 

Maple Type) ............................................................................................................................... 238 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Red Maple - Sweetgum - Willow Oak 

Type) .......................................................................................................................................... 247 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type) ........................................................ 243 

Non-Riverine Saturated Forest .................................................................................................. 252 

TIDAL WETLAND VEGETATION 

Salt Scrub ................................................................................................................................... 279 

Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland ...................................................................................... 267 

Tidal Freshwater Marsh ............................................................................................................. 309 

Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Low Salt Marsh) ...................................................... 294 

Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Transitional Marsh) ................................................. 297 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Big Cordgrass Type) ........................................................................ 301 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Common Reed Tidal Marsh) ............................................................ 287 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Interior Depression Marsh) .............................................................. 313 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Mixed Forbs Type) ........................................................................... 305 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Saltmeadow Cordgrass - Olney Three-Square 

Low Interior Marsh Type) ......................................................................................................... 290 

Page 

177



Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) ................................................................................... 275 

SUCCESSIONAL / TRANSITIONAL / DISTURBED VEGETATION 

Disturbed Calcareous Forest ...................................................................................................... 318 

Disturbed Depressional Wetland ............................................................................................... 320 

Disturbed Seepage Swamp ........................................................................................................ 322 

Disturbed Tidal Hardwood Swamp ........................................................................................... 324 

Semipermanent Impoundment ................................................................................................... 326 

Successional Black Walnut Forest ............................................................................................. 202 

Sucessional Mixed Scrub ........................................................................................................... 328 

Successional Sweetgum Forest .................................................................................................. 206 

Successional Tree-of-Heaven Forest ......................................................................................... 183 

Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest ........................................................................... 209 

CULTURAL AND LAND-USE (ANDERSON ET AL. 1976) MAP 

CLASSES 

Beaches ...................................................................................................................................... 330 

Cultural Meadow ....................................................................................................................... 283 

Dense Hardwood Regeneration ................................................................................................. 317 

Golden Bamboo Shrubland ........................................................................................................ 272 

Industrial and Commercial Complexes ...................................................................................... 331 

Loblolly Pine Plantation ............................................................................................................ 179 

Mixed Urban or Built-Up Land ................................................................................................. 334 

Other Urban or Built-Up Land ................................................................................................... 332 

Residential .................................................................................................................................. 333 

Transportation, Communications, and Utilities ......................................................................... 335 

Water .......................................................................................................................................... 336 

178



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): LOBLOLLY PINE PLANTATION 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Loblolly Pine Planted Forest 

USNVC Scientific Name: Pinus taeda Planted Forest 

USNVC Identifier: CEGL007179 

LOCAL INFORMATION 

Environmental Description: Loblolly Pine Plantation occurs on areas where Pinus taeda 

(loblolly pine) has been planted or areas that have been cleared and naturally regenerated as 

dense, scrubby Pinus taeda (loblolly pine). In Colonial National Historical Park, these forests 

occur on upland flats over various soil types. 

Vegetation Description: Loblolly Pine Plantations are evergreen forests that result from 

planting Pinus taeda (loblolly pine). They can occur as perfect rows of planted Pinus taeda 

(loblolly pine) or as dense, young stands. These stands support almost no other tree species in the 

overstory and typically very little understory and no herbaceous species. Typical associates 

include Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), Lonicera japonica (Japanese honeysuckle), 

Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop), and Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy). 

The ground usually has a dense cover of pine needles. 

Most Abundant Species: 

Stratum Lifeform 

Species 

Tree canopy 

Needle-leaved tree Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) 

Characteristic Species: Lonicera japonica (Japanese honeysuckle), Microstegium vimineum 

(Nepalese browntop), Pinus taeda (loblolly pine). 

Other Noteworthy Species: Information not available. 

Subnational Distribution with Crosswalk Data: 

State SRank Rel Conf SName 

Reference 

VA 

SNA . . 

[not crosswalked] . 

Local Range: Loblolly Pine Plantation is mapped as small areas throughout Colonial National 

Historical Park. It is mapped as 13 polygons, covering 51.4 hectares (127.1 acres). 

Classification Comments: Loblolly Pine Plantations are distinguished from other vegetation in 

Colonial National Historical Park by being dominated by Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) with little 

or no other tree or shrub species. 

Other Comments: Information not available. 

Local Description Authors: K. D. Patterson. 

Plots: None. 

Colonial National Historical Park Inventory Notes: Information not available. 

GLOBAL INFORMATION 

USNVC CLASSIFICATION 

Physiognomic Class Forest (I) 

Physiognomic Subclass Evergreen forest (I.A.) 

Physiognomic Group Temperate or subpolar needle-leaved evergreen forest (I.A.8.) 

Physiognomic Subgroup Planted/Cultivated temperate or subpolar needle-leaved evergreen forest 

(I.A.8.C.) 

Formation Planted/cultivated temperate or subpolar needle-leaved evergreen forest 

(I.A.8.C.x.) 

179



Alliance Pinus taeda Planted Forest Alliance (A.99) 

Alliance (English name) Loblolly Pine Planted Forest Alliance 

Association Pinus taeda Planted Forest 

Association (English name) Loblolly Pine Planted Forest 

Ecological System(s): Information not available. 

GLOBAL DESCRIPTION 

Concept Summary: This association represents young, monospecific planted stands of Pinus 

taeda (loblolly pine). Due to the commercial value of this species, this type is widely distributed 

across much of the southeastern United States from the Interior Highlands to the Coastal Plain, 

including areas outside the natural range of the species. The core concept of stands attributable to 

this type are those which support dense, often perfect rows of planted Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) 

or otherwise dense, young stands which are established, managed, and/or maintained for the 

extraction of forest products (usually pulpwood). In most cases these stands support almost no 

other tree species in the overstory. Understory composition and density can vary widely 

depending upon location, management history, and stand age. Stands are typically established 

with mechanical planting, but may also be established through other means. This association 

rarely exceeds 20-40 years of age on most timberlands. Excluded from this association are 

plantation stands which have "broken up" with age or thinning to approximate a more natural 

structure. Dense planting in rows, if successful, tends to result in nearly complete canopy closure 

which persists until the stand has either been regenerated or transitions into a different 

association. Herbaceous ground cover of any kind tends to be sparse due to reduction during site 

preparation, the typically dense canopy cover, and to the fact that many young plantations are 

infrequently burned at best. 

Environmental Description: Environmental setting varies widely by site. Stands often occur 

on level to gently sloping areas, on soils that range from dry to poorly drained. 

Vegetation Description: There is considerable local variation among stands of this planted 

vegetation type across its broad range (from the Interior Highlands to the Coastal Plain, 

including areas outside the natural range of the species). In the Ouachita Mountains planted 

loblolly is found with a variable amount of Quercus alba (white oak), Quercus falcata (southern 

red oak), Quercus marilandica (blackjack oak), Quercus stellata (post oak), and Quercus 

velutina (black oak); on drier sites Pinus echinata (shortleaf pine), Carya alba (mockernut 

hickory), and Carya texana (black hickory); and Acer rubrum (red maple), Liquidambar 

styraciflua (sweetgum), and Quercus nigra (water oak) on wetter sites. The understory can be 

thick especially after thinning and/or burning. Common understory species are Vaccinium 

pallidum (Blue Ridge blueberry), Vaccinium arboreum (farkleberry), Vaccinium stamineum 

(deerberry), Cornus florida (flowering dogwood), Ulmus alata (winged elm), and others. Vines 

are an important component, including Berchemia scandens (Alabama supplejack), Lonicera 

japonica (Japanese honeysuckle), Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Virginia creeper), Vitis spp. 

(grapes), Smilax spp. (greenbriers), and Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy). In dense 

stands the herbaceous layer is suppressed by dense needle litter. In thinned and burned stands the 

plantations are often grazed. Herbaceous species can include Solidago ulmifolia (elmleaf 

goldenrod), Chasmanthium sessiliflorum (longleaf woodoats), Schizachyrium scoparium (little 

bluestem), Danthonia spicata (poverty oatgrass), Tephrosia virginiana (Virginia tephrosia), 

Lespedeza spp. (lespedezas), Symphyotrichum patens (late purple aster), Eupatorium spp. 

(thoroughworts), and others. In Oklahoma, associates include Rhus copallinum (flameleaf 

sumac), Hypericum densiflorum (bushy St. Johnswort), Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum) and 

180



Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy) (Hoagland 2000). Additional data on several stands 

on the Croatan National Forest can be found in Doyle and Allard (1990). 

Most Abundant Species: Information not available. 

Characteristic Species: Information not available. 


USFWS Wetland System: Not applicable. 

DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This association is found throughout the southeastern United States. 

States/Provinces: AL, AR, DE, FL, GA, KY, LA, MD, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA 

Federal Lands: DOD (Arnold, Fort Benning, Fort Bragg, Fort Gordon, Fort Stewart); DOE 

(Savannah River Site); NPS (Appomattox Court House, Chickamauga-Chattanooga?, Colonial, 

Fredericksburg-Spotsylvania, George Washington Birthplace, Natchez Trace, Obed, Petersburg, 

Richmond, Vicksburg); USFS (Angelina, Bankhead?, Bienville, Cherokee, Conecuh, Croatan, 

Davy Crockett, De Soto, Delta, Francis Marion, Holly Springs, Kisatchie, Land Between the 

Lakes, Oconee, Ouachita, Ouachita (Coastal Plain), Ouachita (Mountains), Ozark, Sabine, Sam 

Houston, St. Francis?, Sumter, Sumter (Mountains), Sumter (Piedmont), Talladega, Talladega 

(Oakmulgee), Talladega (Talladega), Tombigbee, Tuskegee); USFWS (Blackwater, Chesapeake 

Marshlands, Eufaula, Prime Hook). 

CONSERVATION STATUS 

Rank: GNA (cultural) (8-Aug-2000). 

Reasons: This community represents vegetation which has been planted in its current location 

by humans and/or is treated with annual tillage, a modified conservation tillage, or other 

intensive management or manipulation. It is not a conservation priority and does not receive a 

conservation rank. 

CLASSIFICATION INFORMATION 

Status: Standard. 

Confidence: 2 - Moderate. 

Comments: At Arnold Air Force Base, Coffee and Franklin counties, Tennessee, Pinus taeda 

(loblolly pine) is near the edge of its putative natural range and was apparently absent prior to 

being planted there between 1945 and 1950 on abandoned agricultural land and along roadsides. 

Older plantings have not been intensively managed, and many have become "modified" 

vegetation (e.g., CEGL007109) and are no longer regarded as plantations. More recently (1998 

2001) some of these older pine stands have been harvested and replaced with true Pinus taeda 

(loblolly pine) plantations. Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) also invades seasonally wet hardwood 

depressions, but these stands remain recognizable as to their natural identity (e.g., 

CEGL007364). Associations occur as plantations and on old fields on Kisatchie and Sumter 

national forests and after blowdowns on the Kisatchie. South Carolina information after Jones et 

al. (1981). In the Coastal Plain of South Carolina, there are mature loblolly plantations, often 

with Prunus serotina var. serotina (black cherry) in the understory, that have been prescribed 

burned (based on seven plots at Savannah River Site) - such stands are presumably better 

covered under Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) Forest Alliance (A.130). Plantations occur in obvious 

rows in the aerial photos of the Delmarva Peninsula in Maryland. 

181



Similar Associations: 

• Pinus taeda - Liriodendron tulipifera / Acer saccharum Successional Forest (CEGL007105). 

• Pinus taeda - Quercus (falcata, hemisphaerica, nigra) - Liquidambar styraciflua / Rhus copallinum - Vaccinium 

stamineum Forest (CEGL008450). 

• Pinus taeda / Liquidambar styraciflua - Acer rubrum var. rubrum / Vaccinium stamineum Forest 

(CEGL006011)--develops when stands develop typical two-layered structure with well-developed subcanopy. 

• Pinus taeda / Rhus copallinum Managed Forest (CEGL007108)--may replace this association as stands mature. 

• Pinus taeda / Saccharum alopecuroidum - (Andropogon spp.) Forest (CEGL007109). 

Related Concepts: 

• Loblolly Pine: 81 (Eyre 1980) B 

SOURCES 

Description Authors: A. S. Weakley, mod. L. A. Sneddon. 

References: ALNHP 2002, Doyle and Allard 1990, Eyre 1980, Hoagland 1998, Hoagland 2000, 

Jones et al. 1981, Schotz pers. comm., Southeastern Ecology Working Group n.d., TDNH 

unpubl. data, TNC 1998. 

Figure I1. Loblolly Pine Plantation at Colonial National Historical Park. August 2003. NAD 

1983 / UTM easting 343329, northing 4120950. Photo by NCSU-CEO. 

182



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): SUCCESSIONAL TREE-OF-HEAVEN FOREST 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Tree-of-Heaven Forest 

USNVC Scientific Name: Ailanthus altissima Forest 



Environmental Description: These forests occur on rich substrates, in disturbed situations, on 

gently sloping uplands. 

Vegetation Description: Successional Tree-of-Heaven Forest includes stands dominated by the 

alien tree Ailanthus altissima (tree of heaven). These forests occur on rich substrates, highly 

disturbed situations on slopes and in urban or developed areas. In Colonial National Historical 

Park, these stands may have a mix of Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) with an herb layer dominated 

by Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop). 



Species 

Tree canopy 

Broad-leaved deciduous tree 

Ailanthus altissima (tree of heaven) 

Characteristic Species: Ailanthus altissima (tree of heaven). 




Reference 

VA SNA . . 


Local Range: Successional Tree-of-Heaven Forest is mapped as a single polygon in Yorktown 

Battlefield, just north of Wormley Pond. It covers 4.0 hectares (10.0 acres). 

Classification Comments: This mapping unit is distinguished by the dominance of Ailanthus 

altissima (tree of heaven). 



Plots: None. 





Physiognomic Subclass Deciduous forest (I.B.) 

Physiognomic Group Cold-deciduous forest (I.B.2.) 

Physiognomic Subgroup Natural/Semi-natural cold-deciduous forest (I.B.2.N.) 

Formation Lowland or submontane cold-deciduous forest (I.B.2.N.a.) 

Alliance Ailanthus altissima Forest Alliance (A.221) 

Alliance (English name) Tree-of-Heaven Forest Alliance 

Association Ailanthus altissima Forest 

Association (English name) Tree-of-Heaven Forest 

Ecological System(s): Central Appalachian Alkaline Glade and Woodland (CES202.602). 

183




Concept Summary: This southeastern forest association, strongly dominated by the alien 

Ailanthus altissima (tree of heaven), occurs generally on nutrient-rich substrates, in disturbed 

situations on slopes, urban abandoned lands, and on rocky limestone slopes. 

Environmental Description: Information not available. 

Vegetation Description: Information not available. 



Species 

Tree canopy 

Broad-leaved deciduous tree 

Characteristic Species: Ailanthus altissima (tree of heaven). 



Ailanthus altissima (tree of heaven) 

DISTRIBUTION 

Range: Ailanthus altissima (tree of heaven) Forest occurs throughout the Appalachians, the 

Piedmont, the Interior Low Plateau, eastern Kentucky, and in the Ozarks and Ouachita 

Mountains, and probably other areas in the northeastern United States. 

States/Provinces: AR, KY, NC, PA, TN, VA, WV. 

Federal Lands: NPS (Appomattox Court House, Colonial, Great Smoky Mountains, Natchez 

Trace); USFS (Ouachita (Mountains)?, Ouachita?, Ozark?). 


Rank: GNA (invasive) (4-Jan-2000). 

Reasons: This vegetation is dominated by an invasive, alien species and is thus not a 

conservation priority. 



Confidence: 1 - Strong. 

Comments: Information not available. 

Similar Associations: Information not available. 

Related Concepts: Information not available. 

SOURCES 

Description Authors: A. S. Weakley. 

References: Patterson 1976, Southeastern Ecology Working Group n.d., TDNH unpubl. data. 

184



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): COASTAL PLAIN MESIC CALCAREOUS 

RAVINE FOREST 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: American Beech - Southern Sugar Maple - Chinquapin Oak / 

Bloodroot Forest 

USNVC Scientific Name: Fagus grandifolia - Acer barbatum - Quercus muehlenbergii / 

Sanguinaria canadensis Forest 



Environmental Description: Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest occurs on ravine 

slopes and on fertile uplands with soils high in base cations. This association is found on north- 

to northwest-facing slopes and adjacent low interfluves downcut into Tertiary shell deposits or 

lime sands, including the Pliocene marine shell deposits of the calcium-rich Yorktown 

Formation. 

Vegetation Description: Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest is a mesic, closedcanopy, 

deciduous forest of mixed canopy composition. The canopy can be variously dominated 

by Quercus muehlenbergii (chinkapin oak), Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), Carya 

cordiformis (bitternut hickory), Quercus alba (white oak), and/or Liquidambar styraciflua 

(sweetgum). Other trees that are commonly present include Acer rubrum (red maple), Fagus 

grandifolia (American beech), Fraxinus americana (white ash), Juglans nigra (black walnut), 

Quercus rubra (northern red oak), and Ulmus rubra (slippery elm). The majority of stands on the 

Peninsula of Virginia have Acer barbatum (southern sugar maple) as an important canopy or 

subcanopy component. Stands typically have dense shrub strata dominated by Asimina triloba 

(pawpaw) and Lindera benzoin (northern spicebush). Lush herb layers tend to be characterized 

by patch-dominance of clonal forbs and ferns. Arisaema triphyllum (Jack in the pulpit), Carex 

blanda (eastern woodland sedge), Circaea lutetiana ssp. canadensis (broadleaf enchanter's 

nightshade), Cynoglossum virginianum (wild comfrey), Podophyllum peltatum (mayapple), and 

Polystichum acrostichoides (Christmas fern) are widespread and abundant herbs. More locally 

abundant herbs include Adiantum pedatum (northern maidenhair), Actaea racemosa 

(=Cimicifuga racemosa, black bugbane), Phegopteris hexagonoptera (broad beechfern), and 

Verbesina virginica var. virginica (white crownbeard). These forests tend to be species-rich with 

many additional low-cover herbaceous species present such as Sanguinaria canadensis 

(bloodroot) and Hepatica nobilis var. obtusa (roundlobe hepatica). 


Stratum Lifeform Species 

Tree canopy Broad-leaved deciduous tree Carya cordiformis (bitternut hickory), 

Quercus muehlenbergii (chinkapin oak) 

Tall shrub/sapling Broad-leaved deciduous shrub Asimina triloba (pawpaw) 

Characteristic Species: Acer barbatum (southern sugar maple), Carya cordiformis (bitternut 

hickory), Cercis canadensis var. canadensis (eastern redbud), Quercus muehlenbergii (chinkapin 

oak), Sanguinaria canadensis (bloodroot). 

Other Noteworthy Species: 

Species GRank Type Note 

Verbesina virginica var. virginica (white crownbeard) - plant VA State watchlist (S3) 

185





Reference 

VA SNR* B 1 

Basic Mesic Forest Fleming et al. 2001 

Local Range: In Colonial National Historical Park, Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine 

Forest is mapped at College Creek / Kingsmill and as small patches on the ravine slopes of 

Yorktown Creek and its tributary, as well as on the slopes over Wormley Pond. 

Classification Comments: Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest occurring on shell 

substrates may be confused with Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest, and the two forests types 

may intergrade on the landscape. Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest is distinguished 

by the closed forest canopy and the lush forb-dominated herb layer and by the presence of mesic 

species Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), Asimina triloba (pawpaw), Lindera benzoin (northern 

spicebush), Sanguinaria canadensis (bloodroot), Adiantum pedatum (northern maidenhair), and 

Actaea racemosa (= Cimicifuga racemosa, black bugbane). Late in the season, when some herb 

species are not evident, Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest may be confused with 

Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest. Disturbed stands of this type may be confused with Successional 

Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest. Quantitative analysis placed plot COLO.29 in the Coastal Plain 

Dry Calcareous Forest association, though the sample plot is compositionally intermediate 

between the two associations. Based on stand observations and photo interpretation, the sample 

was reclassified as Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest and the area including that plot 

was mapped as Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest. 

Other Comments: Late in the growing season, herb density and diversity may not be evident as 

many species are spring ephemerals or die back before the end of summer. Exotic plant species 

may quickly colonize these fertile areas, making disturbed examples of the association difficult 

to identify. 

This association has a very restricted range, being endemic to the southeastern Virginia Coastal 

Plain. High-quality examples are uncommon throughout the range of the association. Three 

examples of this association in Colonial National Historical Park meet the criteria to be 

considered Natural Heritage exemplary natural community occurrences, but all examples of this 

native plant association should be targets for conservation and management. Timber harvest 

degrades this community by allowing additional light and aggressive growth of invasive alien 

plants, which thrive in well-lit, calcareous situations and compete with the native flora. The 

examples in Colonial National Historical Park represent some of the few protected examples in 

the world. 


Plots: COLO.6, COLO.29. 









Alliance Fagus grandifolia - Quercus alba Forest Alliance (A.228) 

Alliance (English name) American Beech - White Oak Forest Alliance 

186



Association Fagus grandifolia - Acer barbatum - Quercus muehlenbergii / Sanguinaria 

canadensis Forest 

Association (English name) American Beech - Southern Sugar Maple - Chinquapin Oak / Bloodroot Forest 

Ecological System(s): Atlantic Coastal Plain Mesic Hardwood Forest (CES203.242). 

Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Calcareous Ravine (CES203.069). 


Concept Summary: These rich mesophytic to submesophytic forests of calcareous ravines are 

found in the southeastern Virginia Coastal Plain and possibly the adjacent Piedmont. Habitats are 

north- to east-facing slopes and adjacent low interfluves downcut into Tertiary shell deposits or 

lime sands, including the Pliocene marine shell deposits of the calcium-rich Yorktown 

Formation. The canopies of stands of this association are typically dominated by variable 

combinations of Fagus grandifolia (American beech), Acer barbatum (southern sugar maple), 

Quercus rubra (northern red oak), Quercus muehlenbergii (chinkapin oak), Tilia americana var. 

americana (American basswood), Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), and Quercus alba (white 

oak). Although generally not as constant or abundant as Fagus grandifolia (American beech), 

Acer barbatum (southern sugar maple), and Quercus muehlenbergii (chinkapin oak) occur in 

over two-thirds of the plot samples and are good diagnostic species. Characteristic or locally 

important understory species include Asimina triloba (pawpaw), Magnolia tripetala (umbrellatree), 

Ulmus rubra (slippery elm), Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly), Cornus alternifolia 

(alternateleaf dogwood), Cercis canadensis var. canadensis (eastern redbud), and Carpinus 

caroliniana (American hornbeam). Common herbs are Polystichum acrostichoides (Christmas 

fern), Asarum canadense (Canadian wildginger), Hepatica nobilis var. obtusa (roundlobe 

hepatica), Arisaema triphyllum (Jack in the pulpit), Actaea racemosa (=Cimicifuga racemosa, 

black bugbane), Cardamine concatenata (cutleaf toothwort), Sanguinaria canadensis 

(bloodroot), Adiantum pedatum (northern maidenhair), Packera aurea (golden ragwort), and 

Luzula acuminata var. carolinae (Carolina woodrush). The grass Brachyelytrum erectum 

(bearded shorthusk) is abundant and characteristic of more submesic habitats (e.g., convex north 

slopes) occupied by the type. Related vegetation occurs in the southern Piedmont of Virginia 

(Charlotte County). More floristic information is available in Ware and Ware (1992). 

Environmental Description: These rich mesophytic to submesophytic forests of calcareous 

ravines are found in the southeastern Virginia Coastal Plain. Habitats are north- to east-facing 

slopes and adjacent low interfluves downcut into Tertiary shell deposits or limesands, including 

the Pliocene marine shell deposits of the calcium-rich Yorktown Formation. Soils are highly 

calcareous, with mean calcium levels >2200 ppm in 22 analyzed samples. 

Vegetation Description: The canopies of stands of this association are typically dominated by 

variable combinations of Fagus grandifolia (American beech), Acer barbatum (southern sugar 

maple), Quercus rubra (northern red oak), Quercus muehlenbergii (chinkapin oak), Tilia 

americana var. americana (American basswood), Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), and 

Quercus alba (white oak). Although generally not as constant or abundant as Fagus grandifolia 

(American beech), Acer barbatum (southern sugar maple), and Quercus muehlenbergii 

(chinkapin oak) occur in more than two-thirds of the plot samples and are good diagnostic 

species. Characteristic or locally important understory species include Asimina triloba (pawpaw), 

Magnolia tripetala (umbrella-tree), Ulmus rubra (slippery elm), Ilex opaca var. opaca 

(American holly), Cornus alternifolia (alternateleaf dogwood), Cercis canadensis var. 

canadensis (eastern redbud), and Carpinus caroliniana (American hornbeam). Common herbs 

are Polystichum acrostichoides (Christmas fern), Asarum canadense (Canadian wildginger), 

Hepatica nobilis var. obtusa (roundlobe hepatica), Arisaema triphyllum (Jack in the pulpit), 

187



Actaea racemosa (=Cimicifuga racemosa, black bugbane), Cardamine concatenata (cutleaf 

toothwort), Sanguinaria canadensis (bloodroot), Adiantum pedatum (northern maidenhair), 

Packera aurea (golden ragwort), and Luzula acuminata var. carolinae (Carolina woodrush). The 

grass Brachyelytrum erectum (bearded shorthusk) is abundant and characteristic of more 

submesic habitats (e.g., convex north slopes) occupied by the type. A number of herbaceous 

species found in this association are either at or near their northern range limit or are disjunct 

from a primary range farther west. Species in this group include Chasmanthium sessiliflorum 

(longleaf woodoats), Malaxis spicata (Florida adder's-mouth orchid), Ponthieva racemosa (hairy 

shadow witch), Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng), Actaea pachypoda (white baneberry), 

Solidago flexicaulis (zigzag goldenrod), Desmodium glutinosum (pointedleaf ticktrefoil), Mitella 

diphylla (twoleaf miterwort), Thalictrum dioicum (early meadow-rue), Prenanthes trifoliolata 

(gall of the earth), Aralia racemosa (American spikenard), Scutellaria ovata (heartleaf skullcap), 

Deparia acrostichoides (silver false spleenwort), and Diplazium pycnocarpon (glade fern). More 

floristic information is available in Ware and Ware (1992). 



Herb (field) Forb Actaea racemosa (= Cimicifuga racemosa, black 

bugbane), Arisaema triphyllum (Jack in the 

pulpit), Asarum canadense (Canadian 

wildginger), Cardamine concatenata (cutleaf 

toothwort), Hepatica nobilis var. obtusa 

(roundlobe hepatica), Packera aurea (golden 

ragwort), Sanguinaria canadensis (bloodroot) 

Herb (field) Graminoid Brachyelytrum erectum (bearded shorthusk) 

Herb (field) Fern or fern ally Adiantum pedatum (northern maidenhair) 

Characteristic Species: Acer barbatum (southern sugar maple), Asimina triloba (pawpaw), 

Brachyelytrum erectum (bearded shorthusk), Carpinus caroliniana (American hornbeam), Cercis 

canadensis var. canadensis (eastern redbud), Cornus alternifolia (alternateleaf dogwood), Fagus 

grandifolia (American beech), Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly), Magnolia tripetala 

(umbrella-tree), Quercus muehlenbergii (chinkapin oak), Quercus rubra (northern red oak). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This community is known from Gloucester, Isle of Wight, James City, and York 

counties and the City of Suffolk in southeastern Virginia. 

States/Provinces: VA. 

Federal Lands: DOD (Yorktown); NPS (Colonial). 


Rank: G2? (8-Jan-2001). 

Reasons: This association is restricted to the southeastern Virginia Coastal Plain, on north- to 

east-facing slopes and adjacent low interfluves downcut into Tertiary shell deposits or limesands, 

including the Pliocene marine shell deposits of the calcium-rich Yorktown Formation. Many 

herbaceous species found in this association are either at or near their northern range limit or are 

disjunct from a primary range farther west. Some stands have been impacted by removal of more 

valuable timber species (e.g., Acer barbatum (southern sugar maple), Quercus alba (white oak), 

Quercus muehlenbergii (chinkapin oak), Quercus rubra (northern red oak)). In addition, timber 

harvest degrades this community by allowing additional light and aggressive growth of invasive 

188



alien plants which thrive in well-lit, calcareous situations, including Lonicera japonica (Japanese 

honeysuckle). A few examples are protected in Colonial National Park, Virginia, but others 

(including the best examples) are highly threatened by timber removal and development. 




Comments: Classification of this type is based on quantitative analysis of a 1250-plot regional 

dataset produced for the NCR and mid-Atlantic National Parks vegetation mapping project. In 

this analysis, this association was represented by 22 plots from the southeastern Virginia Coastal 

Plain and was distinct from the related Fagus grandifolia - Liriodendron tulipifera - Carya 

cordiformis / Lindera benzoin / Podophyllum peltatum Forest (CEGL006055) of the adjacent 

Piedmont and northern Coastal Plain from central Virginia north to New Jersey. Forests of rich 

ravines of the southern Virginia Piedmont have similar canopies, but their understories are 

dominated by Aesculus sylvatica (painted buckeye); based on limited data, these represent 

Fagus grandifolia - Quercus rubra / Acer barbatum - Aesculus sylvatica / Actaea racemosa - 

Adiantum pedatum Forest (CEGL008466). This association is mostly a small-patch vegetation 

type. See Quercus muehlenbergii / Cercis canadensis / Dichanthelium boscii - Bromus 

pubescens - Erigeron pulchellus var. pulchellus - Aquilegia canadensis Forest (CEGL007748) 

for related, more xerophytic forests of south-facing ravine slopes in the same region. 


• Fagus grandifolia - Liriodendron tulipifera - Carya cordiformis / Lindera benzoin / Podophyllum peltatum 

Forest (CEGL006055)--lacks Acer barbatum, has a less diverse and rich herbaceous layer, and occurs more 

widely, north to New Jersey. 

• Fagus grandifolia - Quercus rubra / Acer barbatum - Aesculus sylvatica / Actaea racemosa - Adiantum pedatum 

Forest (CEGL008466)--a similar rich mesic forest of the southern Piedmont from Virginia to Georgia. 

• Quercus muehlenbergii / Cercis canadensis / Dichanthelium boscii - Bromus pubescens - Erigeron pulchellus 

var. pulchellus - Aquilegia canadensis Forest (CEGL007748)--is a much drier, open forest with considerably 

different floristic composition. 


• Acer barbatum - Fagus grandifolia - Quercus muehlenbergii / Hepatica nobilis var. obtusa Forest (VDNH 2003) 

= 

• Fagus grandifolia - Acer barbatum - Quercus muhlenbergii / Sanguinaria canadensis Forest (Patterson pers. 

comm.) ? 

• Basic Mesic Forest, Coastal Plain Calcareous Ravine Type (Fleming pers. comm.) ? 

SOURCES 

Description Authors: G. P. Fleming, mod. L. A. Sneddon. 

References: Fleming et al. 2001, Fleming pers. comm., Patterson pers. comm., Southeastern 

Ecology Working Group n.d., VDNH 2003, Ware and Ware 1992. 

189



Figure I2. Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest (plot COLO.29) at Colonial National 

Historical Park. May 2005. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 349125, northing 4121319. 

190



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): MESIC MIXED HARDWOOD FOREST 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: American Beech - (White Oak, Northern Red Oak) - Tuliptree 

/ (American Holly) / Christmas Fern Forest 

USNVC Scientific Name: Fagus grandifolia - Quercus (alba, rubra) - Liriodendron 

tulipifera / (Ilex opaca var. opaca) / Polystichum acrostichoides 

Forest 



Environmental Description: This deciduous forest occurs on mesic, lower slopes and ravines 

over well-drained, acidic soils. It is occasionally found on upland flats above ravine slopes. 

Vegetation Description: The canopy is composed of variable combinations of Fagus 

grandifolia (American beech), Quercus alba (white oak), Quercus rubra (northern red oak), and 

Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree). Some stands may be strongly dominated by a single tree, 

typically Fagus grandifolia (American beech), Quercus alba (white oak), or Liriodendron 

tulipifera (tuliptree). Other canopy associates include Carya alba (mockernut hickory), 

Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), Quercus phellos (willow oak), and Pinus taeda (loblolly 

pine). The subcanopy and shrub layers are characterized by moderately to strongly abundant Ilex 

opaca var. opaca (American holly); Asimina triloba (pawpaw) is often locally dominant. Other 

common trees and shrubs can include Acer rubrum (red maple), Carpinus caroliniana (American 

hornbeam), Cornus florida (flowering dogwood), Euonymus americanus (strawberry bush), 

Kalmia latifolia (mountain laurel), Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum), and Oxydendrum arboreum 

(sourwood). Common woody vines in this forest are Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Virginia 

creeper), Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy), Vitis rotundifolia (muscadine), and the 

exotic vine Lonicera japonica (Japanese honeysuckle). The herbaceous stratum is sparse to 

absent, although the exotic grass Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop) may form 

continuous cover in some stands. The most constant species are Mitchella repens 

(partridgeberry) and Polystichum acrostichoides (Christmas fern). Other characteristic herbs 

include Carex albicans (whitetinge sedge), Carex digitalis (slender woodland sedge), Carex 

laxiculmis var. laxiculmis, Chimaphila maculata (striped prince's pine), Hexastylis virginica 

(Virginia heartleaf), Luzula acuminata (hairy woodrush), Dichanthelium boscii (Bosc's 

panicgrass), Dichanthelium dichotomum (cypress panicgrass), Galium circaezans (licorice 

bedstraw), Houstonia purpurea (Venus' pride), Maianthemum racemosum ssp. racemosum 

(feathery false lily of the valley), Phegopteris hexagonoptera (broad beechfern), Polygonatum 

biflorum var. biflorum (smooth Solomon's-seal), and Uvularia perfoliata (perfoliate bellwort). 

The dominant canopy species may vary from stand to stand. The shrub stratum of some stands 

may have scattered Kalmia latifolia (mountain laurel) or lack Ilex opaca var. opaca (American 

holly). The herbaceous stratum of some stands may be dominated by the exotic Microstegium 

vimineum (Nepalese browntop). 

191





Tree canopy Broad-leaved deciduous tree Fagus grandifolia (American beech), 

Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), 

Quercus alba (white oak) 

Tree subcanopy Broad-leaved evergreen tree Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly) 

Herb (field) Fern or fern ally Polystichum acrostichoides (Christmas fern) 

Characteristic Species: Fagus grandifolia (American beech), Ilex opaca var. opaca (American 

holly), Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), Mitchella repens (partridgeberry), Polystichum 

acrostichoides (Christmas fern), Quercus alba (white oak). 



State SRank Rel Conf SName Reference 

VA SNR* B 1 Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest Fleming et al. 2001 

Local Range: Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest occurs throughout Colonial National Historical 

Park. It is mapped as 55 polygons and covers a total of 338.2 hectares (835.8 acres). 

Classification Comments: Some stands of Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest may be confused 

with Piedmont / Coastal Plain Beech - Oak / Heath Forest, which occurs on steep slopes and has 

a shrub layer very strongly dominated by Kalmia latifolia (mountain laurel). While Mesic Mixed 

Hardwood Forest may share many species in common with stands of Successional Tuliptree - 

Loblolly Pine Forest, it is distinguished by having a more diverse canopy and a less "weedy" 

herbaceous stratum, often with Fagus grandifolia (American beech) and Quercus spp. (oaks) 

dominant in the canopy. Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest also tends to occur on slopes where 

Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest occurs on formerly disturbed upland flats. Mesic 

Mixed Hardwood Forest is distinguished from Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest by 

lacking a lush, forb-rich herb layer with species more characteristic of high base status soils 

(Sanguinaria canadensis (bloodroot), Adiantum pedatum (northern maidenhair), Actaea 

racemosa (=Cimicifuga racemosa, black bugbane), Hepatica nobilis var. obtusa (roundlobe 

hepatica)). However, late in the growing season, stands of Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous 

Ravine Forest can be confused with Mesic Mixed Hardwood when certain diagnostic herbs have 

died back. 

Other Comments: Stands mapped as Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest may have small disturbed 

areas that are better classed as Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest. Polygons mapped 

as this type may also contain small (



Association Fagus grandifolia - Quercus (alba, rubra) - Liriodendron tulipifera / (Ilex opaca 

var. opaca) / Polystichum acrostichoides Forest 

Association (English name) American Beech - (White Oak, Northern Red Oak) - Tuliptree / (American 

Holly) / Christmas Fern Forest 


Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Hardwood Forest (CES203.475). 


Concept Summary: This forest of mesic to submesic, well-drained soils occurs in the Piedmont 

and Coastal Plain of Virginia and Maryland, extending north to southern New England on the 

Coastal Plain. It also occurs occasionally at low elevations of the Blue Ridge and adjacent Ridge 

and Valley in Virginia and Maryland. It is characteristically a mixed forest dominated by Fagus 

grandifolia (American beech), Quercus alba (white oak), Quercus rubra (northern red oak), and 

Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree) in various proportions. Overstory associates over the range 

include Quercus velutina (black oak), Quercus falcata (southern red oak), Quercus coccinea 

(scarlet oak), Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), Acer rubrum (red maple), Nyssa sylvatica 

(blackgum), Carya alba (mockernut hickory), Carya glabra (pignut hickory), and Fraxinus 

americana (white ash). The subcanopy is characterized by young Fagus grandifolia (American 

beech), Acer rubrum (red maple), Carpinus caroliniana (American hornbeam), Cornus florida 

(flowering dogwood), and Sassafras albidum (sassafras). Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly) 

is particularly characteristic and abundant on the Coastal Plain. The shrub layer varies from very 

sparse to well-developed and can include Asimina triloba (pawpaw), Viburnum acerifolium 

(mapleleaf viburnum), Viburnum dentatum (southern arrowwood), and Euonymus americanus 

(strawberry bush). Heath shrubs, such as Vaccinium corymbosum (highbush blueberry) and 

Vaccinium pallidum (Blue Ridge blueberry), may be common but not abundant. Vines are 

common, including Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Virginia creeper), Smilax glauca (cat 

greenbrier), and Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy). In the southern part of the range, 

Oxydendrum arboreum (sourwood) and Vitis rotundifolia (muscadine) may be conspicuous 

members of the understory. The herb layer is comprised of Polystichum acrostichoides 

(Christmas fern), Thelypteris noveboracensis (New York fern), Uvularia perfoliata (perfoliate 

bellwort), Cypripedium acaule (moccasin flower), Mitchella repens (partridgeberry), Tipularia 

discolor (crippled cranefly), Goodyera pubescens (downy rattlesnake plantain), Eurybia 

divaricata (white wood aster), Chimaphila maculata (striped prince's pine), Carex swanii 

(Swan's sedge), Medeola virginiana (Indian cucumber), Athyrium filix-femina (common 

ladyfern), Carex digitalis (slender woodland sedge), Carex willdenowii (Willdenow's sedge), 

Epifagus virginiana (beechdrops), Maianthemum canadense (Canada mayflower), Desmodium 

nudiflorum (nakedflower ticktrefoil), Polygonatum biflorum (smooth Solomon's seal), 

Podophyllum peltatum (mayapple), Arisaema triphyllum (Jack in the pulpit), and Maianthemum 

racemosum (feathery false lily of the valley). 

Environmental Description: This forest association occurs on mesic to submesic slopes or 

gentle gradients. Ravines in dissected topography are particularly typical sites in the Piedmont 

and parts of the Inner Coastal Plain. The type also occupies rolling uplands with deep soils. Soils 

are typically well-drained, acidic sandy and silt loams derived from parent material of low to 

moderate fertility. This association is found throughout the Piedmont from south-central Virginia 

to New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and on the Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain from southeastern 

Virginia northward. 

Vegetation Description: Rangewide, this vegetation type is characteristically a mixed 

mesophytic forest dominated by Fagus grandifolia (American beech), Quercus alba (white oak), 

193



Quercus rubra (northern red oak), and Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree) in various proportions. 

Overstory associates over the range include Carya alba (mockernut hickory), Carya glabra 

(pignut hickory), Quercus velutina (black oak), Quercus falcata (southern red oak), Quercus 

coccinea (scarlet oak), Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), Acer rubrum (red maple), Nyssa 

sylvatica (blackgum), and Fraxinus americana (white ash). The subcanopy is characterized by 

young Fagus grandifolia (American beech), Acer rubrum (red maple), Carpinus caroliniana 

(American hornbeam), Cornus florida (flowering dogwood), Ilex opaca var. opaca (American 

holly), and Sassafras albidum (sassafras). The shrub layer varies from very sparse to welldeveloped 

and can include Asimina triloba (pawpaw), Viburnum acerifolium (mapleleaf 

viburnum), Viburnum dentatum (southern arrowwood), and Euonymus americanus (strawberry 

bush). Heath shrubs, such as Vaccinium corymbosum (highbush blueberry) and Vaccinium 

pallidum (Blue Ridge blueberry), may be common but not abundant. Vines are common, 

including Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Virginia creeper), Smilax glauca (cat greenbrier), and 

Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy). The herb layer is comprised of Polystichum 

acrostichoides (Christmas fern), Uvularia perfoliata (perfoliate bellwort), Cypripedium acaule 

(moccasin flower), Mitchella repens (partridgeberry), Tipularia discolor (crippled cranefly), 

Goodyera pubescens (downy rattlesnake plantain), Eurybia divaricata (white wood aster), 

Chimaphila maculata (striped prince's pine), Carex swanii (Swan's sedge), Medeola virginiana 

(Indian cucumber), Athyrium filix-femina (common ladyfern), Carex digitalis (slender woodland 

sedge), Carex willdenowii (Willdenow's sedge), Epifagus virginiana (beechdrops), 

Maianthemum canadense (Canada mayflower), Desmodium nudiflorum (nakedflower 

ticktrefoil), Polygonatum biflorum (smooth Solomon's seal). Podophyllum peltatum (mayapple), 

Arisaema triphyllum (Jack in the pulpit), and Maianthemum racemosum (feathery false lily of the 

valley). 

Several intergrading compositional variants have been noted in regional and local landscape 

analyses. On more submesic, convex slopes, Fagus grandifolia (American beech), Quercus alba 

(white oak), Cornus florida (flowering dogwood), and Vaccinium pallidum (Blue Ridge 

blueberry) tend to be prominent, while pronounced mesophytes such as Carpinus caroliniana 

(American hornbeam) and herbaceous species in general are usually sparse. Coastal Plain stands 

tend to have understories heavily dominated by Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly), while 

Piedmont stands generally have only scattered Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly) as well as 

slightly higher herbaceous richness. 



Tree canopy Broad-leaved deciduous tree Fagus grandifolia (American beech), 

Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), 

Quercus alba (white oak) 

Tree subcanopy Broad-leaved deciduous tree Cornus florida (flowering dogwood) 


Shrub/sapling (tall & short) Broad-leaved deciduous shrub Viburnum acerifolium (mapleleaf viburnum) 

Shrub/sapling (tall & short) Vine/Liana Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Virginia creeper) 

Herb (field) Forb Podophyllum peltatum (mayapple), 

Polygonatum biflorum (smooth Solomon's seal) 

Herb (field) Fern or fern ally Polystichum acrostichoides (Christmas fern) 

Characteristic Species: Carex laxiculmis var. laxiculmis, Fagus grandifolia (American beech), 

Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly), Quercus alba (white oak), Viburnum acerifolium 

(mapleleaf viburnum). 

194





DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This association is currently described from Virginia northward to Long Island, New 

York. The type is characteristic of the Coastal Plain throughout its range and of the Piedmont 

from south-central Virginia through much of Maryland. Small outliers of this vegetation occur at 

low elevations on both flanks of the Blue Ridge in Virginia and Maryland. 

States/Provinces: DC, DE:S5, MD, NJ:S3, NY, PA:S1, VA:S5. 

Federal Lands: DOD (Fort A.P. Hill, Fort Belvoir, Kerr Reservoir, Yorktown); NPS 

(Appomattox Court House, C&O Canal, Colonial, Fredericksburg-Spotsylvania, George 

Washington Parkway, National Capital-East, Petersburg, Prince William, Richmond, Rock 

Creek, Sagamore Hill, Shenandoah, Thomas Stone); USFWS (James River, Prime Hook). 


Rank: G5 (31-Jan-2007). 

Reasons: This association is common and widespread on the northeastern Coastal Plain and the 

Piedmont in Virginia and Maryland. 




Comments: The regional circumscription of this type is very robust and supported by 170 plots 

from Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia. These were analyzed by VDNH with a 

1300-plot regional dataset compiled for the NCR and mid-Atlantic national parks vegetation 

mapping projects. 


• Fagus grandifolia - Betula lenta - Quercus (alba, rubra) / Carpinus caroliniana Forest (CEGL006921). 

• Fagus grandifolia - Quercus alba - (Acer barbatum) / Mixed Herbs Forest (CEGL007206). 

• Fagus grandifolia - Quercus alba - Quercus rubra Forest (CEGL006377). 

• Fagus grandifolia - Quercus rubra / Cornus florida / Polystichum acrostichoides - Hexastylis virginica Forest 

(CEGL008465). 

• Quercus alba - Carya glabra / Mixed Herbs Coastal Plain Forest (CEGL007226). 


• Fagus grandifolia - Liriodendron tulipifera - Quercus (alba, rubra) / Polystichum acrostichoides - Aster 

divaricatus Forest (Fleming 2001) ? 

• Fagus grandifolia - Quercus (alba, rubra) - Liriodendron tulipifera / Ilex opaca var. opaca - (Asimina triloba) 

Forest (Patterson pers. comm.) ? 

• Fagus grandifolia - Quercus alba - Liriodendron tulipifera - Liquidambar styraciflua Forest (Bartgis 1986) ? 

• Quercus spp. - Carya spp. / Cornus florida - Ilex opaca Mesic Forest (Clancy 1993) ? 

• CNE Mesic hardwood Forest on acidic bedrock / till (Rawinski 1984) ? 

• Coastal Plain Forest (Smith 1983) B 

• Maritime forest (Rawinski 1984) ? 

• Mesic Coastal Plain mixed oak forest, mixed oak - beech forest subtype (Breden 1989) ? 

• Mixed oak forest of the south Jersey mesic uplands (Robichaud and Buell 1973) ? 

• Southern New England oak / pine forest on sandy / gravelly soils (Rawinski 1984) ? 

SOURCES 

Description Authors: S. L. Neid, mod. G. Fleming and L. A. Sneddon. 

195



References: Bartgis 1986, Berdine 1998, Bernard and Bernard 1971, Bowman 2000, Breden 

1989, Breden et al. 2001, Clancy 1993, Clancy 1996, Davis et al. 1992, Eastern Ecology 

Working Group n.d., Edinger et al. 2002, Fleming 2001, Fleming et al. 2001, Fleming pers. 

comm., Harrison 2004, Lea 2003, McCoy and Fleming 2000, Metzler and Barrett 2001, 

Patterson pers. comm., Rawinski 1984, Robichaud and Buell 1973, Smith 1983, Soil 

Conservation Service 1987. 

Figure I3. Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest (plot COLO.19) at Colonial National Historical Park. 

August 2004. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 367621, northing 4120331. 

196



Figure I4. Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest (plot COLO.22) at Colonial National Historical Park. 

August 2004. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 348884, northing 4124256. 

197



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): PIEDMONT / COASTAL PLAIN OAK - BEECH 

/ HEATH FOREST 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: American Beech - (White Oak, Black Oak, Chestnut Oak) / 

Mountain Laurel Forest 

USNVC Scientific Name: Fagus grandifolia - Quercus (alba, velutina, prinus) / Kalmia 

latifolia Forest 



Environmental Description: This deciduous forest occurs in submesic habitats on west- to 

north-facing, steep ravine slopes and bluffs with acidic, nutrient-poor soils. 

Vegetation Description: Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak - Beech / Heath Forest is characterized 

by very low species richness and evergreen shrub layers. The canopy is closed to very open. 

Fagus grandifolia (American beech) is usually the dominant overstory tree, with Quercus alba 

(white oak), Quercus prinus (chestnut oak), and other Quercus spp. (oaks) as associates. Fagus 

grandifolia (American beech) and Acer rubrum (red maple) usually dominate the small-tree 

layers. Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly) is a common small tree/large shrub, along with 

Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum), Sassafras albidum (sassafras), and Oxydendrum arboreum 

(sourwood). Kalmia latifolia (mountain laurel) forms a dense to nearly continuous (usually 

>50% cover) tall-shrub layer. True herbs are very sparse and litter dominates the ground layer. 

Some stands lack Fagus grandifolia (American beech) and are dominated by Quercus alba 

(white oak) or Quercus prinus (chestnut oak) and may have Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) in the 

canopy as a minor (













Alliance Fagus grandifolia - Quercus rubra - Quercus alba Forest Alliance (A.229) 

Alliance (English name) American Beech - Northern Red Oak - White Oak Forest Alliance 

Association Fagus grandifolia - Quercus (alba, velutina, prinus) / Kalmia latifolia Forest 

Association (English name) American Beech - (White Oak, Black Oak, Chestnut Oak) / Mountain Laurel 

Forest 

Ecological System(s): Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Hardwood Forest (CES203.475). 


Concept Summary: This mixed forest of beech and oaks occurs on the inner Coastal Plain and 

outer Piedmont from New Jersey to southern Virginia. It is particularly common on steep ravine 

slopes and bluffs of dissected terrain with highly acidic soils. It occurs occasionally on short, 

steep bluffs of the outer Coastal Plain, and occasionally occurs on elevated swamp islands with 

sandy, oligotrophic soils. The overstory is composed of Fagus grandifolia (American beech) 

with variable codominance by several oaks, particularly Quercus prinus (chestnut oak), Quercus 

alba (white oak), and Quercus velutina (black oak). Minor associates include Quercus coccinea 

(scarlet oak), Acer rubrum (red maple), Carya spp. (hickories), and Liriodendron tulipifera 

(tuliptree). Typical subcanopy trees include Sassafras albidum (sassafras), Acer rubrum (red 

maple), Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum), Cornus florida (flowering dogwood), Amelanchier arborea 

(common serviceberry), and Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly), the latter frequently 

dominating in Coastal Plain stands. An evergreen shrub layer with strong dominance by Kalmia 

latifolia (mountain laurel) is characteristic, with low-cover associates of Rhododendron 

periclymenoides (pink azalea), Vaccinium spp. (blueberries), and Gaylussacia baccata (black 

huckleberry). Deciduous ericads alone are dominant in rare patches that lack Kalmia latifolia 

(mountain laurel). On northern exposures, Fagus grandifolia (American beech) tends to strongly 

dominate, and Kalmia latifolia (mountain laurel) may achieve >75% cover. 

Environmental Description: This association is characteristic of steep ravine slopes and bluffs 

in dissected terrain of the inner Coastal Plain and outer Piedmont. It also occurs occasionally on 

short, steep bluffs of the outer Coastal Plain, as well as on elevated swamp islands with sandy, 

oligotrophic soils. Sites are mesic to submesic, with extremely acidic, infertile soils. The type 

occurs on slopes of various aspects but tends to favor northerly ones. Soil samples collected from 

24 Virginia and Maryland sites had a mean pH of 4.2 and very low cation and base saturation 

levels. In the southern part of the range, this association is fairly common in dissected landscapes 

of the inner Coastal Plain and fall-line zone of the Piedmont, but occurs in progressively smaller 

and more isolated patches westward in the Piedmont, typically on steep cut-slopes on the outside 

of meander bends in large creeks and small rivers. 

Vegetation Description: The overstory is composed of Fagus grandifolia (American beech) 

with variable codominance by several oaks, particularly Quercus prinus (chestnut oak), Quercus 

199



alba (white oak), and Quercus velutina (black oak). Minor associates include Quercus coccinea 

(scarlet oak), Acer rubrum (red maple), Carya spp. (hickories), and Liriodendron tulipifera 

(tuliptree). Typical subcanopy trees include Sassafras albidum (sassafras), Acer rubrum (red 

maple), Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum), Cornus florida (flowering dogwood), Amelanchier arborea 

(common serviceberry), and Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly), the latter frequently 

dominating in Coastal Plain stands. An evergreen shrub layer with strong dominance by Kalmia 

latifolia (mountain laurel) is characteristic, with low-cover associates of Rhododendron 

periclymenoides (pink azalea), Vaccinium spp. (blueberries), and Gaylussacia baccata (black 

huckleberry). Deciduous ericads alone are dominant in rare patches that lack Kalmia latifolia 

(mountain laurel). On northern exposures, Fagus grandifolia (American beech) tends to strongly 

dominate, and Kalmia latifolia (mountain laurel) may achieve >75% cover. 



Tree canopy Broad-leaved deciduous tree Quercus velutina (black oak) 


Tall shrub/sapling Broad-leaved evergreen shrub Kalmia latifolia (mountain laurel) 

Characteristic Species: Kalmia latifolia (mountain laurel), Quercus alba (white oak), Quercus 

prinus (chestnut oak). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This mixed forest of beech and oaks occurs on the inner Coastal Plain and outer 

Piedmont from New Jersey to southern Virginia. 

States/Provinces: DE, MD, NJ, VA. 

Federal Lands: DOD (Fort Belvoir, Fort Dix, Kerr Reservoir); NPS (Colonial, Prince William, 

Rock Creek); USFWS (Great Swamp). 


Rank: GNR (7-Nov-2000). 

Reasons: Information not available. 




Comments: A variant of this type was described by A. Windisch (OH1 or DOf1) at Fort Dix. 

This association is similar to Quercus velutina - Quercus coccinea - Quercus prinus / Kalmia 

latifolia Forest (CEGL006374), however, it lacks Fagus grandifolia (American beech), 

Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), or Carya spp. (hickories). 


• Fagus grandifolia - Quercus alba / Kalmia latifolia - (Symplocos tinctoria, Rhododendron catawbiense) / Galax 

urceolata Forest (CEGL004539). 

• 

Quercus velutina - Quercus coccinea - Quercus prinus / Kalmia latifolia Forest (CEGL006374). 


• Beech - mixed oak forest (Windisch 1995) = 

SOURCES 

Description Authors: L. A. Sneddon, mod. G. P. Fleming. 

References: Eastern Ecology Working Group n.d., Windisch 1995. 

200



Figure I5. Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak - Beech / Heath Forest (plot COLO.21) at Colonial 

National Historical Park. August 2004. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 348732, northing 4124305. 

201



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): SUCCESSIONAL BLACK WALNUT FOREST 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Black Walnut / Wingstem Forest 

USNVC Scientific Name: Juglans nigra / Verbesina alternifolia Forest 



Environmental Description: Successional Black Walnut Forest is an open forest that often 

occurs around former homesites or on otherwise disturbed flats over calcareous or high base 

status soils. 

Vegetation Description: In Colonial National Historical Park, these forests have canopies with 

Juglans nigra (black walnut) sometimes mixed with Robinia pseudoacacia (black locust), Celtis 

laevigata (sugarberry), or Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree). Other trees and shrubs with minor 

cover can include Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana (eastern redcedar), Platanus occidentalis 

(American sycamore), or Quercus muehlenbergii (chinkapin oak). There is little to no shrub 

cover, but a continuous, lawn-like herbaceous stratum composed mainly of grasses. Both exotic 

and native grasses are characteristic, with Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop) and 

Lolium pratense (meadow ryegrass) typically dominant, and Danthonia spicata (poverty 

oatgrass) or Elymus villosus (hairy wildrye) forming more local patches. 



Tree canopy Broad-leaved deciduous tree Juglans nigra (black walnut) 

Herb (field) Graminoid Lolium pratense (meadow ryegrass), 

Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop) 

Characteristic Species: Juglans nigra (black walnut) 




Reference 

VA 

SNA . . 


Local Range: Successional Black Walnut Forest is mapped as five small polygons in the 

Ringfield / King Creek and Yorktown Battlefield areas of Colonial National Historical Park. 

Classification Comments: This type is distinguished by its dominance by Juglans nigra (black 

walnut) and its occurrence on disturbed sites, often former homesites or recreation areas. 



Plots: None. 









Alliance Juglans nigra Forest Alliance (A.1932) 

Alliance (English name) Black Walnut Forest Alliance 

202



Association Juglans nigra / Verbesina alternifolia Forest 

Association (English name) Black Walnut / Wingstem Forest 

Ecological System(s): South-Central Interior Large Floodplain (CES202.705). 

Southern Interior Low Plateau Dry-Mesic Oak Forest (CES202.898). 


Concept Summary: This successional black walnut forest of the Southeast, ranging from 

Virginia to Georgia, occurs largely on former homesites, usually on disturbed soils having a 

neutral to basic pH. The community was originally defined from former homesites in Great 

Smoky Mountains National Park, where this association is an open, successional forest. It has 

since been found on some old pasture sites, associated with former settlement, and is potentially 

a wide-ranging type. The canopy can be closed to somewhat open. Juglans nigra (black walnut) 

is often the sole canopy tree, though Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), Juglans cinerea 

(butternut), Robinia pseudoacacia (black locust), Morus rubra (red mulberry), and Aesculus 

flava (yellow buckeye) are codominants in some examples. Associates can also include Platanus 

occidentalis (American sycamore), Fraxinus americana (white ash), and Ulmus rubra (slippery 

elm); Sassafras albidum (sassafras) may be present as a small tree. The herb stratum is 

dominated by Verbesina alternifolia (wingstem) and/or Ageratina altissima (white snakeroot). 

Other herbs include Amphicarpaea bracteata (American hogpeanut), Agrimonia pubescens (soft 

agrimony), Galium triflorum (fragrant bedstraw), Osmorhiza longistylis (longstyle sweetroot), 

Viola striata (striped cream violet), and Ambrosia trifida (great ragweed). The exotics Rosa 

multiflora (multiflora rose) and Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop) can be common in 

this community. 

Environmental Description: This community often occurs on former homesites along streams 

or on slopes, possibly in association with circumneutral soils. It was originally defined from 

former homesites in Great Smoky Mountains National Park, where this association is an open, 

successional forest. This community was sampled on former homesites along streams, possibly 

in association with circumneutral soils, at 460-610 m (1500-2000 feet) elevation in the Smokies, 

as well as on ridgetops, slopes, and stream areas in the Cumberlands and Alleghenies at 460 

1070 m (1500-3500 feet). In addition, the association was sampled from the Piedmont of South 

Carolina in low-lying, poor-drainage areas from approximately 170-200 m (550-650 feet) in 

elevation. 

Vegetation Description: Juglans nigra (black walnut) is often the sole canopy tree, though 

Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), Juglans cinerea (butternut), Celtis laevigata (sugarberry), and 

Aesculus flava (yellow buckeye) are dominant or codominant in some examples. Associates can 

also include Platanus occidentalis (American sycamore), Fraxinus americana (white ash), and 

Ulmus rubra (slippery elm); Sassafras albidum (sassafras) or Cercis canadensis (eastern redbud) 

may be present as small trees. The herb stratum is highly variable, often dominated by Verbesina 

alternifolia (wingstem) and/or Verbesina alternifolia (wingstem). Other herbs include 

Amphicarpaea bracteata (American hogpeanut), Agrimonia pubescens (soft agrimony), Galium 

triflorum (fragrant bedstraw), Osmorhiza longistylis (longstyle sweetroot), Viola striata (striped 

cream violet), and Ambrosia trifida (great ragweed). The exotic Rosa multiflora (multiflora rose) 

can be common in this community. 

203





Species 

Tree canopy 

Broad-leaved deciduous tree Juglans nigra (black walnut) 

Herb (field) Forb Verbesina alternifolia (wingstem) 

Characteristic Species: Cercis canadensis (eastern redbud), Juglans nigra (black walnut), Rosa 

multiflora (multiflora rose), Verbesina alternifolia (wingstem). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This potentially widespread association is currently known from Tennessee and 

Kentucky east to the Carolinas and north to Virginia and West Virginia. It may range into 

adjacent states. 

States/Provinces: GA, KY, NC, SC, TN, VA, WV. 

Federal Lands: DOD (Camp Dawson); NPS (Appomattox Court House, Big South Fork, Blue 

Ridge Parkway, Chickamauga-Chattanooga, Colonial, Cumberland Gap, Great Smoky 

Mountains, Kings Mountain, Mammoth Cave, Ninety Six, Richmond). 


Rank: GNA (ruderal) (2-Apr-2001). 

Reasons: This vegetation represents vegetation created by anthropogenic disturbance and is thus 

not a conservation priority. Grank changed from GW to GD 2001-04-02 MP. 



Confidence: 3 - Weak. 

Comments: This association was originally described from Great Smoky Mountains National 

Park where this association can be distinguished with aerial photography. 


• Prunus serotina - Liriodendron tulipifera - Acer rubrum - Fraxinus americana Forest (CEGL006599)--is a 

modified successional forest that may also have a large component of Juglans nigra and occurs on disturbed sites, 

but it is largely dominated by early-successional trees in the canopy. 


• Successional black walnut forest (Vanderhorst 2001) = 

SOURCES 

Description Authors: K. D. Patterson, mod. R. White and S. C. Gawler. 

References: NatureServe Ecology - Southeastern U.S. unpubl. data, Peet et al. unpubl. data 

2002, Southeastern Ecology Working Group n.d., TDNH unpubl. data, Vanderhorst 2001. 

204



Figure I6. Successional Black Walnut Forest at Colonial National Historical Park. June 2004. 

NAD 1983 / UTM easting 359310, northing 4126731. 

205



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): SUCCESSIONAL SWEETGUM FOREST 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Sweetgum Forest 

USNVC Scientific Name: Liquidambar styraciflua Forest 



Environmental Description: Successional Sweetgum Forest is an upland forest resulting from 

succession following human activities such as logging and clearing. 

Vegetation Description: Stands are dominated by young, often shrubby Liquidambar 

styraciflua (sweetgum) often to the exclusion of other species. Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) may 

be a minor associate. Weedy or successional species make up the herb layer, Lespedeza sp. (a 

lespedeza). 

Successional Sweetgum Forest may range in physiognomy from short and shrubby to open, 

short-statured woodland. 



Species 

Tree canopy 

Broad-leaved deciduous tree Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum) 

Characteristic Species: Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum). 




Reference 

VA SNA . . 


Local Range: This association is mapped at Green Spring, where is occurs as three polygons 

covering 2.9 hectares (7.1 acres). 

Classification Comments: This forest is distinguished by being dominated by young, dense, 

shrubby Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum) occurring in association with Cultural Meadow. 



Plots: None. 









Alliance Liquidambar styraciflua Forest Alliance (A.234) 

Alliance (English name) Sweetgum Forest Alliance 

Association Liquidambar styraciflua Forest 

Association (English name) Sweetgum Forest 


206




Concept Summary: This early-successional upland forest of the southeastern U.S. occurs on a 

variety of environmental settings, resulting from succession following human activities such as 

logging and clearing or agriculture. Stands are dominated by Liquidambar styraciflua 

(sweetgum), sometimes to the exclusion of other species. Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) is a 

common associate. Other associated species are highly variable and depend on location and stand 

history. 

Environmental Description: This association is found in uplands that have been heavily 

impacted by agriculture or other severe disturbances and are recovering. 

Vegetation Description: Stands are dominated by Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), 

sometimes to the exclusion of other species. 



Species 

Tree canopy 


Shrub/sapling (tall & short) 





DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This association may be found throughout the southeastern United States, in the coastal 

plains and interior ecoregions. It is also attributed to New Jersey with the merger of 

CEGL006927. The status in intervening states (e.g., Delaware, Maryland) needs to be assessed. 

States/Provinces: AL, AR?, DE, GA, KY, LA, MD, MS, NC, NJ, OK, SC, TN, VA. 

Federal Lands: NPS (Big South Fork, Chickamauga-Chattanooga?, Colonial, Cowpens, 

George Washington Birthplace, Guilford Courthouse, Kings Mountain, Mammoth Cave, 

Natchez Trace, Ninety Six, Petersburg, Shiloh, Thomas Stone, Vicksburg); USFS (Cherokee?, 

Oconee?, St. Francis?); USFWS (Prime Hook). 


Rank: GNA (modified/managed) (19-Aug-2002). 

Reasons: This is an upland successional vegetation type composed of native species. Its 

conservation value is limited, but it may provide buffer for communities of greater conservation 

value. 






• Liquidambar styraciflua - Liriodendron tulipifera / Lindera benzoin / Arisaema triphyllum Forest 

(CEGL004418)--a later-successional bottomland association. 

• Liquidambar styraciflua - Quercus (alba, falcata) Forest (CEGL007217)--of interior provinces. 

• Liquidambar styraciflua - Quercus (nigra, phellos) - Pinus taeda / Vaccinium elliottii - Morella cerifera Forest 

(CEGL007726)--a more diverse successional forest of the Coastal Plain. 


• sweet gum successional forest (Collins and Anderson 1994) = 

207



SOURCES 

Description Authors: R. White, mod. M. Pyne. 

References: Collins and Anderson 1994, NatureServe Ecology - Southeastern U.S. unpubl. 

data, Schotz pers. comm., Southeastern Ecology Working Group n.d., TDNH unpubl. data. 

208



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): SUCCESSIONAL TULIPTREE - LOBLOLLY 

PINE FOREST 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest 

USNVC Scientific Name: Liriodendron tulipifera - Pinus taeda Forest 



Environmental Description: These second- or third-growth forests develop after agricultural 

abandonment or other anthropogenic disturbances on upland flat areas that formerly supported 

Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest or Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest. 

Vegetation Description: The canopy can be dominated by Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree) or 

Pinus taeda (loblolly pine), either singly or in combination. Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum) 

and Acer rubrum (red maple) are also often in the canopy and commonly dominate the 

subcanopy. Other species that are less frequent but may be found in the canopy are Platanus 

occidentalis (American sycamore) and Quercus falcata (southern red oak). Other subcanopy and 

shrub species vary but often include Cornus florida (flowering dogwood), Lindera benzoin 

(northern spicebush), Asimina triloba (pawpaw), and Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly). 

The vines Lonicera japonica (Japanese honeysuckle), Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison 

ivy), and Vitis spp. (grapes) can cover large areas in these forests. The ground layer is usually 

covered by pine litter with few herbs or covered by the exotic grass Microstegium vimineum 

(Nepalese browntop). Other common herbs include Erechtites hieraciifolia var. hieraciifolia 

(American burnweed), Cynoglossum virginianum var. virginianum (wild comfrey), and 

Polystichum acrostichoides (Christmas fern). This is an early-successional type that persists for 

many decades because of the longevity of the nominal trees. 

Tree species dominance can vary within and among stands of this association, and the phenology 

can vary from a predominantly deciduous to a predominantly evergreen forest. The structure can 

vary from a closed forest to an open woodland with a heavy shrub / vine layer, particularly in 

areas that have sustained wind damage. In Colonial National Historical Park, this forest has 

developed on disturbed areas that once supported Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest or Coastal 

Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest. The associated species of shrubs, herbs and occasional 

trees vary greatly with the type of forest that once occurred on the site. 



Tree canopy Needle-leaved tree Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) 

Tree canopy Broad-leaved deciduous tree Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree) 

Herb (field) Vine/Liana Lonicera japonica (Japanese honeysuckle) 

Herb (field) Graminoid Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop) 

Characteristic Species: Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), Lonicera japonica (Japanese 

honeysuckle), Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop), Pinus taeda (loblolly pine). 




Reference 

VA SNA . . 


209



Local Range: Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest covers the greatest area of any map 

class in Colonial National Historical Park. It is found in all areas of the park, covering a total of 

1250 hectares (3090 acres). 

Classification Comments: Some stands of Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest may 

be similar to Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest, but can be distinguished by the lack of dominant 

canopy oaks or Fagus grandifolia (American beech) and the overall more "weedy" successional 

structure and composition. Stands of Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest tend to be 

even-aged, whereas Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest has mixed age class stands. Additionally, 

Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest tends to occur on disturbed flats and gentle slopes. 

In general, Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest has greater coverage of oak species and 

coastal shrubs such as Morella cerifera (wax myrtle) and Persea palustris (swamp bay), and 

lacks Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree). It is also found in a different landscape context than 

Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest, on low lying areas or sandy interfluves, 

surrounded by tidal wetlands. 



Plots: None. 









Alliance Liriodendron tulipifera Forest Alliance (A.236) 

Alliance (English name) Tuliptree Forest Alliance 

Association Liriodendron tulipifera - Pinus taeda Forest 

Association (English name) Tuliptree - Loblolly Pine Forest 



Concept Summary: The initial USNVC description of this semi-natural tuliptree - loblolly 

pine forest was based on sites in the Piedmont of South Carolina, but it has since been 

documented in Virginia and Alabama, and is almost certainly present in other parts of the 

Piedmont. The vegetation develops on slopes following cropping. This forest is strongly 

dominated by Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree) and Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) which together 

contribute more than 75% canopy cover. Other canopy species include Liquidambar styraciflua 

(sweetgum) and Acer rubrum (red maple). Cornus florida (flowering dogwood) sometimes 

occurs in the subcanopy, and vines such as Lonicera japonica (Japanese honeysuckle), Smilax 

rotundifolia (roundleaf greenbrier) and Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy) may be 

abundant. The understory and ground layers are very sparse with much open ground present. 

Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop) may dominated in the herbaceous layer. 

Environmental Description: This successional forest community develops on slopes following 

cropping. The specific documented occurrences on the Sumter National Forest, South Carolina, 

have developed on former cotton fields of lower to midslopes, where soils usually have 60-70% 

sand. 

210



Vegetation Description: Stands of this forest community are strongly dominated by 

Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree) and Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) which together contribute 

more than 75% canopy cover. Other canopy species include Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum) 

and Acer rubrum (red maple). The understory and ground layers are very sparse with much open 

ground present. 



Species 

Tree canopy 

Needle-leaved tree Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) 

Tree canopy 

Broad-leaved deciduous tree Acer rubrum (red maple), 

Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), 

Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree) 


Shrub/sapling (tall & short) Vine/Liana Smilax rotundifolia (roundleaf greenbrier) 

Herb (field) 

Fern or fern ally Polystichum acrostichoides (Christmas fern) 

Characteristic Species: Carya alba (mockernut hickory), Cercis canadensis (eastern redbud), 

Quercus falcata (southern red oak). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This association is known from the Piedmont of South Carolina, but is likely to be 

found in the North Carolina and Georgia Piedmont, as well the coastal plains. It also occurs in 

Virginia and Alabama and is likely in Tennessee. 

States/Provinces: AL, FL?, GA?, MS?, NC?, SC, TN?, VA. 

Federal Lands: NPS (Colonial); USFS (Apalachicola?, Bankhead, Bienville?, Conecuh?, De 

Soto?, Oconee?, Sumter, Sumter (Piedmont), Tombigbee?, Tuskegee?). 


Rank: GNA (ruderal) (11-May-2001). 

Reasons: A successional type, not of conservation value, but dominated by species native to 

North America (Grank changed from GW). 






• Liriodendron tulipifera - Acer negundo Forest (CEGL007184)--has a shrub stratum of Robinia pseudoacacia. 

• Liriodendron tulipifera / (Cercis canadensis) / (Lindera benzoin) Forest (CEGL007220). 

• Pinus taeda - Liquidambar styraciflua Semi-natural Forest (CEGL008462). 


• IF3a. Recently Harvested Timber Land (Allard 1990) B 

• Loblolly Pine - Hardwood: 82 (Eyre 1980) B 

• Yellow poplar (50) (USFS 1988) ? 

• Yellow-Poplar: 57 (Eyre 1980) B 

SOURCES 

Description Authors: S. Landaal, mod. M. Pyne and L. A. Sneddon. 

References: Allard 1990, Eyre 1980, Schotz pers. comm., Southeastern Ecology Working 

Group n.d., TDNH unpubl. data, USFS 1988. 

211



Figure I7. Successional Tuliptree – Loblolly Pine Forest at Colonial National Historical Park. 

September 2004. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 361593, northing 4125905. Note: Microstegium 

vimineum (Nepalese browntop) dominates the herbaceous stratum. 

212



Figure I8. Successional Tuliptree – Loblolly Pine Forest at Colonial National Historical Park. 

June 2004. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 359222, northing 4126654. Wind damage from Hurricane 

Isabel. 

213



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): ACIDIC OAK - HICKORY FOREST 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: White Oak - Northern Red Oak - Mockernut Hickory / 

Flowering Dogwood / Deerberry / Naked-stem Tick-trefoil 

Piedmont Forest 

USNVC Scientific Name: Quercus alba - Quercus rubra - Carya alba / Cornus florida / 

Vaccinium stamineum / Desmodium nudiflorum Piedmont 

Forest 



Environmental Description: Acidic Oak - Hickory Forest occurs on submesic to subxeric 

uplands on short, steep slopes and associated flat areas above tidal marshes. Slope aspects are 

northwest to south. Soils are strongly acidic and nutrient-poor, being weathered primarily from 

Pleistocene-aged fluvial deposits. 

Vegetation Description: The canopy is dominated by Quercus prinus (chestnut oak) and / or 

Quercus alba (white oak) in combination with other, less abundant, dry-site oaks and hickories 

like Quercus marilandica (blackjack oak), Quercus stellata (post oak), Quercus falcata 

(southern red oak), (Carya pallida (sand hickory), Carya glabra (pignut hickory), and Carya 

alba (mockernut hickory). Small trees and saplings of the canopy species, as well as of Pinus 

virginiana (Virginia pine) and Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly), are common in the 

subcanopy and tall shrub layer. The short-shrub layer is sparse to absent. The ground is covered 

with litter and mosses with sparse herbaceous cover composed primarily of graminoids with 

scattered forbs. The most abundant herbs are Danthonia spicata (poverty oatgrass) and 

Dichanthelium dichotomum (cypress panicgrass). Other typical herbaceous species include 

Antennaria plantaginifolia (woman's tobacco), Carex albicans (whitetinge sedge), Chimaphila 

maculata (striped prince's pine), Erechtites hieraciifolia var. hieraciifolia (American burnweed), 

Galium circaezans (licorice bedstraw), Hieracium venosum (rattlesnakeweed), and 

Schizachyrium scoparium (little bluestem). 

Some stands may lack Quercus prinus (chestnut oak) entirely and have Quercus alba (white oak) 

dominating the canopy. Carya pallida (sand hickory) may be dominant in some stands. 

Hickories may not be present in every stand. While most stands lack a short-shrub layer, 

Gaylussacia frondosa (blue huckleberry) can occur locally in small patches, but does not 

dominate the shrub layer. 



Tree canopy Broad-leaved deciduous tree Quercus alba (white oak), Quercus prinus 

(chestnut oak) 

Characteristic Species: Dichanthelium dichotomum (cypress panicgrass), Ilex opaca var. opaca 

(American holly), Pinus virginiana (Virginia pine), Quercus alba (white oak), Quercus prinus 

(chestnut oak), Quercus stellata (post oak). 




Reference 

VA SNR* B 1 

Acidic Oak - Hickory Forest Fleming et al. 2006 

214



Local Range: In Colonial National Historical Park, Acidic Oak - Hickory Forest is mapped at 

Ringfield / King Creek and at College Creek / Kingsmill. It is mapped as 12 polygons, ranging in 

size from 0.3 to 3.3 hectares (0.8 to 8.1 acres) and covering a total land area of 18.9 hectares 

(46.8 acres). 

Classification Comments: This forest is distinguished from Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed 

Oak / Heath Forest by lacking a more-or-less continuous, dense ericaceous shrub layer. Acidic 

Oak - Hickory Forest is distinguished from Mesic Mixed Hardwood by occurring on xeric to 

submesic sites and having less species diversity in all strata. Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest 

often has high cover of Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree) or Fagus grandifolia (American 

beech), two species absent to rare in Acidic Oak - Hickory Forest. 



Plots: COLO.24. 









Alliance Quercus alba - (Quercus rubra, Carya spp.) Forest Alliance (A.239) 

Alliance (English name) White Oak - (Northern Red Oak, Hickory species) Forest Alliance 

Association Quercus alba - Quercus rubra - Carya alba / Cornus florida / Vaccinium 

stamineum / Desmodium nudiflorum Piedmont Forest 

Association (English name) White Oak - Northern Red Oak - Mockernut Hickory / Flowering Dogwood / 

Deerberry / Naked-stem Tick-trefoil Piedmont Forest 


Northeastern Interior Dry-Mesic Oak Forest (CES202.592). 

Southern Piedmont Dry Oak-(Pine) Forest (CES202.339). 

Piedmont Hardpan Woodland and Forest (CES202.268). 


Concept Summary: This forest is found on submesic to subxeric upland sites throughout the 

Piedmont of the Carolinas, Virginia, south-central Maryland, and possibly Georgia. It favors 

mid- to upper-slope positions with northerly or easterly aspects, or mid- to lower slopes with 

more southerly aspects. In drier landscapes, this type occupies habitats considered relatively 

mesic (e.g., concave slopes, lower slopes, shallow ravines). These sites are described as dry to 

intermediate in soil moisture. The soils are moderately to strongly acidic and nutrient-poor, being 

weathered primarily from felsic metamorphic, metasedimentary, and sedimentary rocks, or 

composed of unconsolidated sediments. At some sites, soils are weathered from interbedded 

metasedimentary and mafic rocks, resulting in soil chemistry that is intermediate or slightly 

basic. Stands of this forest are closed to somewhat open and are dominated by mixtures of oaks 

and hickories, with Quercus alba (white oak) being most prevalent, along with Quercus rubra 

(northern red oak), Quercus coccinea (scarlet oak), Quercus velutina (black oak), Quercus 

falcata (southern red oak), Carya alba (mockernut hickory), Carya ovalis (red hickory), and 

Carya glabra (pignut hickory). Carya spp. (hickories) are common in this type but often most 

abundant in the understory. In forests with a history of disturbance, such as selective logging or 

215



windstorms, early-successional species such as Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree) or Pinus sp. (a 

pine) may codominate. In Virginia examples, Quercus prinus (chestnut oak) is inconstant but 

sometimes important. In addition, Pinus spp. (pines), Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), 

Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), and Acer rubrum (red maple) may be common. Understory 

species include Acer rubrum (red maple), Cornus florida (flowering dogwood), Oxydendrum 

arboreum (sourwood), Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly), and Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum). 

Shrubs include Vaccinium stamineum (deerberry), Vaccinium pallidum (Blue Ridge blueberry), 

Viburnum acerifolium (mapleleaf viburnum), Viburnum rafinesquianum (downy arrowwood), 

and Euonymus americanus (strawberry bush). The woody vines Vitis rotundifolia (muscadine) 

and Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy) often are present. Herbs vary from sparse to 

moderately dense, with dry-mesophytic, acid-tolerant species such as Hexastylis spp. 

(heartleafs), Goodyera pubescens (downy rattlesnake plantain), Chimaphila maculata (striped 

prince's pine), Desmodium nudiflorum (nakedflower ticktrefoil), Maianthemum racemosum 

(feathery false lily of the valley), Polygonatum biflorum (smooth Solomon's seal), Viola hastata 

(halberdleaf yellow violet), Tipularia discolor (crippled cranefly), and Hieracium venosum 

(rattlesnakeweed) prevalent. This association occupies less nutrient-rich habitats than Quercus 

rubra - Quercus alba - Carya glabra / Geranium maculatum Forest (CEGL007237). 

Environmental Description: The sites on which this vegetation is found are described as 

"intermediate" in soil moisture (Jones 1988a, 1988b). Soils are less nutrient-rich than Quercus 

alba - Quercus rubra - Carya (ovata, carolinae-septentrionalis) / Cercis canadensis Forest 

(CEGL007232). Virginia stands occur on submesic to subxeric uplands with acidic, moderately 

nutrient-poor soils weathered from felsic metamorphic, metasedimentary, and sedimentary rocks 

(especially Triassic siltstones), and unconsolidated sediments. However, Virginia soils 

supporting this type are demonstrably more fertile than those supporting very species-poor mixed 

oak forests with dense ericaceous shrub layers. At some sites, soils are weathered from 

interbedded metasedimentary and mafic rocks, resulting in soil chemistry that is intermediate or 

slightly basic. This type frequently occupies somewhat mesic habitats (e.g., concave slopes, 

lower slopes, shallow ravines) in dry landscapes where mixed oak/heath types are prevalent. It is 

a large-patch or matrix type in some parts of Virginia but is not as abundant in the Piedmont as 

mixed oak/heath forests (G. Fleming pers. comm. 2001). In North Carolina, this is a matrix type, 

probably the most common forest type remaining in the Piedmont. 

Vegetation Description: Stands of this forest are closed to somewhat open, and are dominated 

by mixtures of oaks and hickories, with Quercus alba (white oak) being most prevalent, along 

with Quercus rubra (northern red oak), Quercus coccinea (scarlet oak), Quercus velutina (black 

oak), Carya alba (mockernut hickory), Carya ovalis (red hickory), and Carya glabra (pignut 

hickory). Carya spp. (hickories) are common in this type but often most abundant in the 

understory. In Virginia examples, Quercus prinus (chestnut oak) and Quercus falcata (southern 

red oak) are inconstant but sometimes important. In addition, Pinus spp. (pines), Liriodendron 

tulipifera (tuliptree), Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), and Acer rubrum (red maple) may be 

common, especially in disturbed stands. Understory species include Acer rubrum (red maple), 

Cornus florida (flowering dogwood), Oxydendrum arboreum (sourwood), Ilex opaca var. opaca 

(American holly), and Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum). Shrubs include Vaccinium stamineum 

(deerberry), Vaccinium pallidum (Blue Ridge blueberry), Viburnum acerifolium (mapleleaf 

viburnum), Viburnum rafinesquianum (downy arrowwood), and Euonymus americanus 

(strawberry bush). In Virginia, Vaccinium pallidum (Blue Ridge blueberry) and Vaccinium 

stamineum (deerberry) are the principal ericads of patchy low-shrub layers (G. Fleming pers. 

216



comm. 2004). The woody vines Vitis rotundifolia (muscadine) and Toxicodendron radicans 

(eastern poison ivy) often are present. Herbs vary from sparse to moderately dense, with drymesophytic 

species such as Hexastylis spp. (heartleafs), Goodyera pubescens (downy rattlesnake 

plantain), Chimaphila maculata (striped prince's pine), Desmodium nudiflorum (nakedflower 

ticktrefoil), Maianthemum racemosum (feathery false lily of the valley), Polygonatum biflorum 

(smooth Solomon's seal), Viola hastata (halberdleaf yellow violet), Tipularia discolor (crippled 

cranefly), Carex albicans (whitetinge sedge), and Hieracium venosum (rattlesnakeweed) 

prevalent (Schafale and Weakley 1990). Although not lush, these forests can be impressively 

species-rich, with high woody diversity and many low-cover herbaceous species occurring. 

Species richness of 116 Virginia plots averages 53 taxa per 400 square meters, varying from a 

low of 17 to a high of 114. Low species richness in this type is most often the result of long-term 

overgrazing by large deer populations. At least some of the stands with high species richness are 

located on sites where deer populations are effectively controlled. 



Species 

Tree canopy 

Broad-leaved deciduous tree Carya alba (mockernut hickory), 

Carya glabra (pignut hickory), 

Carya ovalis (red hickory), 

Quercus alba (white oak), 

Quercus coccinea (scarlet oak), 

Quercus rubra (northern red oak), 

Quercus velutina (black oak) 

Tree subcanopy Broad-leaved deciduous tree Cornus florida (flowering dogwood), 

Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum), 

Oxydendrum arboreum (sourwood) 


Characteristic Species: Acer rubrum (red maple), Carya alba (mockernut hickory), Carya 

glabra (pignut hickory), Carya ovalis (red hickory), Chimaphila maculata (striped prince's pine), 

Cornus florida (flowering dogwood), Desmodium nudiflorum (nakedflower ticktrefoil), 

Euonymus americanus (strawberry bush), Goodyera pubescens (downy rattlesnake plantain), 

Hieracium venosum (rattlesnakeweed), Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly), Liquidambar 

styraciflua (sweetgum), Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), Maianthemum racemosum (feathery 

false lily of the valley), Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum), Oxydendrum arboreum (sourwood), 

Polygonatum biflorum (smooth Solomon's seal), Quercus alba (white oak), Quercus coccinea 

(scarlet oak), Quercus rubra (northern red oak), Quercus velutina (black oak), Tipularia discolor 

(crippled cranefly), Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy), Vaccinium pallidum (Blue 

Ridge blueberry), Vaccinium stamineum (deerberry), Viburnum acerifolium (mapleleaf 

viburnum), Viburnum rafinesquianum (downy arrowwood), Viola hastata (halberdleaf yellow 

violet), Vitis rotundifolia (muscadine). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This association occurs throughout the Piedmont of the Carolinas, Virginia, southcentral 

Maryland, and possibly Georgia. In northern Virginia and Maryland, it also occurs 

occasionally in the Coastal Plain. 

States/Provinces: GA?, MD, NC, SC, VA. 

Federal Lands: DOD (Fort Pickett, Kerr Reservoir); NPS (Appomattox Court House, Booker 

T. Washington, C&O Canal, Colonial, Fredericksburg-Spotsylvania, George Washington 

217



Parkway, Guilford Courthouse, Kings Mountain, Manassas, Ninety Six, Petersburg, Prince 

William, Richmond, Rock Creek); USFS (Oconee?, Uwharrie). 


Rank: G4G5 (15-Feb-2007). 

Reasons: This is not a rare community type, although stands older than about 80 years old are 

probably rare. Most of the rolling upland landscape of the Piedmont and other regions where this 

occurs have been logged more than once since European settlement. This is a large-patch or 

matrix type in some regions of Virginia (G. Fleming pers. comm. 2001). In North Carolina, this 

is a matrix type, probably the most common forest type remaining in the Piedmont. 




Comments: At the northern end of the range, the classification is supported by analysis of a 

1250-plot regional dataset assembled for the NCR and mid-Atlantic national parks vegetation 

mapping project. In that analysis, this association was represented by 116 Virginia plots and 

several from Montgomery County, Maryland. 


• Quercus (alba, rubra, velutina) / Cornus florida / Viburnum acerifolium Forest (CEGL006336)--northern 

analogue from Maryland to New England. 

• Quercus alba - Carya alba / Euonymus americanus / Hexastylis arifolia Forest (CEGL006227)--similar with a 

more southerly range. 

• Quercus alba - Carya alba / Vaccinium elliottii Forest [Provisional] (CEGL007224)--of the Coastal Plain. 

• Quercus alba - Carya glabra / Mixed Herbs Coastal Plain Forest (CEGL007226)--of the Coastal Plain. 

• Quercus alba - Quercus nigra - Quercus falcata / Ilex opaca / Clethra alnifolia - Arundinaria gigantea ssp. tecta 

Forest (CEGL007862)--of the Coastal Plain. 

• Quercus alba - Quercus rubra - Carya (ovata, carolinae-septentrionalis) / Cercis canadensis Forest 

(CEGL007232)--occurs in the same region but on basic soils weathered from mafic rocks. 

• Quercus falcata - Quercus alba - Carya alba / Oxydendrum arboreum / Vaccinium stamineum Forest 

(CEGL007244)--is a drier community of similar substrates, with more Quercus falcata or Quercus stellata than 

Quercus rubra codominating with Quercus alba. 

• Quercus rubra - Quercus alba - Carya glabra / Geranium maculatum Forest (CEGL007237). 

• Quercus rubra / Magnolia tripetala - Cercis canadensis / Actaea racemosa - Tiarella cordifolia Forest 

(CEGL003949). 


• Quercus alba - Quercus rubra - Carya (alba, glabra) / Cornus florida / Vaccinium stamineum Forest (VDNH 

2003) = 

• Quercus alba - Quercus rubra - Carya (alba, glabra) / Cornus florida / Vaccinium stamineum Forest (Fleming 

pers. comm.) ? 

• IA6i. Interior Upland Dry-Mesic Oak - Hickory Forest (Allard 1990) B 

• Oak - Chestnut - Hickory Forest (Ambrose 1990) B 

• Piedmont Acidic Oak-Hickory Forest (Fleming et al. 2004) ? 

• White oak - northern red oak - false Solomon's seal (Quercus alba - Quercus rubra - Smilacina racemosa) 

community type (Jones 1988a) ? 

• White oak - northern red oak - false Solomon's seal (Quercus alba - Quercus rubra - Smilacina racemosa) 

community type (Jones 1988b) ? 

218



SOURCES 

Description Authors: M. P. Schafale and G. P. Fleming. 

References: Allard 1990, Ambrose 1990, Fleming et al. 2001, Fleming et al. 2004, Fleming 

pers. comm., Harrison 2004, Jones 1988a, Jones 1988b, NRCS 2006, Nelson 1986, Patterson 

pers. comm., Schafale and Weakley 1990, Skeen et al. 1980, Southeastern Ecology Working 

Group n.d., VDNH 2003. 

Figure I9. Acidic Oak - Hickory Forest (plot COLO.24) at Colonial National Historical Park. 

September 2004. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 349821, northing 4121229. 

219



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): COASTAL PLAIN DRY CALCAREOUS 

FOREST 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Chinquapin Oak / Eastern Redbud / Bosc's Witchgrass - 

Common Eastern Brome - Robin's-plantain - Eastern 

Columbine Forest 

USNVC Scientific Name: Quercus muehlenbergii / Cercis canadensis / Dichanthelium 

boscii - Bromus pubescens - Erigeron pulchellus var. pulchellus 

- Aquilegia canadensis Forest 



Environmental Description: Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest is found on xeric to subxeric, 

fertile habitats on southeast- to southwest-facing, usually convex slopes of deep ravines or 

stream-fronting bluffs that have downcut into Tertiary shell deposits. Shell fragments are often 

abundantly exposed by sheet erosion. 

Vegetation Description: Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest is an open, deciduous forest or 

woodland. Some stands of this association tend toward a woodland physiognomy, with lowstatured, 

gnarled trees. Quercus muehlenbergii (chinkapin oak) is a constant codominant or 

dominant overstory tree, occurring with a variety of associates, including Acer barbatum 

(southern sugar maple), Carya cordiformis (bitternut hickory), Fagus grandifolia (American 

beech), Juglans nigra (black walnut), Quercus alba (white oak), and Quercus falcata (southern 

red oak). Small tree and shrub associates include Cercis canadensis var. canadensis (eastern 

redbud), Celtis occidentalis (common hackberry), Cornus florida (flowering dogwood), 

Diospyros virginiana (common persimmon), Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly), Ostrya 

virginiana (hophornbeam), and Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana (eastern redcedar). The herb 

layer is usually patchy but relatively species-rich with a mixture of mesophytic and xerophytic 

species. Graminoids species such as Dichanthelium commutatum (variable panicgrass), 

Sorghastrum elliottii (slender Indiangrass), Chasmanthium sessiliflorum (longleaf woodoats), 

Danthonia spicata (poverty oatgrass), Dichanthelium boscii (Bosc's panicgrass), Elymus villosus 

(hairy wildrye), and Schizachyrium scoparium (little bluestem) can occur as patch dominants 

with scattered, numerous forbs species. Other species typically found in the herb layer include 

Aquilegia canadensis (red columbine), Arabis laevigata var. laevigata (smooth rockcress), 

Arnoglossum atriplicifolium (pale Indian plaintain), Carex albicans var. australis (stellate 

sedge), Carex laxiflora var. laxiflora (broad looseflower sedge), Chasmanthium sessiliflorum 

(longleaf woodoats), Erigeron pulchellus var. pulchellus (robin's plantain), Galium circaezans 

(licorice bedstraw), Geum virginianum (cream avens), Polygonatum biflorum var. biflorum 

(smooth Solomon's-seal), Packera aurea (golden ragwort), Smallanthus uvedalius (hairy 

leafcup), Verbesina virginica (white crownbeard), and Verbesina occidentalis (yellow 

crownbeard). 

Disturbed stands of this type may have high cover (25-50%) of Liriodendron tulipifera 

(tuliptree) in the canopy. Herb cover can range from 25-50%. 

220





Tree canopy Broad-leaved deciduous tree Quercus muehlenbergii (chinkapin oak) 

Characteristic Species: Cercis canadensis var. canadensis (eastern redbud), Dichanthelium 

boscii (Bosc's panicgrass), Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana (eastern redcedar), Quercus 

muehlenbergii (chinkapin oak). 



Fleischmannia incarnata (pink thoroughwort) 

- plant VA imperiled (S2) 

Ponthieva racemosa (hairy shadow witch) - plant VA watchlist (S3) 

Verbena scabra (sandpaper vervain) 

- plant VA imperiled (S2) 

Verbesina virginica var. virginica (white crownbeard) - plant VA watchlist (S3) 

Viburnum rufidulum (rusty blackhaw) 


- plant VA watchlist (S3S4) 


Reference 

VA S1 = 1 Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Fleming et al. 2006 

Forest / Woodland 

Local Range: This association is mapped in the vicinity of Yorktown Battlefield on the ravine 

slopes of Ballard Creek, a tributary of Yorktown Creek, and around Wormley Pond. It is also 

found at King Creek / Ringfield. Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest is mapped as nine 

polygons in Colonial National Historical Park, covering a total of 5.8 hectares (14.9 acres). 

Classification Comments: This forest is distinguished from Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous 

Ravine Forest by its more open canopy structure, more graminoid species cover, the occurrence 

of Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana (eastern redcedar), and general absence of the mesic 

species that characterize Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest like Asimina triloba 

(pawpaw), Lindera benzoin (northern spicebush), Sanguinaria canadensis (bloodroot), Adiantum 

pedatum (northern maidenhair), and Actaea racemosa (=Cimicifuga racemosa, black bugbane). 

Also, Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest tends to have a more lush and better 

developed herbaceous strata with upwards of 50-75% coverage. 

Other Comments: This community is restricted to dry, calcium-rich, shell-containing soils of 

the eastern Virginia and Maryland Coastal Plain. This community is naturally rare and restricted 

to a specialized edaphic situation that is regionally restricted and extremely rare within this 

region. All examples of this native plant association in Colonial National Historical Park meet 

the criteria to be considered Natural Heritage exemplary natural community occurrences and 

should be targets for conservation and management. All examples are subject to encroachment 

by invasive weeds. Stands are also subject to blowdowns and downfalls caused by soil slumping, 

especially where trees are rooted on very steep, erosive slopes. 


Plots: COLO.1, COLO.3, COLO.13, COLO.14, COLO.15, COLO.16. 









Alliance Quercus muehlenbergii - (Acer saccharum) Forest Alliance (A.1912) 

221



Alliance (English name) Chinquapin Oak - (Sugar Maple) Forest Alliance 

Association Quercus muehlenbergii / Cercis canadensis / Dichanthelium boscii - Bromus 

pubescens - Erigeron pulchellus var. pulchellus - Aquilegia canadensis 

Forest 

Association (English name) Chinquapin Oak / Eastern Redbud / Bosc's Witchgrass - Common Eastern 

Brome - Robin's-plantain - Eastern Columbine Forest 


Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Calcareous Ravine (CES203.069). 


Concept Summary: This dry, open, calcareous forest of the Coastal Plain of Virginia and 

Maryland is restricted to subxeric to xeric, fertile habitats over unconsolidated, calcareous 

deposits. These localized habitats are found on southeast- to southwest-facing, usually convex 

slopes of deep ravines or stream-fronting bluffs that have downcut into Tertiary shell deposits or 

limesands. Occurrences are small (typically



Ulmus rubra (slippery elm). Small tree and shrub associates include Cercis canadensis var. 

canadensis (eastern redbud), Cornus florida (flowering dogwood), Dirca palustris (eastern 

leatherwood), Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly), Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana 

(eastern redcedar), Ostrya virginiana (hophornbeam), Sideroxylon lycioides (buckthorn bully), 

and Viburnum rufidulum (rusty blackhaw). The most characteristic or locally abundant herbs 

include Agrimonia rostellata (beaked agrimony), Aquilegia canadensis (red columbine), Arabis 

laevigata var. laevigata (smooth rockcress), Aristolochia serpentaria (Virginia snakeroot), 

Bromus pubescens (hairy woodland brome), Carex albicans var. australis (stellate sedge), Carex 

laxiflora var. laxiflora (broad looseflower sedge), Dichanthelium boscii (Bosc's panicgrass), 

Elymus hystrix var. hystrix (eastern bottlebrush grass), Elymus villosus (hairy wildrye), Erigeron 

pulchellus var. pulchellus (robin's plantain), Phryma leptostachya (American lopseed), Solidago 

caesia (wreath goldenrod), and Solidago ulmifolia var. ulmifolia (elmleaf goldenrod). Herbs that 

are important in specific geographic parts of the range include Arnoglossum atriplicifolium (pale 

Indian plaintain), Asclepias verticillata (whorled milkweed), Chasmanthium sessiliflorum 

(longleaf woodoats), Desmodium pauciflorum (fewflower ticktrefoil), Fleischmannia incarnata 

(pink thoroughwort), Eupatorium sessilifolium (upland boneset), Heuchera americana 

(American alumroot), Matelea carolinensis (maroon Carolina milkvine), Piptochaetium 

avenaceum (blackseed speargrass), Scleria oligantha (littlehead nutrush), Silphium trifoliatum 

(whorled rosinweed), Smallanthus uvedalius (hairy leafcup), Sorghastrum elliottii (slender 

Indiangrass), and Symphyotrichum patens var. patens (late purple aster). Stands of this 

community type also contain a number of species that are more-or-less strongly disjunct from 

primary ranges in the mountains and Piedmont, including Hexalectris spicata (spiked crested 

coralroot), Corallorhiza wisteriana (spring coralroot), Campanulastrum americanum (American 

bellflower), Celastrus scandens (American bittersweet), Muhlenbergia sobolifera (rock muhly), 

Muhlenbergia tenuiflora (slender muhly), Sanicula marilandica (Maryland sanicle), Arabis 

lyrata (lyrate rockcress), Packera obovata (roundleaf ragwort), Symphyotrichum laeve var. laeve, 

and Thalictrum revolutum (waxyleaf meadow-rue). Mean species richness of 24 plot samples 

analyzed by VDNH was 67 taxa per 400 square meters. 



Tree canopy Broad-leaved deciduous tree Quercus muehlenbergii (chinkapin oak) 

Characteristic Species: Agrimonia rostellata (beaked agrimony), Aquilegia canadensis (red 

columbine), Arabis laevigata (smooth rockcress), Aristolochia serpentaria (Virginia snakeroot), 

Bromus pubescens (hairy woodland brome), Carex albicans var. australis (stellate sedge), Carex 

laxiflora (broad looseflower sedge), Cercis canadensis (eastern redbud), Dichanthelium boscii 

(Bosc's panicgrass), Elymus hystrix (eastern bottlebrush grass), Elymus villosus (hairy wildrye), 

Erigeron pulchellus (robin's plantain), Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana (eastern redcedar), 

Phryma leptostachya (American lopseed), Quercus muehlenbergii (chinkapin oak), Solidago 

caesia (wreath goldenrod), Solidago ulmifolia (elmleaf goldenrod). 



Hedera helix (English ivy) - plant invasive nonnative 

Lonicera japonica (Japanese honeysuckle) - plant invasive nonnative 


223



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This dry, open, calcareous forest is widely scattered in the Coastal Plain of Virginia and 

Maryland. Occurrences in Virginia are in highly dissected portions of the inner Coastal Plain in 

James City, Stafford, Surry, Westmoreland, and York counties. Occurrences in Maryland are in 

the outer Coastal Plain in Kent County. 

States/Provinces: MD, VA. 

Federal Lands: DOD (Yorktown); NPS (Colonial, George Washington Birthplace). 


Rank: G1 (15-Feb-2007). 

Reasons: This community is restricted to dry, calcium-rich, shell-containing soils of the eastern 

Virginia and Maryland Coastal Plain. This community is naturally rare and restricted to a 

specialized edaphic situation that is regionally restricted and extremely rare within this region. 

Despite relatively intensive inventory, fewer than 30 scattered occurrences totaling less than 20 

hectares are known. About 25% of the known patches are located on public lands, but many of 

these occur in a poor landscape context and are subject to encroachment by invasive weeds. 




Comments: Classification of this type is supported by analysis of a 1250-plot regional dataset 

for the NCR and mid-Atlantic national parks vegetation mapping projects. In that analysis, this 

association was represented by 22 plots from James City, Stafford, Surry, Westmoreland, and 

York counties, Virginia, and two plots from Kent County, Maryland. According to Rod 

Simmons, vegetation similar to the stands of this type at Crow's Nest, Stafford County, Virginia, 

occurs across the Potomac River at Chapman's Landing, Maryland. It is likely that this 

community type is endemic to a narrow region of the Coastal Plain stretching from Charles 

County, Maryland, south to Surry County, Virginia. Further inventory is required to determine 

whether it is present in Isle of Wight County and City of Suffolk, Virginia. This is a small-patch 

community type, usually occurring in patches of



Figure I10. Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest (plot COLO.15) at Colonial National Historical 

Park. July 2004. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 365084, northing 4122417. 

225



Figure I11. Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest at Colonial National Historical Park. July 

2004. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 358415, northing 4126410. 

226



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): PIEDMONT / LOW ELEVATION MIXED OAK / 

HEATH FOREST 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: White Oak - (Scarlet Oak, Black Oak, Chestnut Oak) / Black 

Huckleberry Forest 

USNVC Scientific Name: Quercus alba - Quercus (coccinea, velutina, prinus) / 

Gaylussacia baccata Forest 



Environmental Description: Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath Forest is found on 

xeric sites over well-drained, sandy soils derived from fluvial terrace gravels. 

Vegetation Description: This xeric deciduous oak forest has a canopy dominated by Quercus 

alba (white oak) occurring with Quercus prinus (chestnut oak) and Pinus virginiana (Virginia 

pine). Other canopy and subcanopy associates can include Quercus falcata (southern red oak), 

Quercus stellata (post oak), Quercus coccinea (scarlet oak), Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum), and 

Acer rubrum (red maple). Oxydendrum arboreum (sourwood) and Ilex opaca var. opaca 

(American holly) are common in subcanopy or tall-shrub strata. Herbs such as Mitchella repens 

(partridgeberry), Monotropa uniflora (Indianpipe), and Chimaphila maculata (striped prince's 

pine) are absent to very sparse. Short ericaceous shrubs dominate the ground layer, most 

commonly Gaylussacia baccata (black huckleberry), but other common shrub species include 

Gaylussacia frondosa (blue huckleberry), Vaccinium pallidum (Blue Ridge blueberry), and 

Vaccinium stamineum (deerberry). 



Tree canopy Broad-leaved deciduous tree Quercus alba (white oak), 

Quercus prinus (chestnut oak) 

Short shrub/sapling Broad-leaved deciduous shrub Gaylussacia baccata (black huckleberry) 

Characteristic Species: Gaylussacia baccata (black huckleberry), Quercus alba (white oak), 

Quercus prinus (chestnut oak). 




Reference 

VA SNR* B 1 Oak / Heath Forest Fleming et al. 2006 

Local Range: This association is mapped as a single polygon in the College Creek / Kingsmill 

area of Colonial National Historical Park. 

Classification Comments: This type is distinguished from Acidic Oak - Hickory Forest by the 

presence of a dense, almost continuous ericaceous shrub layer, the absence or lower frequency of 

Carya (hickory) species, and the absence or very low cover of herbaceous species. 

Other Comments: The vegetation in Colonial National Historical Park was classified as this 

association because of the dominance of Gaylussacia baccata (black huckleberry) and presence 

of Quercus prinus (chestnut oak). Despite the occurrence in the Coastal Plain, it is 

compositionally more similar to oak / heath forests of the Piedmont and low elevations of the 

Central Appalachians, than those classed as Coastal Plain Mixed Oak / Heath Forest 

(CEGL006269). 


227












Alliance Quercus velutina - Quercus alba - (Quercus coccinea) Forest Alliance (A.1911) 

Alliance (English name) Black Oak - White Oak - (Scarlet Oak) Forest Alliance 

Association Quercus alba - Quercus (coccinea, velutina, prinus) / Gaylussacia baccata 

Forest 

Association (English name) White Oak - (Scarlet Oak, Black Oak, Chestnut Oak) / Black Huckleberry Forest 


Central Appalachian Dry Oak-Pine Forest (CES202.591). 

Allegheny-Cumberland Dry Oak Forest and Woodland (CES202.359). 


Concept Summary: This community is a matrix forest of dry, nutrient-poor uplands of the 

Mid-Atlantic Piedmont Plateau, occurring locally in similar low-elevation landscapes of the 

northern Blue Ridge and Ridge and Valley, Cumberland Plateau and Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain 

provinces. The type is well-documented across Virginia, and to a lesser extent in Tennessee and 

Maryland, but probably also occurs at similar sites in West Virginia and Pennsylvania. Stands 

are located between 30 and 700 m (100-2300 feet) elevation on rolling to sublevel sites of 

Piedmont and inner Coastal Plain uplands, mountain valleys and lower mountain slope benches. 

In the mountains, many documented occurrences are located on ancient alluvial fan deposits, 

which are especially extensive along the western foot of the Blue Ridge. The vegetation is a 

closed to very open oak forest with mixed and variable canopy dominance by Quercus alba 

(white oak), Quercus velutina (black oak), Quercus coccinea (scarlet oak), and Quercus prinus 

(chestnut oak). Various Pinus spp. (pines), including Pinus virginiana (Virginia pine), Pinus 

echinata (shortleaf pine), Pinus strobus (eastern white pine), and Pinus rigida (pitch pine), are 

frequent overstory associates, particularly following fire or logging disturbances. Quercus 

falcata (southern red oak), Quercus stellata (post oak), Carya glabra (pignut hickory), and 

Carya alba (mockernut hickory) are infrequent canopy trees. Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum), 

Amelanchier arborea (common serviceberry) and, in the southern part of the range, Oxydendrum 

arboreum (sourwood) attain exceptional abundance and stature in these forests, dominating the 

subcanopy layers and occasionally reaching the overstory. Acer rubrum (red maple) and 

Sassafras albidum (sassafras) are other common understory trees. In typical stands, the shrub 

layer is dominated by deciduous ericaceous species, herbaceous species are sparse, and speciesrichness 

is moderate to very low. 

Environmental Description: Stands are located between 30 and 700 m (100-2300 feet) 

elevation on rolling to sublevel sites of Piedmont and inner Coastal Plain uplands, mountain 

valleys and lower mountain slope benches. The type is generally distributed in nutrient-poor soils 

of the Piedmont uplands. In the mountains, many documented occurrences are located on ancient 

alluvial fan deposits, which are especially extensive along the western foot of the Blue Ridge 

from Page County south to Rockbridge County, Virginia. Similar but smaller fans are common 

228



where incising streams drain "piedmont" landforms at the foot of Ridge and Valley strike ridges 

(Harbor 1996). Slopes of plot-sampled stands range from 1-13 degrees (mean = 6 degrees), with 

aspects essentially flat to westerly. Soils of these sites are deep, very oligotrophic, gravelly loams 

with low pH and base status. Exposed rocks of any kind (outcrops, boulders, or stones) are 

usually sparse to absent. Most sites appear to have a history of fires. 

Vegetation Description: The vegetation is a closed to very open oak forest with mixed and 

variable canopy dominance by Quercus alba (white oak), Quercus coccinea (scarlet oak), and 

Quercus prinus (chestnut oak). Various Pinus spp. (pines), including Pinus virginiana (Virginia 

pine), Pinus echinata (shortleaf pine), Pinus strobus (eastern white pine), and Pinus rigida (pitch 

pine), are frequent overstory associates, particularly following fire or logging disturbances. 

Quercus falcata (southern red oak), Quercus stellata (post oak), Carya glabra (pignut hickory), 

and Carya alba (mockernut hickory) are infrequent canopy trees. Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum), 

Amelanchier arborea (common serviceberry) and, in the southern part of the range, Oxydendrum 

arboreum (sourwood) attain exceptional abundance and stature in these forests, dominating the 

subcanopy layers and occasionally reaching the overstory. Acer rubrum (red maple) and 

Sassafras albidum (sassafras) are other common understory trees. The shrub layer is typically 

dominated by deciduous ericaceous species, with Gaylussacia baccata (black huckleberry), 

Vaccinium pallidum (Blue Ridge blueberry), and/or Vaccinium stamineum (deerberry) 

consistently forming dense colonies. Less abundant or constant shrubs and vines include 

Castanea pumila (chinkapin), Quercus ilicifolia (bear oak), Kalmia latifolia (mountain laurel), 

Rhododendron periclymenoides (pink azalea), Lyonia ligustrina (maleberry), Vaccinium 

stamineum (deerberry), Smilax glauca (cat greenbrier), Smilax rotundifolia (roundleaf 

greenbrier), and Cornus florida (flowering dogwood). Despite high shrub densities, a number of 

low-cover herbs and subshrubs occur in the type, including Chimaphila maculata (striped 

prince's pine), Isotria verticillata (purple fiveleaf orchid), Uvularia puberula (mountain 

bellwort), Epigaea repens (trailing arbutus), Pteridium aquilinum var. latiusculum (western 

brackenfern), Cypripedium acaule (moccasin flower), Gentiana villosa (striped gentian), 

Comandra umbellata (bastard toadflax), Angelica venenosa (hairy angelica), and Iris verna 

(dwarf violet iris). Mean species richness of 54 Virginia, Maryland, and District of Columbia 

plot samples is 25 taxa per 400 square meters. 


Characteristic Species: Amelanchier arborea (common serviceberry), Castanea pumila 

(chinkapin), Gaylussacia baccata (black huckleberry), Isotria verticillata (purple fiveleaf 

orchid), Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum), Oxydendrum arboreum (sourwood), Quercus alba (white 

oak), Quercus coccinea (scarlet oak), Quercus prinus (chestnut oak), Quercus velutina (black 

oak), Rhododendron periclymenoides (pink azalea). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This community is a matrix forest of dry, nutrient-poor uplands of the Mid-Atlantic 

Piedmont Plateau, occurring locally in similar low-elevation landscapes of the northern Blue 

Ridge and Ridge and Valley provinces of the Central Appalachians, and the Cumberland Plateau 

in Tennessee. In Maryland and northern Virginia, the type also occurs on uplands of the 

dissected Inner Coastal Plain. The type is well-documented through quantitative analysis in 

Virginia, and qualitatively in Maryland, but probably also occurs at similar sites in West Virginia 

and Pennsylvania. 

229



States/Provinces: KY?, MD, PA?, TN, VA:S5, WV? 

Federal Lands: DOD (Fort Belvoir, Kerr Reservoir); NPS (Appomattox Court House, Big 

South Fork, C&O Canal, Colonial, Fredericksburg-Spotsylvania, George Washington Parkway, 

National Capital-East, Obed, Prince William, Rock Creek, Shenandoah, Thomas Stone); USFS 

(Daniel Boone?, George Washington, Jefferson, Sumter (Piedmont)?, Sumter?). 


Rank: G5 (24-Jan-2005). 

Reasons: This community is a matrix-forming vegetation type in the Virginia and Maryland 

Piedmont and is probably more widespread at low elevations of the central Appalachian 

Mountains than documentation indicates. 




Comments: This unit is distinct among Virginia's oak/heath forests in its occurrence on lowelevation, 

rolling to sub-level, usually non-rocky terrain of the Piedmont and mountains. 

Quercus alba (white oak), normally a minor tree in montane oak/heath forests, is characteristic 

and usually codominant, while the prevalence of deciduous ericads and the presence of the lowelevation 

oaks Quercus falcata (southern red oak) and Quercus stellata (post oak) further 

distinguish the type. Quercus prinus (chestnut oak) and Kalmia latifolia (mountain laurel), 

although present and occasionally abundant, are not as important in this unit as in related Central 

Appalachian oak/heath vegetation types, particularly Quercus prinus - (Quercus coccinea, 

Quercus rubra) / Kalmia latifolia / Vaccinium pallidum Forest (CEGL006299). The latter is 

generally associated with relatively steep, often rocky terrain of the Central Appalachians and 

dissected topography in the Piedmont. Originally, the concept of this type (CEGL008521) was 

restricted to "Piedmont"-like landscapes in the mountains. However, additional quantitative data 

analysis of a statewide (Virginia) set of 180 oak/heath plots led to a broader conceptual 

interpretation that includes both montane and Piedmont stands. The type is represented by 54 

plots from Virginia, and 20 from Maryland and the District of Columbia. Attempts to split this 

unit based on the presence or absence of Quercus prinus (chestnut oak) have proven unworkable 

because significant environmental or floristic differences between the putative groups are 

lacking. 


• Quercus (prinus, coccinea) / Kalmia latifolia / (Galax urceolata, Gaultheria procumbens) Forest 

(CEGL006271)--of southern Appalachians. 

• Quercus alba - Quercus falcata - (Carya pallida) / Gaylussacia frondosa Forest (CEGL006269)--of the Mid- 

Atlantic Coastal Plain. 

• Quercus alba - Quercus falcata / Vaccinium (arboreum, hirsutum, pallidum) Forest (CEGL008567)--described 

from southeastern Tennessee, with similar understory and associated species but with prominent Quercus falcata. 

• Quercus prinus - (Quercus coccinea, Quercus rubra) / Kalmia latifolia / Vaccinium pallidum Forest 

(CEGL006299)--of the Central Appalachians and northern Piedmont. 


• Quercus alba - Quercus falcata - Carya tomentosa / Cornus florida Association (Rawinski et al. 1996) ? 

• Quercus coccinea - Quercus velutina - Quercus alba / Amelanchier arborea / Gaylussacia baccata Forest 

(Fleming and Coulling 2001) F 

• Quercus coccinea - Quercus velutina - Quercus alba / Amelanchier arborea / Gaylussacia baccata Forest 

(Fleming et al. 2004) = 

• White Oak - Black Oak - Northern Red Oak: 52 (Eyre 1980) B 

• White Oak - Scarlet Oak - Pine Type (Schmalzer and DeSelm 1982) = 

230



SOURCES 

Description Authors: G. P. Fleming and P. Coulling, mod. L. A. Sneddon. 

References: Eyre 1980, Fleming and Coulling 2001, Fleming et al. 2001, Fleming et al. 2004, 

Hall and Mathews 1974, Harbor 1996, Harrison 2004, Rawinski et al. 1996, Schmalzer and 

DeSelm 1982, TDNH unpubl. data. 

Figure I12. Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed Oak – Heath Forest (plot COLO.23) at Colonial 

National Historical Park. September 2004. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 348874, northing 

4121350. 

231



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): COASTAL PLAIN / PIEDMONT SMALL- 

STREAM FLOODPLAIN FOREST 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Sweetgum - Tuliptree / Northern Spicebush / Jack-in-the- 

Pulpit Forest 

USNVC Scientific Name: Liquidambar styraciflua - Liriodendron tulipifera / Lindera 

benzoin / Arisaema triphyllum Forest 



Environmental Description: Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest is a 

deciduous forest occurring on temporarily flooded, well-drained alluvial floodplains of small 

streams. 

Vegetation Description: Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum) is usually the most abundant 

overstory tree in mixed stands with Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), Acer rubrum (red maple), 

Ulmus americana (American elm), and Platanus occidentalis (American sycamore). A number 

of other trees can occur as inconstant, low-cover associates, including Juglans nigra (black 

walnut), Celtis occidentalis (common hackberry), Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green ash), and 

Carya cordiformis (bitternut hickory). Lindera benzoin (northern spicebush) often dominates the 

shrub layer with Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly), Carpinus caroliniana (American 

hornbeam), and Asimina triloba (pawpaw). The vines Decumaria barbara (woodvamp) and 

Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy) often climb into the canopy. In Colonial National 

Historical Park, the herb stratum is often a carpet formed by the exotic grass Microstegium 

vimineum (Nepalese browntop), but less degraded floodplains have a relatively diverse herb 

layer composed of both mesophytic and hydrophytic species. Characteristic species include 

Arisaema triphyllum (Jack in the pulpit), Amphicarpaea bracteata (American hogpeanut), 

Symphyotrichum lateriflorum var. lateriflorum (calico aster), Boehmeria cylindrica (smallspike 

false nettle), Carex intumescens (greater bladder sedge), Carex radiata (eastern star sedge), 

Cinna arundinacea (sweet woodreed), Festuca subverticillata (nodding fescue), Galium 

triflorum (fragrant bedstraw), Geum canadense (white avens), and Impatiens capensis 

(jewelweed). Ferns, especially Thelypteris noveboracensis (New York fern), may also form 

large dominance patches. 



Species 

Tree canopy 



Broad-leaved deciduous shrub Lindera benzoin (northern spicebush) 

Characteristic Species: Cinna arundinacea (sweet woodreed), Geum canadense (white avens), 

Lindera benzoin (northern spicebush), Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), Platanus 

occidentalis (American sycamore), Ulmus americana (American elm). 




VA SNR* B 1 Coastal Plain / Piedmont Fleming et al. 2006 


Local Range: Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest is mapped mostly in 

Yorktown Battlefield where it is found along Baptist Run and Great Run. Along Beaverdam 

232



Creek, this forest is transitional to Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp (Green Ash – 

Red Maple Type). There is a small area classed as Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream 

Floodplain Forest along Colonial Parkway, just north of Jones Millpond. 

Classification Comments: Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest often 

occurs adjacent to and grades into Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp (Green Ash – 

Red Maple Type), which occupies poorly drained floodplain backswamps and has a seasonally 

flooded hydrology. In ecotonal areas these forests may be difficult to distinguish; however, 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp (Green Ash – Red Maple Type) typically has high 

cover of Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green ash) and/or Acer rubrum (red maple) and more cover by 

species favoring longer hydroperiods and poorly drained, mucky soils, e.g., Saururus cernuus 

(lizard's tail), Leersia oryzoides (rice cutgrass), Carex tribuloides (blunt broom sedge), 

Triadenum walteri (greater marsh St. Johnswort), Dulichium arundinaceum (threeway sedge). 

Species that are found in Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest that are 

uncommon in Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp (Green Ash – Red Maple Type) 

include Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), Platanus occidentalis (American sycamore), 

Thelypteris noveboracensis (New York fern), Polystichum acrostichoides (Christmas fern), and 

Festuca subverticillata (nodding fescue). 











Formation Temporarily flooded cold-deciduous forest (I.B.2.N.d.) 

Alliance Liquidambar styraciflua - (Liriodendron tulipifera, Acer rubrum) Temporarily 

Flooded Forest Alliance (A.287) 

Alliance (English name) Sweetgum - (Tuliptree, Red Maple) Temporarily Flooded Forest Alliance 

Association Liquidambar styraciflua - Liriodendron tulipifera / Lindera benzoin / Arisaema 

triphyllum Forest 

Association (English name) Sweetgum - Tuliptree / Northern Spicebush / Jack-in-the-Pulpit Forest 

Ecological System(s): Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Stream and River (CES203.070). 

Southern Piedmont Small Floodplain and Riparian Forest (CES202.323). 


Concept Summary: These low-elevation forests develop along relatively acidic soils on small 

streams in the Coastal Plain of Maryland and Virginia, extending west across the Virginia and 

North Carolina Piedmont to the Cumberland Plateau and Ridge and Valley. The topographic 

features of floodplains can heavily influence the individual makeup of examples of this 

association. The canopy, subcanopy, shrub, and herbaceous layers often are well-developed. 

Dominant canopy species always include Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum) and Liriodendron 

tulipifera (tuliptree), while Acer barbatum (southern sugar maple) and Acer rubrum var. rubrum 

(red maple) may also make up significant amounts of the canopy. This community type exists as 

a continuum between two subtypes, i.e., the tuliptree subtype and the sweetgum subtype. In some 

233



examples, only one or the other dominates the canopy. However, in many examples, both are 

equally dominant. Common species in the canopy and understory include Ilex opaca var. opaca 

(American holly), Aesculus sylvatica (painted buckeye), Carpinus caroliniana ssp. caroliniana 

(American hornbeam), Cornus florida (flowering dogwood), Fagus grandifolia (American 

beech), Juglans nigra (black walnut), Morus rubra var. rubra (red mulberry), Ostrya virginiana 

var. virginiana (hophornbeam), Oxydendrum arboreum (sourwood), Pinus echinata (shortleaf 

pine), Prunus serotina var. serotina (black cherry), Quercus alba (white oak), Quercus rubra 

var. rubra (northern red oak), Ulmus rubra (slippery elm), Ulmus americana (American elm), 

Ulmus alata (winged elm), Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana (eastern redcedar), Nyssa 

sylvatica (blackgum), Fraxinus americana (white ash), Halesia tetraptera var. tetraptera 

(mountain silverbell), Arundinaria gigantea ssp. gigantea (giant cane), Cornus florida 

(flowering dogwood), Platanus occidentalis (American sycamore), Betula nigra (river birch), 

and Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green ash). Euonymus americanus (strawberry bush), Lindera 

benzoin var. benzoin (northern spicebush), and Corylus americana (American hazelnut) are 

common and dominant in the shrub layer. The herbaceous layer is species-rich and often has 

good sedge development. The exotics Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop), Ligustrum 

sinense (Chinese privet), and Lonicera japonica (Japanese honeysuckle) are common in this 

community. 

Environmental Description: These forests develop along small streams. Soils are relatively 

acidic and relatively well-drained. Topographic differences from one floodplain to another, such 

as gradient and height above the creek, as well as floodplain microtopography (i.e., depositional 

landforms such as natural levees and sloughs) may influence the variation of vegetation within 

this association. However, in most floodplains supporting this type, the distinct alluvial 

landforms are poorly developed or occur at very small scales. 

Vegetation Description: The canopy, subcanopy, shrub, and herbaceous layers of stands of this 

association are often well-developed. Dominant canopy species always include Liquidambar 

styraciflua (sweetgum) and Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), while Acer barbatum (southern 

sugar maple) (in the southern part of the range) and Acer rubrum var. rubrum (red maple) may 

also make up significant amounts of the canopy. This community type exists as a continuum 

between two subtypes, i.e., the tuliptree subtype and the sweetgum subtype. In some examples, 

only one or the other dominates the canopy. However, in many examples, both are equally 

dominant. Other common species in the canopy and understory include Ilex opaca var. opaca 

(American holly), Aesculus sylvatica (painted buckeye), Carpinus caroliniana ssp. caroliniana 

(American hornbeam), Cornus florida (flowering dogwood), Fagus grandifolia (American 

beech), Juglans nigra (black walnut), Morus rubra var. rubra (red mulberry), Ostrya virginiana 

var. virginiana (hophornbeam), Oxydendrum arboreum (sourwood), Pinus echinata (shortleaf 

pine), Prunus serotina var. serotina (black cherry), Quercus alba (white oak), Quercus rubra 

var. rubra (northern red oak), Ulmus rubra (slippery elm), Ulmus americana (American elm), 

Ulmus alata (winged elm), Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana (eastern redcedar), Nyssa 

sylvatica (blackgum), Fraxinus americana (white ash), Halesia tetraptera var. tetraptera 

(mountain silverbell), Arundinaria gigantea ssp. gigantea (giant cane), and Fraxinus 

pennsylvanica (green ash). Scattered individuals of Platanus occidentalis (American sycamore) 

and Betula nigra (river birch) may also occur in some stands. Euonymus americanus (strawberry 

bush), Lindera benzoin var. benzoin (northern spicebush), and Corylus americana (American 

hazelnut) are common and dominant in the shrub layer. Other shrub species that may be present 

include Viburnum acerifolium (mapleleaf viburnum), Viburnum nudum var. nudum 

234



(possumhaw), Viburnum prunifolium (blackhaw), Viburnum rufidulum (rusty blackhaw), 

Hamamelis virginiana (American witchhazel), Asimina triloba (pawpaw), and Ilex decidua 

(possumhaw), among others. On the most acidic sites of the Maryland Coastal Plain, Clethra 

alnifolia (coastal sweetpepperbush), Vaccinium corymbosum (highbush blueberry), and 

Magnolia virginiana (sweetbay) may be present. Vines are prominent and include Vitis 

rotundifolia (muscadine), Apios americana (groundnut), Campsis radicans (trumpet creeper), 

Aristolochia macrophylla (pipevine), Bignonia capreolata (crossvine), Dioscorea quaternata 

(fourleaf yam), Gelsemium sempervirens (evening trumpetflower), Parthenocissus quinquefolia 

(Virginia creeper), Campsis radicans (trumpet creeper), Passiflora lutea (yellow passionflower), 

Smilax bona-nox (saw greenbrier), Smilax glauca (cat greenbrier), Smilax hugeri (Huger's 

carrionflower), Smilax rotundifolia (roundleaf greenbrier), and Toxicodendron radicans ssp. 

radicans (eastern poison ivy). The herbaceous layer is species-rich and often has good sedge 

development. Common species in this layer include Thalictrum thalictroides (rue anemone), 

Trillium cuneatum (little sweet Betsy), Arisaema triphyllum (Jack in the pulpit), Asplenium 

platyneuron var. platyneuron (ebony spleenwort), Botrychium virginianum (rattlesnake fern), 

Carex spp. (sedges), Carex impressinervia (ravine sedge), Carex striatula (lined sedge), Cinna 

arundinacea (sweet woodreed), Elymus virginicus (Virginia wildrye), Galium circaezans 

(licorice bedstraw), Geum canadense (white avens), Medeola virginiana (Indian cucumber), 

Polystichum acrostichoides (Christmas fern), and Scutellaria integrifolia (helmet flower), among 

many others. Thelypteris noveboracensis (New York fern) is a common patch-dominant in the 

northern part of the range and the Uwharrie Mountains of North Carolina. The exotics 

Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop), Ligustrum sinense (Chinese privet), and Lonicera 

japonica (Japanese honeysuckle) are common in this community. Other exotics that colonize 

quickly in disturbed and fragmented versions of this association include Wisteria sinensis 

(Chinese wisteria), Rosa multiflora (multiflora rose), Clematis terniflora (sweet autumn 

virginsbower), Hedera helix (English ivy), and Elaeagnus sp. (an elaeagnus). 



Tree canopy Broad-leaved deciduous tree Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), 

Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree) 

Characteristic Species: Arisaema triphyllum (Jack in the pulpit), Asplenium platyneuron 

(ebony spleenwort), Botrychium virginianum (rattlesnake fern), Campsis radicans (trumpet 

creeper), Carex striatula (lined sedge), Cinna arundinacea (sweet woodreed), Corylus 

americana (American hazelnut), Elymus virginicus (Virginia wildrye), Euonymus americanus 

(strawberry bush), Galium circaezans (licorice bedstraw), Geum canadense (white avens), 

Lindera benzoin (northern spicebush), Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), Liriodendron 

tulipifera (tuliptree), Medeola virginiana (Indian cucumber), Polystichum acrostichoides 

(Christmas fern), Scutellaria integrifolia (helmet flower), Smilax rotundifolia (roundleaf 

greenbrier), Thalictrum thalictroides (rue anemone), Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison 

ivy), Trillium cuneatum (little sweet Betsy). 



Carex impressinervia (ravine sedge) G1G2 plant 

USFWS Wetland System: Palustrine. 

235



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This association is found in the Chesapeake Bay Lowlands, the Piedmont, and other 

low-elevation interior ecoregions (e.g., parts of the Cumberland Plateau and Ridge and Valley). 

It is defined as being absent from the Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain of southeastern Virginia, the 

Carolinas, and Georgia. Its status in the Upper East Gulf Coastal Plain is unknown. 

States/Provinces: GA, MD, NC, SC?, TN, VA. 

Federal Lands: DOD (Fort Belvoir); NPS (Chickamauga-Chattanooga, Colonial, Cowpens, 

Fredericksburg-Spotsylvania, Guilford Courthouse, Kings Mountain, National Capital-East, 

Petersburg, Prince William, Richmond, Thomas Stone); USFS (Uwharrie). 


Rank: G4 (15-Feb-2007). 

Reasons: This community is widespread from the Coastal Plain of Maryland and Virginia 

through the Piedmont of Virginia and North Carolina to the Cumberland Plateau. Very few 

streams supporting this type have impoundments or diversions, and most are protected by 

wetland regulations. However, few, if any, pristine examples remain, and all are highly 

threatened by invasive exotic species that have colonized most of the remaining examples of this 

association. 




Comments: At Chickamauga-Chattanooga National Military Park, this association was 

observed on Lookout Creek, but no plot data were taken. Low-quality occurrences of this type 

may look very similar to some occurrences of Liquidambar styraciflua - (Liriodendron 

tulipifera) Temporarily Flooded Forest (CEGL007330). The presence of higher quality patches 

of native herbs and stands of native shrubs such as Lindera benzoin (northern spicebush) is the 

best way to distinguish these two types. In addition, stands of CEGL007330 will generally be 

more even-aged and single species-dominated than this association (CEGL004418). 


• Liquidambar styraciflua - (Liriodendron tulipifera) Temporarily Flooded Forest (CEGL007330)--occurs in the 

same habitat but is a highly impacted version of this forest that occurs on old farm fields and other second-growth 

areas. 

• Liquidambar styraciflua Forest (CEGL007216). 

• Liriodendron tulipifera - Acer (rubrum, negundo) - (Platanus occidentalis) / Carpinus caroliniana / Polygonum 

virginianum Forest (CEGL006492). 


• Liquidambar styraciflua - Quercus palustris / Carpinus caroliniana / Carex intumescens Forest (Meininger and 

McCarthy 1998) ? 

• Maple-Gum Association of the Western Shore District (Shreve et al. 1910) B 

SOURCES 

Description Authors: R. K. Peet, mod. R. White, M. Pyne, G. P. Fleming. 

References: Fleming et al. 2001, Meininger and McCarthy 1998, Naczi et al. 2002, Peet et al. 

unpubl. data 2002, Schafale and Weakley 1990, Shreve et al. 1910, Southeastern Ecology 

Working Group n.d. 

236



Figure I13. Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest at Colonial National 

Historical Park. September 2004. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 365243, northing 4119396. 

237



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): COASTAL PLAIN / PIEDMONT FLOODPLAIN 

SWAMP FOREST (GREEN ASH - RED MAPLE 

TYPE) 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Red Maple - Green Ash / Lizard's-tail Forest 

USNVC Scientific Name: Acer rubrum - Fraxinus pennsylvanica / Saururus cernuus 

Forest 



Environmental Description: Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp (Green Ash – Red 

Maple Type) occurs on poorly drained areas along small streams and in backswamps along the 

outer edges of large floodplains.. These bottomlands have pronounced seasonal flooding and 

hummock-and-hollow microtopography. 

Vegetation Description: These broad-leaved deciduous forests are dominated by various 

combinations or pure stands of Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green ash) and/or Acer rubrum (red 

maple). Other inconstant, low-frequency canopy trees may include Liquidambar styraciflua 

(sweetgum), Quercus michauxii (swamp chestnut oak), Pinus taeda (loblolly pine), and Platanus 

occidentalis (American sycamore). Shrub and understory strata can be sparse or moderately 

dense with species varying from site to site. Typical shrub layer species may include Fraxinus 

pennsylvanica (green ash) and Cornus foemina (stiff dogwood). Herbaceous composition varies 

with microhabitats. Hummocks usually support Boehmeria cylindrica (smallspike false nettle), 

Chasmanthium laxum (slender woodoats), Cinna arundinacea (sweet woodreed), Pilea pumila 

(Canadian clearweed), Glyceria striata (fowl mannagrass), Impatiens capensis (jewelweed), and 

many Carex spp. (sedges) like Carex crinita (fringed sedge), Carex gracillima (graceful sedge), 

Carex granularis (limestone meadow sedge), Carex intumescens (greater bladder sedge), Carex 

laevivaginata (smoothsheath sedge), Carex lupulina (hop sedge), Carex lurida (shallow sedge), 

Carex oxylepis (sharpscale sedge), Carex stipata (owlfruit sedge), Carex styloflexa (bent sedge), 

and Carex tribuloides (blunt broom sedge). Hollows are usually dominated by Saururus cernuus 

(lizard's tail), with associates such as Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), Rumex 

verticillatus (swamp dock), Triadenum walteri (greater marsh St. Johnswort), and in more 

disturbed areas, Juncus effusus (common rush) and Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine). 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp (Green Ash – Red Maple Type) occurs on poorly 

drained areas along small streams, but some areas mapped may be cut off from former natural 

flooding regimes due to the presence of roads, ditching, or beaver activities. Disturbed stands of 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp (Green Ash – Red Maple Type) may have mostly 

coppice regeneration and little herb cover other than Lonicera japonica (Japanese honeysuckle) 

and Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop), which occur on hummocks. 



Tree canopy Broad-leaved deciduous tree Acer rubrum (red maple), 

Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green ash) 

Herb (field) Forb Saururus cernuus (lizard's tail) 

238



Characteristic Species: Acer rubrum (red maple), Carex tribuloides (blunt broom sedge), 

Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green ash), Leersia oryzoides (rice cutgrass), Saururus cernuus (lizard's 

tail). 




Reference 

VA SNR* B 1 

Coastal Plain / Piedmont Swamp Forest Fleming et al. 2006 

Local Range: Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp (Green Ash – Red Maple Type) is 

mapped as one polygon in Yorktown Battlefield where it occurs along Beaverdam Creek and 

covers 30.9 hectares (76.4 acres). 

Classification Comments: Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp (Green Ash – Red 

Maple Type) is distinguished from other wetland forests by being seasonally flooded with deep 

muck and standing water prevalent and with canopies dominated by Fraxinus pennsylvanica 

(green ash) and/or Acer rubrum (red maple), and by occurring on the outer edges of large 

floodplains rather than in narrow ravine bottoms or as isolated wetlands. Some disturbed stands 

of Non-Riverine Saturated Forest may be similar to this mapping unit but are distinguished by 

the non-riverine landscape position (on terraces well away from current or historic river 

channels) and by the greater frequency of Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum). 

Other Comments: The delineation of the boundary between this association and Coastal Plain / 

Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest is somewhat arbitrary. On the ground the transitions 

(ecotones) between the two associations may be quite broad, with hydrology and species 

composition changing gradually over a distance. These ecotonal areas may be transitional in 

species composition and concept. 

Areas heavily impacted by beavers may be transitional in concept to Semipermanent 

Impoundment 










Formation Seasonally flooded cold-deciduous forest (I.B.2.N.e.) 

Alliance Acer rubrum - Fraxinus pennsylvanica Seasonally Flooded Forest Alliance 

(A.316) 

Alliance (English name) Red Maple - Green Ash Seasonally Flooded Forest Alliance 

Association Acer rubrum - Fraxinus pennsylvanica / Saururus cernuus Forest 

Association (English name) Red Maple - Green Ash / Lizard's-tail Forest 

Ecological System(s): Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Basin Swamp and Wet Hardwood Forest 

(CES203.520). 

Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Stream and River (CES203.070). 


Concept Summary: This red maple swamp community of the Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain of the 

Chesapeake Bay and Piedmont regions occurs on poorly drained to very poorly drained soils on 

239



flats and along watercourses that are seasonally to semipermanently flooded. The organic 

horizon is of variable depth and overlies sandy or silt clay loam soils. This swamp has 

pronounced hummock-and-hollow microtopography. The tree canopy is closed to partially open 

and dominated by Acer rubrum (red maple) and Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green ash). Other 

canopy associates may include Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum), Liquidambar styraciflua 

(sweetgum), Ulmus americana (American elm), Quercus lyrata (overcup oak), Quercus phellos 

(willow oak), Quercus lyrata (overcup oak), and Populus heterophylla (swamp cottonwood). 

The shrub layer includes Lindera benzoin (northern spicebush), Leucothoe racemosa (swamp 

doghobble), Ilex verticillata (common winterberry), Viburnum spp. (viburnums), and Fraxinus 

pennsylvanica (green ash) saplings. The herb layer is characterized by Saururus cernuus (lizard's 

tail), Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), Boehmeria cylindrica (smallspike false nettle), 

Triadenum walteri (greater marsh St. Johnswort), Cinna arundinacea (sweet woodreed), Pilea 

pumila (Canadian clearweed), Impatiens capensis (jewelweed), Osmunda regalis (royal fern), 

Leersia oryzoides (rice cutgrass), Leersia virginica (whitegrass), Glyceria striata (fowl 

mannagrass), Rumex verticillatus (swamp dock), Carex spp. (sedges), and Polygonum arifolium 

(halberdleaf tearthumb). 

Environmental Description: This swamp forest occurs in backswamps, watercourses, flats and 

depressions that are flooded for significant portions of the growing season. These areas receive 

some nutrient inputs from adjacent uplands or overland flooding and have soils that are 

moderately calcareous. The substrate is deep muck with a pronounced hummock-and-hollow 

microtopography. 

Vegetation Description: This forest type is characterized by a well-developed tree canopy 

codominated by Acer rubrum (red maple) and Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green ash) in variable 

proportions. Other canopy associates may include Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum), Quercus phellos 

(willow oak), Quercus lyrata (overcup oak), Ulmus americana (American elm), and Populus 

heterophylla (swamp cottonwood). At the southern end of the range, Nyssa biflora (swamp 

tupelo) and Taxodium distichum (bald cypress) may be minor associates. The shrub layer is of 

variable cover but usually not dense. The most common species are Lindera benzoin (northern 

spicebush), Leucothoe racemosa (swamp doghobble), Vaccinium corymbosum (highbush 

blueberry), Ilex verticillata (common winterberry), Carpinus caroliniana (American hornbeam), 

Rosa palustris (swamp rose), and Viburnum dentatum (southern arrowwood). Other shrub 

associates may include Rhododendron viscosum (swamp azalea), Cephalanthus occidentalis 

(common buttonbush), Alnus serrulata (hazel alder), and Cornus amomum (silky dogwood). The 

herb layer is diverse and generally characterized by abundant Saururus cernuus (lizard's tail), 

typically in hollows. Other associates are many and varied but generally include Peltandra 

virginica (green arrow arum), Impatiens capensis (jewelweed), Pontederia cordata 

(pickerelweed), Boehmeria cylindrica (smallspike false nettle), Glyceria spp. (mannagrasses), 

Cinna arundinacea (sweet woodreed), Bidens connata (purplestem beggarticks), Thelypteris 

palustris (eastern marsh fern), Onoclea sensibilis (sensitive fern), Osmunda regalis (royal fern), 

Carex stricta (upright sedge), Carex lurida (shallow sedge), Carex crinita (fringed sedge), 

Triadenum walteri (greater marsh St. Johnswort), Lobelia cardinalis (cardinalflower), Lycopus 

virginicus (Virginia water horehound), Pilea pumila (Canadian clearweed), Carex tribuloides 

(blunt broom sedge), Polygonum punctatum (dotted smartweed), Polygonum arifolium 

(halberdleaf tearthumb), Cicuta maculata (spotted water hemlock), Leersia oryzoides (rice 

cutgrass), Galium obtusum (bluntleaf bedstraw), and others. Vines may include Toxicodendron 

radicans (eastern poison ivy), Smilax rotundifolia (roundleaf greenbrier), Campsis radicans 

240



(trumpet creeper), and Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Virginia creeper). Mosses are generally 

sparse to absent, except on logs and tree bases above the high-water line. 





Herb (field) Forb Saururus cernuus (lizard's tail) 

Characteristic Species: Acer rubrum (red maple), Bidens connata (purplestem beggarticks), 

Boehmeria cylindrica (smallspike false nettle), Carex crinita (fringed sedge), Carex lurida 

(shallow sedge), Carex stricta (upright sedge), Carex tribuloides (blunt broom sedge), Carpinus 

caroliniana (American hornbeam), Cicuta maculata (spotted water hemlock), Cinna 

arundinacea (sweet woodreed), Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green ash), Galium obtusum (bluntleaf 

bedstraw), Ilex verticillata (common winterberry), Impatiens capensis (jewelweed), Leersia 

oryzoides (rice cutgrass), Leucothoe racemosa (swamp doghobble), Lindera benzoin (northern 

spicebush), Lobelia cardinalis (cardinalflower), Lycopus virginicus (Virginia water horehound), 

Onoclea sensibilis (sensitive fern), Osmunda regalis (royal fern), Peltandra virginica (green 

arrow arum), Pilea pumila (Canadian clearweed), Polygonum arifolium (halberdleaf tearthumb), 

Polygonum punctatum (dotted smartweed), Pontederia cordata (pickerelweed), Rosa palustris 

(swamp rose), Saururus cernuus (lizard's tail), Thelypteris palustris (eastern marsh fern), 

Triadenum walteri (greater marsh St. Johnswort), Vaccinium corymbosum (highbush blueberry), 

Viburnum dentatum (southern arrowwood). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This red maple - green ash swamp community occurs in the Coastal Plain of the 

Chesapeake Bay region and rarely in the adjacent Piedmont from New Jersey to central Virginia. 

States/Provinces: DE, MD, NJ, VA. 

Federal Lands: DOD (Fort Belvoir); NPS (Colonial, National Capital-East); USFWS 

(Chesapeake Marshlands, Great Swamp). 


Rank: GNR (21-Mar-2000). 

Reasons: This association requires global ranking. 




Comments: Classification is supported by analysis of a 1250-plot regional dataset compiled for 

the NCR and MAR national parks vegetation mapping projects. In that analysis, this association 

was represented by 23 Maryland and Virginia plots. 


• Acer (rubrum, saccharinum) - Fraxinus pennsylvanica - Ulmus americana / Boehmeria cylindrica Forest 

(CEGL006548). 


• Fraxinus pennsylvanica - Acer rubrum / Cinna arundinacea - Saururus cernuus - Boehmeria cylindrica Forest 

(VDNH 2003) = 

241



SOURCES 

Description Authors: D. Thompson, J. Meininger, L. A. Sneddon, mod. L. A. Sneddon and G. 

P. Fleming. 

References: Bowman 2000, Breden et al. 2001, Eastern Ecology Working Group n.d., Fleming 

2001, Harrison 2004, Harrison and Stango 2003, Meininger 1998, Thomson et al. 1999, VDNH 

2003. 

Figure I14. Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest (Green Ash – Red Maple Type) 

(plot COLO.17) at Colonial National Historical Park. July 2004. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 

365101, northing 4118166. 

242



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): COASTAL PLAIN DEPRESSION WETLAND 

(SWAMP TUPELO TYPE) 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Sweetgum - Red Maple - Swamp Blackgum / Cypress Swamp 

Sedge Forest 

USNVC Scientific Name: Liquidambar styraciflua - Acer rubrum - Nyssa biflora / Carex 

joorii Forest 



Environmental Description: Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type) occurs 

as a seasonally flooded deciduous forest in an otherwise upland landscape. It includes poorly 

drained basin wetlands occurring on nearly flat Coastal Plain terraces with fluctuating, 

seasonally perched water tables. Most of these wetlands are seasonally flooded and are believed 

to be sinkhole features that formed through dissolution of underlying carbonate-rich, shell marl 

deposits. The marl deposits are too deep to influence soil or water chemistry of the depressions, 

which are strongly acidic in most examples. This association typically occupies the more deeply 

flooded ponds or pond centers that are flooded to depths > 50 cm (2 ft). 

Vegetation Description: In Colonial National Historical Park, Coastal Plain Depression 

Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type) includes forested ponds with Acer rubrum (red maple), 

Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), and Nyssa biflora (swamp tupelo). Shrubs include 

Leucothoe racemosa (swamp doghobble) and Cephalanthus occidentalis (common buttonbush). 

During the winter and spring these ponds are often filled with water. When drawn down, these 

communities have very sparse herb strata with the ground covered in litter and bare soil. Herb 

species vary from site to site, but in general, herbs characteristic of these communities are welladapted 

to long periods of submersion. Some typical herbaceous species in park examples 

include Carex joorii (cypress swamp sedge) and Carex striata var. brevis (Walter's sedge). 




Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum) 

Characteristic Species: Acer rubrum (red maple), Carex joorii (cypress swamp sedge), 

Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), Nyssa biflora (swamp tupelo). 




Reference 

VA 

SNR* 

B . 

Coastal Plain Depression Pond 

Fleming et al. 2001 

Local Range: This association is mapped as a single polygon in the vicinity of Yorktown 

Battlefield. 

Classification Comments: This community is distinguished by occurring as small, isolated 

wetlands in an otherwise upland landscape and by the presence of Nyssa biflora (swamp tupelo). 

It has a longer hydroperiod than Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Red Maple - Sweetgum - 

WIllow Oak Type). 

Other Comments: No information. 


243



Plots: None. 









Alliance Liquidambar styraciflua - (Acer rubrum) Seasonally Flooded Forest Alliance 

(A.321) 

Alliance (English name) Sweetgum - (Red Maple) Seasonally Flooded Forest Alliance 

Association Liquidambar styraciflua - Acer rubrum - Nyssa biflora / Carex joorii Forest 

Association (English name) Sweetgum - Red Maple - Swamp Blackgum / Cypress Swamp Sedge Forest 


(CES203.520). 

Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Pondshore (CES203.518). 


Concept Summary: This seasonally flooded hardwood forest community occurs in 

groundwater basins on the Coastal Plain of Maryland and Virginia. The canopy is of variable 

closure and is dominated by Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), Acer rubrum (red maple), and 

Nyssa biflora (swamp tupelo). Associated canopy species include Quercus lyrata (overcup oak), 

Quercus laurifolia (laurel oak) and Diospyros virginiana (common persimmon). The shrub layer 

is comprised of Leucothoe racemosa (swamp doghobble) and scattered Cephalanthus 

occidentalis (common buttonbush). The herbaceous layer is characterized by Carex joorii 

(cypress swamp sedge), Carex striata var. brevis (Walter's sedge), Panicum verrucosum (warty 

panicgrass), Fimbristylis autumnalis (slender fimbry), and others. 

Environmental Description: This seasonally flooded hardwood forest community occurs in 

seasonally flooded groundwater basins on the Coastal Plain of Maryland and Virginia. 

Vegetation Description: The canopy of stands of this type is of variable closure and is 

dominated by Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), Acer rubrum (red maple), and Nyssa biflora 

(swamp tupelo). Associated canopy species include Quercus lyrata (overcup oak), Quercus 

laurifolia (laurel oak) and Diospyros virginiana (common persimmon). The shrub layer is 

comprised of Leucothoe racemosa (swamp doghobble) and scattered Cephalanthus occidentalis 

(common buttonbush). The herbaceous layer is characterized by Carex joorii (cypress swamp 

sedge), Carex striata (Walter's sedge), Panicum verrucosum (warty panicgrass), Fimbristylis 

autumnalis (slender fimbry), and others. 





DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This community is limited to small seasonally flooded depressions of the Coastal Plain 

of Maryland and Virginia. 


Federal Lands: NPS (Colonial); USFWS (Chesapeake Marshlands). 

244




Rank: G1G2 (20-Nov-1997). 

Reasons: This community is limited to small seasonally flooded depressions of the coastal plain 

of Maryland and Virginia. The community is naturally small in size, reaching no more than 25 

acres and on average is less than this size. The greatest threat to this community is incompatible 

human use of surrounding lands, generally agriculture with insufficient buffers to protect from 

pesticide and fertilizer use. Since this community depends on intact hydrology, another major 

threat is altered hydrology from ditching or over-pumping of groundwater. 






• Acer rubrum - Nyssa biflora - (Liquidambar styraciflua, Fraxinus sp.) Maritime Swamp Forest (CEGL004082). 


SOURCES 

Description Authors: L. A. Sneddon. 

References: Eastern Ecology Working Group n.d., Fleming et al. 2001, Harrison 2004, J. 

Harrison pers. comm., Rawinski 1997, Sneddon et al. 1996. 

245



Figure I15. Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type) at Colonial National 


246



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): COASTAL PLAIN DEPRESSION WETLAND 

(RED MAPLE - SWEETGUM - WILLOW OAK 

TYPE) 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Sweetgum - Red Maple - Willow Oak / Swamp Doghobble 

Forest 

USNVC Scientific Name: Liquidambar styraciflua - Acer rubrum - Quercus phellos / 

Leucothoe racemosa Forest 



Environmental Description: Coastal Plain Depression Wetland occurs as a seasonally flooded 

deciduous forest in an otherwise upland landscape. It includes poorly drained basin wetlands 

occurring on nearly flat Coastal Plain terraces with fluctuating, seasonally perched water tables. 

Most of these wetlands are seasonally flooded and are believed to be sinkhole features that 

formed through dissolution of underlying carbonate-rich, shell marl deposits. The marl deposits 

are too deep to influence soil or water chemistry of the depressions, which are strongly acidic in 

most examples. This community type typically occupies ponds that are flooded to depths < 50 

cm (2 ft). 

Vegetation Description: In Colonial National Historical Park, Coastal Plain Depression 

Wetland (Red Maple - Sweetgum - Willow Oak Type) includes forested ponds with Acer rubrum 

(red maple), Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum), and Quercus 

phellos (willow oak) as typical canopy components. Shrubs that dominate some ponds include 

Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly), Vaccinium corymbosum (highbush blueberry), and 

Leucothoe racemosa (swamp doghobble). During the winter and spring these ponds are often 

filled with water. When drawn down, these communities have very sparse herb strata with the 

ground covered in litter and bare soil. Herb species vary from site to site, but in general, herbs 

characteristic of these communities are well-adapted to long periods of submersion. Some typical 

herbaceous species in Colonial National Historical Park examples include Carex joorii (cypress 

swamp sedge), Juncus effusus (common rush), Osmunda regalis var. spectabilis (royal fern), 

Thelypteris palustris var. pubescens (eastern marsh fern), and Woodwardia areolata (netted 

chainfern). Some examples may have cover by Sphagnum spp. (sphagnum mosses). 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland occurs in patches of 0.5 ha or less than. Disturbed ponds may 

have Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) as a component and less diverse vegetation strata. Many 

examples in the park have canopy wind damage from past hurricanes. 




Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum) 

Characteristic Species: Acer rubrum (red maple), Carex joorii (cypress swamp sedge), 

Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), Quercus phellos (willow oak). 




Reference 

VA SNR* B . 

Coastal Plain Depression Wetland . 

247



Local Range: This association is mapped as five polygons in Yorktown Battlefield. 

Classification Comments: This community is distinguished by occurring as small, isolated 

wetlands in an otherwise upland landscape. Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Red Maple - 

Sweetgum - Willow Oak Type) has a shorter hydroperiod (less deeply flooded) than the other 

association in the map class Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type). 












Alliance Liquidambar styraciflua - (Acer rubrum) Seasonally Flooded Forest Alliance 

(A.321) 

Alliance (English name) Sweetgum - (Red Maple) Seasonally Flooded Forest Alliance 

Association Liquidambar styraciflua - Acer rubrum - Quercus phellos / Leucothoe racemosa 

Forest 

Association (English name) Sweetgum - Red Maple - Willow Oak / Swamp Doghobble Forest 


(CES203.520). 

Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Pondshore (CES203.518). 


Concept Summary: This association is a seasonally flooded forest of shallow basins and other 

depressions of the Coastal Plain of the Chesapeake Bay region. The substrate is characterized by 

mineral soils, generally acidic, gleyed to mottled, sandy or clay loams. Characteristic tree species 

include Acer rubrum (red maple), Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), and Nyssa sylvatica 

(blackgum), which are nearly constant in the canopy. Associates include Ilex opaca var. opaca 

(American holly), Magnolia virginiana (sweetbay), Nyssa biflora (swamp tupelo), Sassafras 

albidum (sassafras), Quercus palustris (pin oak), Pinus taeda (loblolly pine), and Quercus 

phellos (willow oak), and occasionally Quercus falcata (southern red oak), Quercus lyrata 

(overcup oak), or Betula nigra (river birch). The shrub layer is characterized by Leucothoe 

racemosa (swamp doghobble), Vaccinium corymbosum (highbush blueberry), Clethra alnifolia 

(coastal sweetpepperbush), Lindera benzoin (northern spicebush), Ilex verticillata (common 

winterberry), and Rhododendron viscosum (swamp azalea). Smilax rotundifolia (roundleaf 

greenbrier) is a particularly characteristic vine. The herbaceous layer is generally sparse but may 

include Mitchella repens (partridgeberry), Osmunda cinnamomea (cinnamon fern), 

Chasmanthium laxum (slender woodoats), Woodwardia areolata (netted chainfern), Onoclea 

sensibilis (sensitive fern), Osmunda regalis (royal fern), Carex albolutescens (greenwhite sedge), 

Carex debilis var. debilis (white edge sedge), Scirpus cyperinus (woolgrass), Juncus effusus 

(common rush), and Polygonum spp. (knotweeds). Carex joorii (cypress swamp sedge) is 

inconstant but locally abundant in some stands in the southern part of the range. 

Environmental Description: This type occurs in seasonally flooded shallow basins or 

depressions. Substrates are acidic, gleyed to mottled, sandy or clay loams. Sites are commonly 

248



flooded by perched groundwater to depths up to about 50 cm during the winter and early part of 

the growing season, but commonly are drawn down by late summer. Soils collected from 12 

Virginia plot samples were extremely acidic (mean pH = 4.1) with very low cation levels and 

total base saturation. 

Vegetation Description: Characteristic tree species include Acer rubrum (red maple), 

Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), and Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum), which are nearly constant 

in the canopy. Quercus phellos (willow oak) is an important associate or codominant in many 

stands. Other associates include Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly), Magnolia virginiana 

(sweetbay), Nyssa biflora (swamp tupelo), Sassafras albidum (sassafras), Quercus palustris (pin 

oak), Pinus taeda (loblolly pine), and occasionally Quercus falcata (southern red oak), Quercus 

lyrata (overcup oak), or Betula nigra (river birch). The shrub layer is characterized by Leucothoe 

racemosa (swamp doghobble), Vaccinium corymbosum (highbush blueberry), Vaccinium 

fuscatum (black highbush blueberry), Vaccinium formosum (southern blueberry), Clethra 

alnifolia (coastal sweetpepperbush), Lindera benzoin (northern spicebush), Ilex verticillata 

(common winterberry), and Rhododendron viscosum (swamp azalea). Smilax rotundifolia 

(roundleaf greenbrier) is a particularly characteristic vine, often forming dense tangles among the 

shrubs. The herbaceous layer is generally sparse but may include Mitchella repens 

(partridgeberry), Osmunda cinnamomea (cinnamon fern), Chasmanthium laxum (slender 

woodoats), Woodwardia areolata (netted chainfern), Onoclea sensibilis (sensitive fern), 

Osmunda regalis (royal fern), Carex albolutescens (greenwhite sedge), Carex debilis var. debilis 

(white edge sedge), Scirpus cyperinus (woolgrass), Juncus effusus (common rush), and 

Polygonum spp. (knotweeds). Carex joorii (cypress swamp sedge) is inconstant but locally 

abundant in some stands in the southern part of the range. 





DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This association is a seasonally flooded forest of shallow basins and depressions in the 

Chesapeake Bay region. It is primarily associated with the Coastal Plain but occurs locally in 

gentle, highly acidic terrain of the eastern Piedmont in central and southern Virginia. 

States/Provinces: DE, MD, NJ:S3, NY:S1S2, PA, VA. 

Federal Lands: DOD (Fort Belvoir, Yorktown); NPS (Colonial, Fredericksburg-Spotsylvania, 

National Capital-East, Thomas Stone); USFWS (Chesapeake Marshlands, Prime Hook). 


Rank: G4G5 (31-Jan-2007). 


249






Comments: Classification of this type is supported by two regional analyses of Maryland and 

Virginia plot data conducted by VDNH for the NCR vegetation mapping project. It is 

represented by 15 plots from the greater NCR region and an additional 57 plots from The 

Peninsula in York County, Virginia (Grafton Ponds complex). Delaware examples contain 

Quercus spp. (oaks) and Magnolia virginiana (sweetbay). In Maryland, Clethra 

(sweetpepperbush) is more prominent than Leucothoe (doghobble), Quercus phellos (willow 

oak) less characteristic than Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum). 


• Acer rubrum / Lindera benzoin - Alnus serrulata Forest (CEGL006953). 

• Pinus serotina / Magnolia virginiana / Vaccinium corymbosum / Carex atlantica Woodland (CEGL006470). 

• Populus heterophylla - Acer rubrum - Quercus palustris - Liquidambar styraciflua Forest (CEGL006469). 

• Quercus (phellos, pagoda, michauxii) / Ilex opaca var. opaca / Clethra alnifolia / Woodwardia areolata Forest 

(CEGL004644). 

• Quercus palustris - (Quercus bicolor) - Acer rubrum / Vaccinium corymbosum / Osmunda cinnamomea Forest 

(CEGL006240). 

• Quercus phellos / Carex (albolutescens, intumescens, joorii) / Climacium americanum Forest (CEGL007403)--of 

the Virginia Piedmont and more southerly areas, dominated by Quercus phellos. 


• Acer rubrum - Liquidambar styraciflua - (Quercus phellos) / Vaccinium corymbosum Forest (VDNH 2003) = 

• Leucothoe racemosa communities (Tyndall et al. 1990) ? 

• Liquidambar-Acer hardwood swamp (Breden 1989) ? 

SOURCES 

Description Authors: L. A. Sneddon, mod. E. Largay and G. P. Fleming. 

References: Bowman 2000, Breden 1989, Breden et al. 2001, Brush et al. 1980, Clancy 1996, 

Eastern Ecology Working Group n.d., Edinger et al. 2002, Fleming et al. 2001, Harrison 2004, 

Harrison and Stango 2003, Hunt 1998, Sneddon and Anderson 1994, Sneddon et al. 1996, 

Thomson et al. 1999, Tyndall et al. 1990, VDNH 2003. 

250



Figure I16. Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Red Maple - Sweetgum - Willow Oak Type) at 

Colonial National Historical Park. July 2003. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 364330, northing 

4120404. 

251



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): NON-RIVERINE SATURATED FOREST 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: (Willow Oak, Cherrybark Oak, Swamp Chestnut Oak) / 

American Holly / Coastal Sweet-pepperbush / Netted 

Chainfern Forest 

USNVC Scientific Name: Quercus (phellos, pagoda, michauxii) / Ilex opaca var. opaca / 

Clethra alnifolia / Woodwardia areolata Forest 



Environmental Description: Non-Riverine Saturated Forest is a deciduous, seasonally 

saturated to shortly seasonally flooded forest occupying nearly flat, broad terraces, as well as old, 

very broad stream terraces that are no longer subject to overland flooding. Habitats are nearly 

flat, with seasonally perched water tables. Some sites experience periodic sheetflows of 

anastomosing seepage from adjacent slope-base springs. Shallow, braided channels and 

depressions which pond water intermittently are frequent habitat features. Soils are silt, sand, and 

clay loams, sometimes with a thin (



Characteristic Species: Carex debilis (white edge sedge), Ilex decidua (possumhaw), 

Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), Quercus michauxii (swamp chestnut oak), Quercus pagoda 

(cherrybark oak), Quercus phellos (willow oak). 




Reference 

VA 

SNR* 

B 

1 



Local Range: Non-Riverine Saturated Forest occurs on a broad terrace near Powhatan Creek 

and Green Spring. It is mapped as five polygons and covers a total of 53.4 hectares (132.0 acres). 

Classification Comments: This forest is distinguished by its non-riverine landscape position 

and the high frequency of hydric oaks and other characteristic herbaceous species. 

Other Comments: Small areas of higher, drier forest may occur within areas mapped as Non- 

Riverine Saturated Forest. Mature, undisturbed examples of this globally rare association are 

uncommon. Only one polygon of this association in Colonial National Historical Park meets the 

criteria to be considered a Natural Heritage exemplary natural community occurrence. Polygons 

representing particularly disturbed examples are noted in the comment field of the map attribute 

table. 











Alliance Quercus phellos Seasonally Flooded Forest Alliance (A.330) 

Alliance (English name) Willow Oak Seasonally Flooded Forest Alliance 

Association Quercus (phellos, pagoda, michauxii) / Ilex opaca var. opaca / Clethra alnifolia 

/ Woodwardia areolata Forest 

Association (English name) (Willow Oak, Cherrybark Oak, Swamp Chestnut Oak) / American Holly / 

Coastal Sweet-pepperbush / Netted Chainfern Forest 


(CES203.520). 


Concept Summary: This association occurs in the central and northern Virginia Coastal Plain 

on extensive, flat terraces and very wide, ancient floodplains that are no longer subject to alluvial 

processes. Its hydrology is seasonally to nearly permanently saturated, with occasional ponding 

or groundwater sheetflows, and is maintained by a high water table rather than riverine or 

estuarine flooding. The overstory of relatively undisturbed examples contain variable mixtures of 

hydrophytic oaks, most commonly Quercus phellos (willow oak), Quercus pagoda (cherrybark 

oak), and Quercus michauxii (swamp chestnut oak). Associated canopy species varying from site 

to site can include Quercus alba (white oak), Quercus palustris (pin oak), Quercus lyrata 

(overcup oak), Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), Acer rubrum (red maple), Pinus taeda 

(loblolly pine), Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum), and Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green ash). The 

subcanopy layers are usually dominated by Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly) and also 

253



contain Magnolia virginiana (sweetbay) and recruitment of the overstory trees. The shrub layer 

varies from open to dense. and most characteristically contains Clethra alnifolia (coastal 

sweetpepperbush), Leucothoe racemosa (swamp doghobble), Ilex verticillata (common 

winterberry), Vaccinium corymbosum (highbush blueberry), Vaccinium fuscatum (black 

highbush blueberry), Vaccinium formosum (southern blueberry), Viburnum dentatum (southern 

arrowwood), Rhododendron viscosum (swamp azalea), and Viburnum nudum var. nudum 

(possumhaw). The herb layer is also highly variable. Some stands have a rather sparse 

herbaceous flora, with scattered colonies and individuals of Woodwardia areolata (netted 

chainfern), Osmunda cinnamomea (cinnamon fern), Osmunda regalis var. spectabilis (royal 

fern), Woodwardia virginica (Virginia chainfern), Saururus cernuus (lizard's tail), and various 

sedges. Others have a relatively dense graminoid-dominated herb layer with variable patchdominance 

by Chasmanthium laxum (slender woodoats), Carex debilis var. debilis (white edge 

sedge), Carex intumescens (greater bladder sedge), Carex seorsa (weak stellate sedge), Carex 

lonchocarpa (southern long sedge), and more rarely, Carex bullata (button sedge) or Carex 

striata var. brevis (Walter's sedge). Many stands of this association have been degraded by 

cutting or ditching, and extensive areas of suitable habitat have been lost to agriculture, 

hydrologic alterations, and conversion of hardwood forests to silvicultural pine plantations. 

Environmental Description: This association occurs on extensive, flat Coastal Plain terraces 

and very wide, ancient floodplains that are no longer subject to alluvial processes. Its hydrology 

is seasonally to nearly permanently saturated, with occasional ponding or groundwater 

sheetflows, and is maintained by a high water table rather than riverine or estuarine flooding. 

Shallow channels and streams are sometimes evident, and hummock and hollow 

microtopography may be present. On the Eastern Shore of Virginia (Accomack County), it is 

found in isolated and extensive but shallow upland depressions. The stands here cover many 

hectares and occur in slight depressions with drainage impeded by an impermeable clay layer 

about half a meter below the soil surface. The habitat apparently has a seasonally high water 

table but ponds water only intermittently or for short periods (G. Fleming pers. comm.). Surficial 

soils occupied by this forest are extremely acidic and infertile silt or silty-clay loams. 

Vegetation Description: The overstory of relatively undisturbed examples contain variable 

mixtures of hydrophytic oaks, most commonly Quercus phellos (willow oak), Quercus pagoda 

(cherrybark oak), and Quercus michauxii (swamp chestnut oak). Associated canopy species 

varying from site to site can include Quercus alba (white oak), Quercus palustris (pin oak), 

Quercus lyrata (overcup oak), Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), Acer rubrum (red maple), 

Pinus taeda (loblolly pine), Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum), and Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green 

ash). Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), Acer rubrum (red maple), and Pinus taeda (loblolly 

pine) are often abundant in stands disturbed by cutting. The subcanopy layers are usually 

dominated by Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly) and also contain Magnolia virginiana 

(sweetbay) and recruitment of the overstory trees. The shrub layer varies from open to dense, and 

most characteristically contains Clethra alnifolia (coastal sweetpepperbush), Leucothoe 

racemosa (swamp doghobble), Ilex verticillata (common winterberry), Vaccinium corymbosum 

(highbush blueberry), Vaccinium fuscatum (black highbush blueberry), Vaccinium formosum 

(southern blueberry), Viburnum dentatum (southern arrowwood), Rhododendron viscosum 

(swamp azalea), and Viburnum nudum var. nudum (possumhaw). The herb layer is also highly 

variable. Some stands have a rather sparse herbaceous flora, with scattered colonies and 

individuals of Woodwardia areolata (netted chainfern), Osmunda cinnamomea (cinnamon fern), 

Osmunda regalis var. spectabilis (royal fern), Woodwardia virginica (Virginia chainfern), 

254



Saururus cernuus (lizard's tail), and various sedges. Others have a relatively dense graminoiddominated 

herb layer with variable patch-dominance by Chasmanthium laxum (slender 

woodoats), Carex debilis var. debilis (white edge sedge), Carex intumescens (greater bladder 

sedge), Carex seorsa (weak stellate sedge), Carex lonchocarpa (southern long sedge), and more 

rarely, Carex bullata (button sedge) or Carex striata var. brevis (Walter's sedge). Many other 

hydrophytic herbs occur at low constancy and cover. The composition of this community is 

something of a "hybrid," with an overstory similar to that of oak-dominated floodplain forests 

and lower strata resembling those of an acidic seepage swamp. 



Tree subcanopy Broad-leaved evergreen tree Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly), 

Magnolia virginiana (sweetbay) 

Herb (field) Graminoid Carex debilis var. debilis (white edge sedge), 

Carex intumescens (greater bladder sedge), 

Carex lonchocarpa (southern long sedge), 

Carex seorsa (weak stellate sedge), 

Chasmanthium laxum (slender woodoats) 

Characteristic Species: Clethra alnifolia (coastal sweetpepperbush), Ilex verticillata (common 

winterberry), Leucothoe racemosa (swamp doghobble), Osmunda cinnamomea (cinnamon fern), 

Osmunda regalis var. spectabilis (royal fern), Quercus michauxii (swamp chestnut oak), Quercus 

pagoda (cherrybark oak), Quercus phellos (willow oak), Rhododendron viscosum (swamp 

azalea), Saururus cernuus (lizard's tail), Vaccinium corymbosum (highbush blueberry), 

Viburnum dentatum (southern arrowwood), Viburnum nudum var. nudum (possumhaw), 

Woodwardia areolata (netted chainfern), Woodwardia virginica (Virginia chainfern). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This association is known from about 25 sites in 13 counties of the Virginia central and 

northern Coastal Plain. It is not currently documented in Maryland, but requisite habitat 

conditions are present (J. Harrison pers. comm.). 


Federal Lands: DOD (Fort Lee); NPS (Colonial, Fredericksburg-Spotsylvania, George 

Washington Birthplace, Richmond). 


Rank: G2? (15-Aug-1997). 

Reasons: This association is restricted to special wetland habitats and was probably never 

common on the landscape. However, extensive areas of suitable habitat have been lost to 

agriculture, hydrologic alterations, and conversion of hardwood forests to silvicultural pine 

plantations. The largest known remaining stands are all on private lands and are not protected. 

Mature, undisturbed examples of this type are rare. 




Comments: Classification of this type is based on intensive field investigation by the Virginia 

Natural Heritage Program (VDNH) and analysis of a 1250-plot regional dataset assembled for 

the NCR and mid-Atlantic national parks vegetation mapping projects. In that analysis, this 

255



association was represented by 21 plots from the northern Coastal Plain of Virginia. The original 

concept of this vegetation was based on field work by Bill Moorhead (VDNH), who investigated 

several of the large, elliptical depressions that dot the flat landscape in Accomack County. There 

are three plots that document this vegetation at two sites: "Dahl Swamp" and "The Lake" (G. 

Fleming pers. comm.). The stands apparently cover many hectares and are associated with slight 

depressions with drainage impeded by an impermeable clay layer about half a meter below the 

soil surface. The habitat apparently has a seasonally high water table but ponds water only 

intermittently or for short periods. Most of the areas seen by Bill Moorhead had been logged 

some decades ago and had a very open (woodland-like) physiognomy due to poor restocking of 

canopy trees. However, he also obtained information from local people that one of the areas was 

known historically as "savanna land," suggesting that fire and hydrology maintained a woodland 

physiognomy in the depressions (G. Fleming pers. comm.). 


• Carex striata var. brevis Herbaceous Vegetation 

(CEGL004120). 

• Liquidambar styraciflua - Acer rubrum - Quercus phellos / Leucothoe racemosa Forest (CEGL006110)--is also 

found in Ecoregion 58. 

• Quercus michauxii - Quercus pagoda / Clethra alnifolia - Leucothoe axillaris Forest (CEGL007449)--southern 

analogue found on mineral soils near the edge of extensive peat flats on the outer Coastal Plain terraces of 

southeastern Virginia and North Carolina; compositionally very similar to CEGL004644 but contains southern 

species such as Quercus laurifolia, Leucothoe axillaris, Arundinaria gigantea ssp. tecta, and Sabal minor that are 

absent from CEGL004644. 


• Quercus (michauxii, pagoda, phellos, alba) / Clethra alnifolia / Woodwardia virginica Forest (VDNH 2003) = 

SOURCES 

Description Authors: G. P. Fleming, mod. M. Pyne and G. P. Fleming. 

References: Fleming et al. 2001, Fleming pers. comm., J. Harrison pers. comm., Southeastern 

Ecology Working Group n.d., VDNH 2003. 

Figure I17. Non-Riverine Saturated Forest (plot COLO.18) at Colonial National Historical Park. 

July 2004. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 340914, northing 4124971. 

256



Figure I18. Non-Riverine Saturated Forest (plot COLO.28) at Colonial National Historical Park. 

May 2005. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 340770, northing 4124926. 

257



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): COASTAL PLAIN CALCAREOUS SEEPAGE 

SWAMP 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Red Maple - Green Ash / Golden Groundsel - Bromelike Sedge 

- Lesser Clearweed - Smooth Beggarticks Forest 

USNVC Scientific Name: Acer rubrum - Fraxinus pennsylvanica / Packera aurea - Carex 

bromoides - Pilea fontana - Bidens laevis Forest 



Environmental Description: Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp includes deciduous 

forests occurring on moderately to highly base-rich substrates in the bottoms of ravines that have 

downcut into Tertiary shell deposits or limesands. Habitats consist of mucky, braided ravine 

bottoms saturated by constant groundwater seepage, and soils with high base status. Hummockand-hollow 

microtopography is prevalent, and exposed shells are common in springs and rills. 

Vegetation Description: Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green ash) and Acer rubrum (red maple) are 

common overstory trees in most stands, but a subset of ravines on the south side of the James 

River features the unusual codominance of Taxodium distichum (bald cypress). Climbing lianas 

and seedlings of Decumaria barbara (woodvamp) are abundant. Small trees and shrubs include 

Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green ash), Ulmus americana (American elm), Liquidambar styraciflua 

(sweetgum), and Lindera benzoin (northern spicebush). Common or patch-dominant herbs on the 

better-drained hummocks include Packera aurea (golden ragwort), Scirpus lineatus (drooping 

bulrush), Carex bromoides (bromelike sedge), Thelypteris palustris var. pubescens (eastern 

marsh fern), Cicuta maculata var. maculata (spotted water hemlock), and Carex granularis 

(limestone meadow sedge). Mucky hollows and seepage rills support abundant Saururus cernuus 

(lizard's tail), Bidens laevis (smooth beggartick), Pilea fontana (lesser clearweed), Glyceria 

striata (fowl mannagrass), and Impatiens capensis (jewelweed). 

Disturbed stands of this type may have Platanus occidentalis (American sycamore) in the 

canopy. Some stands are codominated by Taxodium distichum (bald cypress). 



Species 

Tree canopy 

Broad-leaved deciduous tree Acer rubrum (red maple), 


Herb (field) Forb Packera aurea (golden ragwort), 

Saururus cernuus (lizard's tail) 

Herb (field) 

Graminoid Scirpus lineatus (drooping bulrush) 

Characteristic Species: Acer rubrum (red maple), Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green ash), Packera 

aurea (golden ragwort), Pilea fontana (lesser clearweed), Saururus cernuus (lizard's tail), 

Scirpus lineatus (drooping bulrush). 



Ponthieva racemosa (hairy shadow witch) - plant VA watchlist (S3) 

Scirpus lineatus (drooping bulrush) 

- plant VA watchlist (S3) 

258





VA SNR* B 1 Coastal Plain / Piedmont Basic Fleming et al. 2006 

Seepage Swamp 

Local Range: Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp is mapped at Swanns Point, along 

Colonial Parkway near Papermill Creek, and in various ravine bottoms in the vicinity of 

Yorktown Battlefield. 

Classification Comments: Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp is easily recognized in the 

field by its occurrence in narrow ravine bottoms and the characteristic canopy and herbaceous 

flora. Some wetlands mapped as Disturbed Seepage Swamp may have once been this 

association, but now lack the species composition to confidently classify them as this 

association. 

Other Comments: High-quality examples of Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp are 

uncommon throughout the range of this globally rare association. Even though only three 

examples of this association in Colonial National Historical Park meet the criteria to be 

considered a Natural Heritage exemplary natural community occurrence, all examples of this 

native plant association should be targets for conservation and management. These habitats are 

generally wet and somewhat protected from fire. Several uncommon odonates (dragonflies and 

damselflies) depend on forested seeps for breeding habitat. Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage 

Swamps are relatively small in size and threatened by beaver activities, agricultural pollutants, 

hydrologic disturbances, and logging. 


Plots: COLO.4, COLO.5, COLO.8. 








Formation Saturated cold-deciduous forest (I.B.2.N.g.) 

Alliance Acer rubrum - Fraxinus pennsylvanica Saturated Forest Alliance (A.3035) 

Alliance (English name) Red Maple - Green Ash Saturated Forest Alliance 

Association Acer rubrum - Fraxinus pennsylvanica / Packera aurea - Carex bromoides - 

Pilea fontana - Bidens laevis Forest 

Association (English name) Red Maple - Green Ash / Golden Groundsel - Bromelike Sedge - Lesser 

Clearweed - Smooth Beggarticks Forest 

Ecological System(s): Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Calcareous Ravine (CES203.069). 


Concept Summary: This calcareous seepage swamp occurs on the Virginia Coastal Plain on 

groundwater-saturated stream bottoms in ravines that have cut into Tertiary shell deposits or 

limesands. Braided streams and hummock-and-hollow microtopography are characteristic of the 

environmental setting. Soils are highly calcareous with pH values up to 7.4 and calcium levels 

that range up to 6000 ppm. The tree canopy is consistently codominated by Fraxinus 

pennsylvanica (green ash) and Acer rubrum (red maple) with a few other species locally 

important. The shrub layer is typically open and contains Lindera benzoin (northern spicebush), 

Morella cerifera (wax myrtle), Carpinus caroliniana (American hornbeam), and Cornus foemina 

259



(stiff dogwood). Vines are often abundant, especially Decumaria barbara (woodvamp). The herb 

layer is dense, lush, and clearly divisible into two relatively discrete assemblages that occupy 

hummocks and mucky hollows, respectively. The most constant patch-dominants of the 

relatively well-drained hummocks are Packera aurea (golden ragwort) and Carex bromoides 

(bromelike sedge). Characteristic patch-dominants of the wet, mucky hollows are Pilea fontana 

(lesser clearweed), Bidens laevis (smooth beggartick), Saururus cernuus (lizard's tail), Cicuta 

maculata var. maculata (spotted water hemlock), Impatiens capensis (jewelweed), and Glyceria 

striata (fowl mannagrass). Other common or noteworthy herbs include Caltha palustris (yellow 

marsh marigold), Thelypteris palustris var. pubescens (eastern marsh fern), Carex granularis 

(limestone meadow sedge), Scirpus lineatus (drooping bulrush), Orontium aquaticum 

(goldenclub), Pedicularis lanceolata (swamp lousewort), Liparis loeselii (yellow widelip 

orchid), and Carex tetanica (rigid sedge). 

Environmental Description: This community type is confined to the groundwater-saturated 

bottoms of ravines that have cut into Tertiary shell deposits or limesands. Braided streams and 

pronounced hummock-and-hollow microtopography are characteristic of this habitat. Soil 

environments are somewhat heterogeneous, with deep organic muck in hollows and firm sandy 

substrates on hummocks. Samples collected from 15 plots were highly calcareous with pH values 

up to 7.4 and calcium levels up to 6000 ppm. Most sites for this community are in ravines that 

drain directly into tidal creeks. 

Vegetation Description: The overstory is consistently codominated by Fraxinus pennsylvanica 

(green ash) and Acer rubrum (red maple). In near-tidal situations, Nyssa biflora (swamp tupelo) 

and Taxodium distichum (bald cypress) are locally codominant. Ulmus americana (American 

elm), Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), and Pinus taeda 

(loblolly pine) are minor overstory trees throughout the range. The understory and shrub layers 

are typically very open and contain young specimens of the overstory trees, Carpinus 

caroliniana (American hornbeam), Lindera benzoin (northern spicebush), Cornus foemina (stiff 

dogwood), and Morella cerifera (wax myrtle). Dirca palustris (eastern leatherwood) is a 

common shrub in a subset of ravines in the York River drainage. The climbing liana Decumaria 

barbara (woodvamp) is common, along with Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy). The 

herb layer is dense, lush, and clearly divisible into two relatively discrete assemblages that 

occupy hummocks and mucky hollows, respectively. The most constant patch-dominants of the 

relatively well-drained hummocks are Packera aurea (golden ragwort) and Carex bromoides 

(bromelike sedge), with Caltha palustris (yellow marsh marigold), Cinna arundinacea (sweet 

woodreed), Galium triflorum (fragrant bedstraw), Geum canadense (white avens), Thelypteris 

palustris var. pubescens (eastern marsh fern), Carex granularis (limestone meadow sedge), 

Leersia virginica (whitegrass), Amphicarpaea bracteata (American hogpeanut), Arisaema 

triphyllum (Jack in the pulpit), Carex laevivaginata (smoothsheath sedge), Carex styloflexa (bent 

sedge), Carex gracillima (graceful sedge), Rudbeckia laciniata (cutleaf coneflower), and 

Polygonum setaceum (bog smartweed) occurring at lower cover and/or constancy. Characteristic 

patch-dominants of the wet, mucky hollows are Pilea fontana (lesser clearweed), Bidens laevis 

(smooth beggartick), Saururus cernuus (lizard's tail), Cicuta maculata var. maculata (spotted 

water hemlock), Impatiens capensis (jewelweed), and Glyceria striata (fowl mannagrass). 

Additional herbs associated with wetter microhabitats are Scirpus lineatus (drooping bulrush), 

Boehmeria cylindrica (smallspike false nettle), Orontium aquaticum (goldenclub), Polygonum 

arifolium (halberdleaf tearthumb), Viola cucullata (marsh blue violet), and Cardamine 

pensylvanica (Pennsylvania bittercress). Stands of this community contain a number of species 

260



disjunct from primary ranges inland and farther west, including Caltha palustris (yellow marsh 

marigold), Pedicularis lanceolata (swamp lousewort), Liparis loeselii (yellow widelip orchid), 

and Carex tetanica (rigid sedge). 





Characteristic Species: Acer rubrum (red maple), Bidens laevis (smooth beggartick), Carex 

bromoides (bromelike sedge), Carpinus caroliniana (American hornbeam), Cicuta maculata var. 

maculata (spotted water hemlock), Cornus foemina (stiff dogwood), Decumaria barbara 

(woodvamp), Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green ash), Glyceria striata (fowl mannagrass), Impatiens 

capensis (jewelweed), Lindera benzoin (northern spicebush), Morella cerifera (wax myrtle), 

Packera aurea (golden ragwort), Pilea fontana (lesser clearweed), Saururus cernuus (lizard's 

tail), Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This calcareous seepage swamp occurs in dissected terrain in the central Virginia 

Coastal Plain. It is known only from calcareous ravines in the James and York river drainages, in 

James City, Surry, and York counties. 

States/Provinces: MD?, VA. 

Federal Lands: DOD (Yorktown); NPS (Colonial); USFWS (Great Swamp). 


Rank: G2 (16-Feb-2007). 

Reasons: Despite considerable efforts to inventory this community over the years, fewer than 

50 patches of this vegetation are known covering an aggregate area of perhaps 300 acres. It is 

likely that quite a few additional patches have yet to be located, but patch-size is small (



Figure I19. Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp (plot COLO.8) at Colonial National 

Historical Park. May 2003. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 367768, northing 4118887. 

262



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): COASTAL PLAIN LOBLOLLY PINE - OAK 

FOREST 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Loblolly Pine - (White Oak, Southern Red Oak, Post Oak) 

Successional Coastal Plain Forest 

USNVC Scientific Name: Pinus taeda - Quercus (alba, falcata, stellata) Successional 

Coastal Plain Forest 



Environmental Description: This is a natural to semi-natural habitat type that has developed 

following anthropogenic disturbance. It is found in low-lying areas or sandy interfluves 

surrounded by tidal wetlands. 

Vegetation Description: These forests are dominated by one or more species of Quercus (oak) 

occurring with varying amounts of Pinus taeda (loblolly pine). The most typical oaks in this 

habitat are Quercus alba (white oak), Quercus velutina (black oak), and Quercus falcata 

(southern red oak), but in areas with seasonally perched water tables or ephemeral seepage, 

Quercus pagoda (cherrybark oak) often dominates, and occasional individuals of Quercus 

laurifolia (laurel oak) can be found. On higher, drier sites, Quercus stellata (post oak) is a typical 

associate. Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum) can be important in some stands. The understory 

of these forests can be open, but can often have a well-developed shrub stratum dominated by 

Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly) or Persea palustris (swamp bay) or, in drier, sandier 

sites, Morella cerifera (wax myrtle). Vines of Smilax bona-nox (saw greenbrier), Smilax 

rotundifolia (roundleaf greenbrier), Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy), and Vitis 

rotundifolia (muscadine) often climb into the shrub and tree strata. The ground layer is often 

covered with the exotic Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop) or has sparse vegetation 

cover, dominated by pine litter with only scattered grasses and forbs. 

Canopy and shrub associates vary with the moisture regime of a site. Shrub density is also 

variable from site to site. 



Tree canopy Broad-leaved deciduous tree Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) 

Characteristic Species: Chasmanthium laxum (slender woodoats), Morella cerifera (wax 

myrtle), Pinus taeda (loblolly pine), Quercus falcata (southern red oak), Quercus pagoda 

(cherrybark oak), Quercus stellata (post oak). 




VA SNR . . [not crosswalked] . 

Local Range: This forest type is the matrix forest of Jamestown Island and the surrounding 

area. It is found at Swanns Point and Jamestown Island, where it covers 311 hectares (768 acres). 

Classification Comments: This forest is distinguished from Successional Tuliptree - Loblolly 

Pine Forest by having greater coverage of oak species and less abundance or lack of 

Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree) and by the presence of such coastal shrubs as Morella cerifera 

(wax myrtle) and Persea palustris (swamp bay). 

263



Other Comments: Polygons mapped as this forest may contain inclusions of Disturbed Tidal 

Hardwood Swamp. Where there has been extensive wind damage, Successional Mixed Scrub 

can occur as inclusions in this forest. 


Plots: COLO.25, COLO.101, COLO.102, COLO.104, COLO.105, COLO.106, COLO.107, 

COLO.109. 





Physiognomic Subclass Mixed evergreen-deciduous forest (I.C.) 

Physiognomic Group Mixed needle-leaved evergreen - cold-deciduous forest (I.C.3.) 

Physiognomic Subgroup Natural/Semi-natural mixed needle-leaved evergreen - cold-deciduous forest 

(I.C.3.N.) 

Formation Mixed needle-leaved evergreen - cold-deciduous forest (I.C.3.N.a.) 

Alliance Pinus taeda - Quercus (alba, falcata, stellata) Forest Alliance (A.404) 

Alliance (English name) Loblolly Pine - (White Oak, Southern Red Oak, Post Oak) Forest Alliance 

Association Pinus taeda - Quercus (alba, falcata, stellata) Successional Coastal Plain Forest 

Association (English name) Loblolly Pine - (White Oak, Southern Red Oak, Post Oak) Successional Coastal 

Plain Forest 



Concept Summary: This successional loblolly pine - oak forest of the Maryland and Virginia 

Coastal Plain occurs on coarse-textured, shallow dry soils. Abandoned loblolly pine plantations 

or early-successional loblolly pine forests established following cessation of agriculture often 

succeed to this vegetation as oaks are recruited and form variable proportions of the canopy. The 

canopy is dominated by Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) with varying amounts of Quercus alba 

(white oak), Quercus falcata (southern red oak), Quercus velutina (black oak), and Quercus 

stellata (post oak). Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum) may be present but not generally in 

quantity. The shrub layer is of variable closure and is often characterized by Ilex opaca var. 

opaca (American holly), Morella cerifera (wax myrtle), or Persea palustris (swamp bay). Vines 

such as Smilax rotundifolia (roundleaf greenbrier), Vitis rotundifolia (muscadine), and 

Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy) can contribute considerable cover in the tree 

canopy. The herbaceous layer is sparse to non-existent, or is made up of exotic species such as 

Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop). This association is considered provisional because 

it has not been well-documented and plot data are limited. This association is somewhat similar 

to Pinus taeda / Liquidambar styraciflua - Acer rubrum / Vaccinium stamineum Forest 

(CEGL006011), and in fact may be preceded by it in successional sequence, but it has a higher 

component of hardwoods, especially oaks, in the canopy. 

Environmental Description: This association occurs on sandy soils on the Mid-Atlantic 

Coastal Plain. It is a mid- to late-successional mixed forest that generally follows plantation 

abandonment or cessation of agriculture. 

Vegetation Description: Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) is a constant canopy species. Oaks are 

generally codominant and can include Quercus falcata (southern red oak), Quercus alba (white 

oak), Quercus stellata (post oak), or Quercus velutina (black oak). Liquidambar styraciflua 

(sweetgum) is a less prevalent associate. The shrub layer is of variable closure and is often 

264



characterized by Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly), Morella cerifera (wax myrtle), or 

Persea palustris (swamp bay). Vines such as Smilax rotundifolia (roundleaf greenbrier), Vitis 

rotundifolia (muscadine), and Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy) can contribute 

considerable cover in the tree canopy. The herbaceous layer is sparse to non-existent, or is made 

up of exotic species such as Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop). 



Tree canopy Needle-leaved tree Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) 

Shrub/sapling (tall & short) Vine/Liana Smilax rotundifolia (roundleaf greenbrier), 

Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy), 

Vitis rotundifolia (muscadine) 

Characteristic Species: Ilex opaca var. opaca (American holly), Morella cerifera (wax myrtle), 

Persea palustris (swamp bay), Pinus taeda (loblolly pine), Quercus alba (white oak), Quercus 

falcata (southern red oak), Quercus velutina (black oak), Smilax rotundifolia (roundleaf 

greenbrier), Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy), Vitis rotundifolia (muscadine). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This type could occur in the Piedmont or adjacent/related ecoregions (Atlantic Coastal 

Plain, Cumberlands / Southern Ridge and Valley). 


Federal Lands: NPS (Colonial, Rock Creek). 


Rank: GNR (11-Sep-1997). 



Status: Provisional. 


Comments: Classification of this type is derived largely from Colonial National Historical Park. 

More data are needed to describe this type with greater confidence. 


• Pinus taeda / Liquidambar styraciflua - Acer rubrum var. rubrum / Vaccinium stamineum Forest 

(CEGL006011)--has greater dominance by Pinus taeda in the canopy and has few to no oak species. 


SOURCES 


References: Eastern Ecology Working Group, n.d. 

265



Figure I20. Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine – 

Oak Forest at Colonial National Historical 

Park. July 2004. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 

344051, northing 4119080. 

Figure I21. Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine - Oak Forest (plot COLO.25) at Colonial National 


266



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): TIDAL BALD CYPRESS FOREST / 

WOODLAND 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Bald-cypress / Shoreline Sedge Woodland 

USNVC Scientific Name: Taxodium distichum / Carex hyalinolepis Woodland 



Environmental Description: Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland occupies low tidal river 

shores, the upper reaches of tidal guts, and ecotones between tidal shore berms and tidal marshes. 

Soils are very poorly drained and always submerged by shallow water. These areas are regularly 

flooded by tidal water and are oligohaline to fresh in halinity. 

Vegetation Description: This tidally influenced, needle-leaved deciduous woodland is 

dominated by Taxodium distichum (bald cypress) which dominates the open to very open 

overstory, with or without hardwood associates such as Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green ash), 

Acer rubrum (red maple), or Nyssa biflora (swamp tupelo). Shrub and herb layers are variable 

but generally contain a mixture of species characteristic of both marshes and swamps. Morella 

cerifera (wax myrtle) can form a dense to open shrub layer, and the herb layer is usually 

dominated by Carex hyalinolepis (shoreline sedge), often forming a continuous, nearly, 

monospecific stratum. Other typical herb associates include Polygonum punctatum (dotted 

smartweed), Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), Panicum virgatum var. virgatum 

(switchgrass), Triadenum walteri (greater marsh St. Johnswort), Rumex verticillatus (swamp 

dock), Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos (crimsoneyed rosemallow), Cinna arundinacea 

(sweet woodreed), and Saururus cernuus (lizard's tail). Submerged aquatic plants such as 

Ceratophyllum demersum (coon's tail) and floating aquatic species like Lemna minor (common 

duckweed), and Azolla caroliniana (Carolina mosquitofern)) can have high cover. 

Stand structure and canopy cover range from closed forest to very open woodland. Stands of this 

type that have been artificially cut off from regular tides may have species suggestive of a 

longer, non-tidal hydroperiod: species such as Cephalanthus occidentalis (common buttonbush), 

Fraxinus profunda (pumpkin ash), Populus heterophylla (swamp cottonwood), and Nyssa 

aquatica (water tupelo). 



Tree canopy Needle-leaved tree Taxodium distichum (bald cypress) 

Herb (field) Graminoid Carex hyalinolepis (shoreline sedge) 

Characteristic Species: Carex hyalinolepis (shoreline sedge), Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green 

ash), Morella cerifera (wax myrtle), Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), Taxodium 

distichum (bald cypress). 




Reference 

VA SNR* B 1 Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland Fleming et al. 2006 

Local Range: Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland is found along the James River at Swanns 

Point with small, disturbed examples mapped at Jamestown Island. In total, it covers 12.0 hectare 

(29.6 acres). 

267



Classification Comments: Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland is distinguished from most 

mapping units in Colonial National Historical Park by being dominated by Taxodium distichum 

(bald cypress). However, examples of Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp at Swanns Point 

are also dominated by Taxodium distichum (bald cypress) and can have high coverage of Carex 

hyalinolepis (shoreline sedge) in areas ecotonal to tidal swamp. Stands of Coastal Plain 

Calcareous Seepage Swamp with Taxodium distichum (bald cypress) are distinguished from 

Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland by their non-tidal hydrology and having more species 

diversity in all strata, with high cover of species such as Asimina triloba (pawpaw), Ilex opaca 

var. opaca (American holly), Carex bromoides (bromelike sedge), Lindera benzoin (northern 

spicebush), and Saururus cernuus (lizard's tail). 

Other Comments: Small areas within the map class Disturbed Tidal Hardwood Swamp may 

represent disturbed examples of Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland. Tidal Bald Cypress 

Forest / Woodland is a globally rare community with a restricted range. The example of this 

association at Swanns Point meets the criteria to be considered a Natural Heritage exemplary 

natural community occurrence. 


Plots: COLO.26, COLO.27, COLO.103. 




Physiognomic Class Woodland (II) 

Physiognomic Subclass Deciduous woodland (II.B.) 

Physiognomic Group Cold-deciduous woodland (II.B.2.) 

Physiognomic Subgroup Natural/Semi-natural cold-deciduous woodland (II.B.2.N.) 

Formation Tidal cold-deciduous woodland (II.B.2.N.f.) 

Alliance Taxodium distichum Tidal Woodland Alliance (A.659) 

Alliance (English name) Bald-cypress Tidal Woodland Alliance 

Association Taxodium distichum / Carex hyalinolepis Woodland 

Association (English name) Bald-cypress / Shoreline Sedge Woodland 

Ecological System(s): Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Tidal Swamp (CES203.282). 

Southern Atlantic Coastal Plain Tidal Wooded Swamp (CES203.240). 


Concept Summary: This community occurs in narrow bands along the fringes of wind-tidal 

marshes on the Northwest River and North Landing River in southeastern Virginia, and likely 

occurs in northeastern North Carolina as well. It also occurs on the Pocomoke River of 

Maryland, where it is influenced by lunar, rather than wind tides. Substrates are poorly 

decomposed to moderately decomposed, root-rich peats. These sites are frequently flooded by 

wind tides or lunar tides and have some standing water throughout the growing season. This 

community usually develops in narrow ecotones between water-fringing marshes and tidal 

swamp forests, but may also occur between marshes and upland forests. Taxodium distichum 

(bald cypress) dominates the open to sparse canopy. Other less common tree species may include 

Nyssa biflora (swamp tupelo), Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), and Acer rubrum (red 

maple). Fraxinus profunda (pumpkin ash) and occasional Chamaecyparis thyoides (Atlantic 

white cedar) also occur in Maryland examples. The sparse to moderately dense shrub layer is 

dominated by Morella cerifera (wax myrtle), Clethra alnifolia (coastal sweetpepperbush), Rosa 

palustris (swamp rose), and Toxicodendron radicans ssp. radicans (eastern poison ivy). The 

268



herbaceous layer is very well-developed and is dominated by swards of Carex hyalinolepis 

(shoreline sedge). Despite the dense growth of this rhizomatous sedge, the herb layer is diverse. 

Herbaceous species include those more typical of forested swamps, such as Saururus cernuus 

(lizard's tail), Triadenum walteri (greater marsh St. Johnswort), and Woodwardia areolata 

(netted chainfern), and those typical of marshes, such as Eleocharis fallax (creeping spikerush), 

Typha angustifolia (narrowleaf cattail), Panicum virgatum (switchgrass), Leersia oryzoides (rice 

cutgrass), Polygonum arifolium (halberdleaf tearthumb), Polygonum punctatum (dotted 

smartweed), Osmunda cinnamomea (cinnamon fern), and Schoenoplectus americanus 

(chairmaker's bulrush). Some species, including the dominant Carex hyalinolepis (shoreline 

sedge), reach their nodal abundance in the landscape in this community. 

Environmental Description: This association occurs on the slightly elevated alluvial 

floodplains on the oligohaline to freshwater tidal portions of tidal rivers. It forms a narrow band 

that is transitional to non-tidal wetlands or to uplands. In Virginia, wind tides are the prevalent 

dynamic, and in Maryland the tidal regime is lunar. The substrate is relatively firm, exhibiting 

slight to moderate hummock-and hollow-microtopography. In Maryland examples, salinity is 

typically less than 0.5 ppt but may be greater with storm tide salinity pulses or with lower river 

flow (Harrison et al. 2004). 

Vegetation Description: The open canopy is dominated by Taxodium distichum (bald cypress), 

with less common associates including Nyssa biflora (swamp tupelo), Liquidambar styraciflua 

(sweetgum), Acer rubrum (red maple), and in Maryland, Fraxinus profunda (pumpkin ash) and 

Chamaecyparis thyoides (Atlantic white cedar). The sparse to moderately dense shrub layer is 

dominated by Morella cerifera (wax myrtle), Clethra alnifolia (coastal sweetpepperbush), Rosa 

palustris (swamp rose), and Toxicodendron radicans ssp. radicans (eastern poison ivy). The 

herbaceous layer is very well-developed and is dominated by swards of Carex hyalinolepis 

(shoreline sedge). Despite the dense growth of this rhizomatous sedge, the herb layer is diverse. 

Herbaceous species include those more typical of forested swamps, such as Saururus cernuus 

(lizard's tail), Triadenum walteri (greater marsh St. Johnswort), and Woodwardia areolata 

(netted chainfern), and those typical of marshes, such as Eleocharis fallax (creeping spikerush), 

Typha angustifolia (narrowleaf cattail), Panicum virgatum (switchgrass), Leersia oryzoides (rice 

cutgrass), Polygonum arifolium (halberdleaf tearthumb), Polygonum punctatum (dotted 

smartweed), Osmunda cinnamomea (cinnamon fern), and Schoenoplectus americanus 

(chairmaker's bulrush). Some species, including the dominant Carex hyalinolepis (shoreline 

sedge), reach their nodal abundance in the landscape in this community. Carex hyalinolepis 

(shoreline sedge) often forms dense patches reaching 80% cover, although the herbaceous layer 

can achieve high species diversity overall. Exotic species Lonicera japonica (Japanese 

honeysuckle) and Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop) are reported from some stands 

(Harrison et al. 2004). 



Tree canopy Needle-leaved tree Taxodium distichum (bald cypress) 

Herb (field) Graminoid Carex hyalinolepis (shoreline sedge) 

Characteristic Species: Carex hyalinolepis (shoreline sedge), Cinna arundinacea (sweet 

woodreed), Clethra alnifolia (coastal sweetpepperbush), Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos 

(crimsoneyed rosemallow), Morella cerifera (wax myrtle), Panicum virgatum var. virgatum 

(switchgrass), Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), Polygonum punctatum (dotted 

smartweed), Rosa palustris (swamp rose), Rumex verticillatus (swamp dock), Saururus cernuus 

269



(lizard's tail), Taxodium distichum (bald cypress), Toxicodendron radicans ssp. radicans (eastern 

poison ivy), Triadenum walteri (greater marsh St. Johnswort). 


USFWS Wetland System: Estuarine. 

DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This association occurs on the Coastal Plain from Maryland to Virginia, with a 

likelihood of occurrence in North Carolina. 

States/Provinces: MD:S1, NC?, VA. 

Federal Lands: NPS (Colonial). 


Rank: G2? (25-Jun-1997). 





Comments: This association was part an analysis of over 300 tidal arboreal vegetation plots 

from Virginia and Maryland. It was classified based on five plots from Virginia and Maryland. 

This community most likely occurs in North Carolina; it is known from Virginia within a 

kilometer of the North Carolina state line. 



SOURCES 


References: Coulling 2002, Fleming pers. comm., Harrison et al. 2004, Southeastern Ecology 

Working Group, n.d. 

270



Figure I22. Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland (plot COLO.26) at Colonial National 


Figure I23. Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / 

Woodland (plot COLO.27) at Colonial 

National Historical Park. September 2004. 

NAD 1983 / UTM easting 338794, northing 

4119155. 

271



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): GOLDEN BAMBOO SHRUBLAND 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Golden Bamboo Shrubland 

USNVC Scientific Name: Phyllostachys aurea Shrubland 



Environmental Description: This mapping class includes stands of Phyllostachys aurea 

(golden bamboo) which have either been planted or naturalized. These stands occur on disturbed 

lands, often near creeks and other mesic areas. 

Vegetation Description: In Colonial National Historical Park, Golden Bamboo Shrubland is a 

dense monoculture of the exotic Phyllostachys aurea (golden bamboo), 10-20 m tall, with no 

other developed vegetation strata. 



Species 

Tree canopy 

Bamboo 

Phyllostachys aurea (golden bamboo) 

Characteristic Species: Phyllostachys aurea (golden bamboo). 


Subnational Distribution with Crosswalk Data: Information not available. 

Local Range: Golden Bamboo Shrubland is mapped as three polygons in Yorktown Battlefield. 

There may be other areas dominated by Phyllostachys aurea (golden bamboo) in the park that 

are below minimum mapping unit (0.5 ha). 

Classification Comments: Information not available. 



Plots: None. 




Physiognomic Class Shrubland (III) 

Physiognomic Subclass Evergreen shrubland (III.A.) 

Physiognomic Group Temperate broad-leaved evergreen shrubland (III.A.2.) 

Physiognomic Subgroup Natural/Semi-natural temperate broad-leaved evergreen shrubland (III.A.2.N.) 

Formation Temperate broad-leaved evergreen shrubland with a sparse cold-deciduous tree 

layer (III.A.2.N.f.) 

Alliance Phyllostachys aurea Shrubland Alliance (A.2010) 

Alliance (English name) Golden Bamboo Shrubland Alliance 

Association Phyllostachys aurea Shrubland 

Association (English name) Golden Bamboo Shrubland 



Concept Summary: This exotic bamboo association is comprised of uplands dominated by the 

exotic Phyllostachys aurea (golden bamboo), where it has been planted or naturalized. This 

association is typically densely vegetated with tall woody stems, almost to the exclusion of all 

272



other species. The full range of this association is not well-documented, but it can potentially 

occur in most of the southeastern states north to southern New England. 

Environmental Description: This association is found on disturbed lands, often near creeks 

and other mesic areas. 

Vegetation Description: This shrubland is usually a monoculture of Phyllostachys aurea 

(golden bamboo) with little light or resources reaching the understory. 



Tree canopy Bamboo Phyllostachys aurea (golden bamboo) 

Tall shrub/sapling Bamboo Phyllostachys aurea (golden bamboo) 

Characteristic Species: Phyllostachys aurea (golden bamboo). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This vegetation is possible throughout the southeastern United States. 

States/Provinces: AL?, AR?, FL, GA, LA?, MS?, NC?, SC, TN, TX, VA? 

Federal Lands: NPS (Chickamauga-Chattanooga?, Colonial, Cowpens, Kings Mountain?, 

Ninety Six, Vicksburg?). 


Rank: GNA (invasive) (3-Oct-2001). 

Reasons: This shrubland represents vegetation dominated by an invasive exotic and thus does 

not receive a conservation status rank. 







SOURCES 

Description Authors: R. White, mod. L. A. Sneddon. 

References: NatureServe Ecology - Southeastern U.S. unpubl. data, Schotz pers. comm., 

Southeastern Ecology Working Group, n.d., TDNH unpubl. data. 

273



Figure I24. Golden Bamboo Shrubland at Colonial National Historical Park. July 2004. NAD 

1983 / UTM easting 365048, northing 4122439. 

274



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): TIDAL SHRUB SWAMP (WAX MYRTLE 

TYPE) 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Wax-myrtle - Swamp Rose / Eastern Marsh Fern Shrubland 

USNVC Scientific Name: Morella cerifera - Rosa palustris / Thelypteris palustris var. 

pubescens Shrubland 



Environmental Description: Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) includes tidally flooded 

shrublands of estuarine rivers and embayments. These shrub swamps frequently occur in fringes 

or ecotones between emergent tidal wetlands and swamp forests or uplands and typically contain 

species characteristic of both tidal marshes and swamp forests. The substrate is deep muck. 

Vegetation Description: Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) may have a very dense to 

open shrub canopy dominated by Morella cerifera (wax myrtle) in association with Typha 

angustifolia (narrowleaf cattail). There may be scattered trees, but canopy cover is less than 25% 

cover. Acer rubrum (red maple) is typical. Seedlings and saplings from adjacent swamp forest or 

other species from tidal marsh communities may also occur with low cover. 



Species 


Broad-leaved evergreen shrub 

Morella cerifera (wax myrtle) 

Characteristic Species: Morella cerifera (wax myrtle). 




Reference 

VA SNR* B 1 Tidal Shrub Swamp 


Local Range: Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) is found in small patches in the vicinity 

of Yorktown, along Colonial Parkway, Ringfield / King Creek, and at College Creek / Kingsmill. 

It covers a total of 4.2 hectares (10.4 acres). 

Classification Comments: Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) is distinguished from Salt 

Scrub by occurring adjacent to tidal marsh and being swampy (wet and mucky) without the 

sandy shrubland component found in Salt Scrub. 

Other Comments: Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) occurs as very small areas in 

Colonial National Historical Park, often developing where the Colonial Parkway has cut across 

tidal marsh. 


Plots: None. 





Physiognomic Subclass Evergreen shrubland (III.A.) 

Physiognomic Group Temperate broad-leaved evergreen shrubland (III.A.2.) 

Physiognomic Subgroup Natural/Semi-natural temperate broad-leaved evergreen shrubland (III.A.2.N.) 

Formation Tidal broad-leaved evergreen temperate shrubland (III.A.2.N.l.) 

275



Alliance Morella cerifera - Rosa palustris Tidal Shrubland Alliance (A.806) 

Alliance (English name) Wax-myrtle - Swamp Rose Tidal Shrubland Alliance 

Association Morella cerifera - Rosa palustris / Thelypteris palustris var. pubescens 

Shrubland 

Association (English name) Wax-myrtle - Swamp Rose / Eastern Marsh Fern Shrubland 

Ecological System(s): Atlantic Coastal Plain Embayed Region Tidal Freshwater Marsh (CES203.259). 


Concept Summary: This shrub community occurs in ecotonal sites between tidal marshes and 

tidal swamps in fresh to oligohaline portions of coastal rivers and embayments. It occupies soupy 

peats. It is a natural community, but likely has a long-term and complicated successional 

relationship with other (primarily marsh communities) in the landscape in which it occurs, 

related to hydrology and fire. Morella cerifera (wax myrtle) is the characteristic dominant 

species (with 25-75% cover), with Rosa palustris (swamp rose), Salix caroliniana (coastal plain 

willow), and Toxicodendron radicans ssp. radicans (eastern poison ivy) as characteristic and 

constant companion species. Other woody species include Persea palustris (swamp bay), 

Magnolia virginiana (sweetbay), Salix caroliniana (coastal plain willow), Vaccinium formosum 

(southern blueberry), Smilax walteri (coral greenbrier), and saplings of Acer rubrum (red maple), 

Pinus taeda (loblolly pine), Taxodium distichum (bald cypress), and Liquidambar styraciflua 

(sweetgum). Herbaceous composition is diverse and varied, with many species 'recruited' from 

adjacent marshes and swamps. Thelypteris palustris var. pubescens (eastern marsh fern) is highly 

characteristic and appears to reach its nodal distribution in this landscape in this community. 

Other important species can include Juncus roemerianus (needlegrass rush), Cladium mariscus 

ssp. jamaicense (Jamaica swamp sawgrass), and Decodon verticillatus (swamp loosestrife). 

Murdannia keisak (wartremoving herb) is an aggressive alien weed. 

Environmental Description: This shrub community occurs in ecotonal sites between tidal 

marshes and tidal swamps. It occupies soupy peats. According to Fleming et al. (2001), this 

community is part of a large group of tidal shrublands which occupy tidally flooded and windtidally 

flooded areas of freshwater to oligohaline rivers and embayments. These are tidal 

shrublands of oligohaline conditions bordering middle to upper sections of Coastal Plain rivers 

and tributaries (in Maryland). Salinity typically ranges from 0.5 to 5.0 ppt; however, pulses of 

higher salinity may occur during periods of spring high tides and low river discharge. Salinity 

data collected at time of study indicate a range of 0.5 to 11.0 ppt (mean ppt = 2.6) for 30 sample 

plots. These tidal shrublands form linear to irregular stands along tidal channels usually 

positioned between adjacent tidal marshes and swamp forests. Stands of narrow floodplains most 

often occur along ecotones as "fringes" intergrading with adjacent tidal swamp forests. Such 

stands are proximate to tidal channels and subject to regular tidal flooding. Stands occupying 

rather expansive marshes or large estuary meanders on broader floodplains are commonly 

fronted or surrounded by emergent marshes forming depositional islands. Slightly elevated and 

distanced from tidal influence, these stands tend to be less frequently flooded (regularly, for



companion species. Other woody species include Persea palustris (swamp bay), Magnolia 

virginiana (sweetbay), Salix caroliniana (coastal plain willow), Vaccinium formosum (southern 

blueberry), Smilax walteri (coral greenbrier), and saplings of Acer rubrum (red maple), Pinus 

taeda (loblolly pine), Taxodium distichum (bald cypress), and Liquidambar styraciflua 

(sweetgum). Herbaceous composition is diverse and varied, with many species 'recruited' from 

adjacent marshes and swamps. Thelypteris palustris var. pubescens (eastern marsh fern) is highly 

characteristic and appears to reach its nodal distribution in this landscape in this community. 

Other important species can include Juncus roemerianus (needlegrass rush), Cladium mariscus 

ssp. jamaicense (Jamaica swamp sawgrass), and Decodon verticillatus (swamp loosestrife). 

Murdannia keisak (wartremoving herb) is an aggressive alien weed. 

In Maryland, these tidal oligohaline shrublands are characterized by a low (0.5-6 m tall), open 

(40-60% cover) to moderately dense (60-80% cover) shrub canopy dominated by Morella 

cerifera (wax myrtle) with Rosa palustris (swamp rose) as a frequent associate. Morella cerifera 

(wax myrtle) is most constant and typically occupies 25 to 50% of the shrub stratum. In general, 

Rosa palustris (swamp rose) is slightly less abundant (10-25% mean cover) than Morella 

cerifera (wax myrtle); however, it can occasionally be dominant (>75% cover) in some stands. 

Other less frequent taxa in the shrub stratum include Acer rubrum (red maple), Viburnum 

recognitum (southern arrowwood), Baccharis halimifolia (eastern baccharis), and dense vine 

growth of Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy) and Mikania scandens (climbing 

hempvine). Stands along ecotones or in less frequently flooded situations may contain emergent 

individuals of Pinus taeda (loblolly pine), Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), Fraxinus 

pennsylvanica (green ash), Fraxinus profunda (pumpkin ash), Nyssa biflora (swamp tupelo), and 

Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana (eastern redcedar) in a scattered and very sparse (0-5% 

cover) overstory. Species richness in the herbaceous layer is very high and indicative of slight 

oligohaline conditions, species recruitment from adjacent communities, and considerable 

microtopographic variation. Osmunda regalis var. spectabilis (royal fern) is consistent and 

dominant in the herbaceous layer, with Thelypteris palustris var. pubescens (eastern marsh fern) 

in close association although not as abundant. Associated species include species characteristic 

of freshwater marshes, such as Leersia oryzoides (rice cutgrass), Polygonum punctatum (dotted 

smartweed), and Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), and species more tolerant of 

mesohaline conditions, such as Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos (crimsoneyed rosemallow) 

and Carex hormathodes (marsh straw sedge). Other characteristic herbs include Apios americana 

(groundnut), Cuscuta gronovii (scaldweed), Sium suave (hemlock waterparsnip), Polygonum 

arifolium (halberdleaf tearthumb), Ptilimnium capillaceum (herbwilliam), Cinna arundinacea 

(sweet woodreed), Thalictrum pubescens (king of the meadow), Typha latifolia (broadleaf 

cattail), Cicuta maculata (spotted water hemlock), and Boehmeria cylindrica (smallspike false 

nettle). 



Tall shrub/sapling Broad-leaved deciduous shrub Rosa palustris (swamp rose), 

Salix caroliniana (coastal plain willow) 

Tall shrub/sapling Broad-leaved evergreen shrub Morella cerifera (wax myrtle) 

Characteristic Species: Morella cerifera (wax myrtle), Rosa palustris (swamp rose), Salix 

caroliniana (coastal plain willow), Thelypteris palustris var. pubescens (eastern marsh fern), 

Toxicodendron radicans ssp. radicans (eastern poison ivy). 

277





DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This community occurs along the Atlantic Coast of Maryland, Virginia and North 

Carolina. 

States/Provinces: MD:S4, NC, VA:SNR. 

Federal Lands: NPS (Colonial); USFWS (Back Bay, Chesapeake Marshlands). 


Rank: G4 (23-Jun-1997). 







• Morella cerifera - Toxicodendron radicans / Spartina bakeri Shrubland (CEGL004789). 


• Morella cerifera - Rosa palustris / Thelypteris palustris var. palustris Tidal Shrubland (Harrison and Stango 

2003) = 

• 

Morella cerifera - Salix caroliniana / Thelypteris palustris var. pubescens Tidal Shrubland (VDNH 2003) = 

• Myrica cerifera - Salix caroliniana / Thelypteris palustris ssp. pubescens Tidally Flooded Shrubland (Fleming 

1998) ? 

SOURCES 

Description Authors: G. Fleming, mod. J. Teague and E. Largay. 

References: Coulling 2002, Fleming 1998, Fleming et al. 2001, Harrison 2004, Harrison and 

Stango 2003, Southeastern Ecology Working Group n.d., VDNH 2003. 

278



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): SALT SCRUB 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Groundsel-tree - Maritime Marsh-elder / Switchgrass 


USNVC Scientific Name: Baccharis halimifolia - Iva frutescens / Panicum virgatum 




Environmental Description: Salt Scrub includes halophytic shrublands that form fringes along 

the lower James and York rivers. Salt Scrub occurs adjacent to the active river channel. In 

Colonial National Historical Park, this mapping unit commonly occupies high, only irregularly 

flooded landscape positions in a mosaic with lower, diurnally flooded salt marsh or fringe beach. 

Vegetation Description: Baccharis halimifolia (eastern baccharis), Iva frutescens (Jesuit's 

bark), and Morella cerifera (wax myrtle) are the usual woody dominants, occurring singly or in 

combination. Other shrub species can include Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana (eastern 

redcedar) and Pinus taeda (loblolly pine). Tidal herbaceous vegetation and areas of bare sand 

beach often form a complex with these shrublands. Distichlis spicata (inland saltgrass), Panicum 

virgatum var. virgatum (switchgrass), Phragmites australis (common reed), Solidago 

sempervirens (seaside goldenrod), Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass), Spartina 

cynosuroides (big cordgrass), Spartina patens (saltmeadow cordgrass), and Typha angustifolia 

(narrowleaf cattail) can occur as associates in Salt Scrub and even be locally dominant. 

Salt Scrub occurs in small, linear patches on the Colonial National Historical Park landscape, 

often less than 0.5 ha in size, ranging to about 3 hectares. 



Shrub/sapling (tall & short) Broad-leaved deciduous shrub Baccharis halimifolia (eastern baccharis) 

Short shrub/sapling Broad-leaved deciduous shrub Iva frutescens (Jesuit's bark) 

Herb (field) Graminoid Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass) 

Characteristic Species: Baccharis halimifolia (eastern baccharis), Iva frutescens (Jesuit's bark), 

Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass). 




Reference 

VA SNR* B 1 Salt Scrub Fleming et al. 2006 

Local Range: Salt Scrub occurs along the York River, north of Yorktown and along the James 

River in the vicinity of Kingsmill. 

Classification Comments: This association is distinguished by being a tidal shrubland 

occurring as linear patches along rivers and having a complex of sandy shrublands and tidal 

herbaceous vegetation. A similar mapping unit, Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type), which 

always occurs adjacent to tidal marsh, is wet and mucky, not sandy. 



Plots: None. 


279






Physiognomic Subclass Deciduous shrubland (III.B.) 

Physiognomic Group Cold-deciduous shrubland (III.B.2.) 

Physiognomic Subgroup Natural/Semi-natural cold-deciduous shrubland (III.B.2.N.) 

Formation Tidal cold-deciduous shrubland (III.B.2.N.h.) 

Alliance Baccharis halimifolia - Iva frutescens Tidal Shrubland Alliance (A.1023) 

Alliance (English name) Groundsel-tree - Maritime Marsh-elder Tidal Shrubland Alliance 

Association Baccharis halimifolia - Iva frutescens / Panicum virgatum Shrubland 

Association (English name) Groundsel-tree - Maritime Marsh-elder / Switchgrass Shrubland 

Ecological System(s): Atlantic Coastal Plain Embayed Region Tidal Salt and Brackish Marsh 

(CES203.260). 

Atlantic Coastal Plain Northern Salt Pond Marsh (CES203.892). 

Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Tidal Salt Marsh (CES203.519). 

Central Atlantic Coastal Plain Salt and Brackish Tidal Marsh (CES203.270). 


Concept Summary: This maritime shrubland of the eastern states occurs in association with 

salt marshes. Iva frutescens (Jesuit's bark) is the most characteristic and dominant shrub species, 

and Baccharis halimifolia (eastern baccharis) is a common associate. Other associated shrubs 

include Morella pensylvanica (northern bayberry) in the northern portion of the range, while 

Borrichia frutescens (bushy seaside tansy), Morella cerifera (wax myrtle), and Juniperus 

virginiana var. silicicola (southern redcedar) are frequent associates in the southern part of the 

range. Spartina patens (saltmeadow cordgrass) is a characteristic and usually abundant grass; 

other common herbaceous associates include Panicum virgatum (switchgrass), Distichlis spicata 

(inland saltgrass), Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos (crimsoneyed rosemallow), 

Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy), Teucrium canadense (Canada germander), Festuca 

rubra (red fescue), Limonium carolinianum (Carolina sealavender), Atriplex prostrata (triangle 

orache), Sabatia stellaris (rose of Plymouth), Sabatia dodecandra (marsh rose gentian), and in 

the north Hierochloe odorata (vanilla grass) and Juncus gerardii (saltmeadow rush), and in the 

south Setaria parviflora (marsh bristlegrass). This community often forms an abrupt transition 

from salt marsh to upland reflecting the relatively higher elevation and less frequent tidal 

flooding. Shrub cover in this situation tends to be fairly dense, and herbs are sparsely distributed. 

Storm-induced disturbance causes periodic die-back of the shrubs restricting the extent of their 

spread. 

Environmental Description: This maritime and estuarine shrubland of the northeastern 

seaboard states occurs in association with salt marshes. It forms an ecotone between high salt 

marsh and adjacent upland vegetation. This shrubland occurs above mean high tide but can be 

flooded by storm tides. Substrate is organic peat over glacial till, sand, or sandy loam. 

Vegetation Description: This tidal shrubland is dominated by Iva frutescens (Jesuit's bark) and 

Baccharis halimifolia (eastern baccharis). Other associated shrubs include Morella pensylvanica 

(northern bayberry) in the northern portion of the range, while Borrichia frutescens (bushy 

seaside tansy), Morella cerifera (wax myrtle), and Juniperus virginiana var. silicicola (southern 

redcedar) are frequent associates in the southern part of the range. Panicum virgatum 

(switchgrass) is a characteristic and usually abundant grass; other common herbaceous associates 

include Distichlis spicata (inland saltgrass), Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos (crimsoneyed 

rosemallow), Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy), Teucrium canadense (Canada 

280



germander), Festuca rubra (red fescue), Limonium carolinianum (Carolina sealavender), and in 

the south Setaria parviflora (marsh bristlegrass). This community often forms an abrupt 

transition from salt marsh to upland reflecting the relatively higher elevation and less frequent 

tidal flooding. Shrub cover in this situation tends to be fairly dense, and herbs are sparsely 

distributed. 


Stratum 

Lifeform 

Species 

Short shrub/sapling Broad-leaved deciduous shrub Baccharis halimifolia (eastern baccharis), 

Iva frutescens (Jesuit's bark) 

Herb (field) 

Graminoid Panicum virgatum (switchgrass) 

Characteristic Species: Baccharis halimifolia (eastern baccharis), Iva frutescens (Jesuit's bark), 

Panicum virgatum (switchgrass). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This association ranges from Massachusetts to South Carolina. 

States/Provinces: CT, DE, MA, MD:S5, NC, NJ, NY, RI, SC, VA. 

Federal Lands: NPS (Assateague Island, Cape Cod, Colonial, Fire Island); USFWS (Back 

Bay?, Chesapeake Marshlands, Chincoteague, Monomoy?, Parker River, Prime Hook). 


Rank: G5 (1-Dec-1997). 





Comments: As shrub cover decreases, the community often grades into high salt marsh 

associations such as Panicum virgatum - Spartina patens Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL006150) 

or Spartina patens (saltmeadow cordgrass)-dominated high marsh associations. Southern analogs 

of this salt marsh-upland border shrubland include Baccharis halimifolia - Iva frutescens - 

Morella cerifera - (Ilex vomitoria) Shrubland (CEGL003920) along the southern Atlantic Coast 

from the Carolinas to Florida west to Louisiana and Iva frutescens ssp. frutescens - Baccharis 

halimifolia / Spartina spartinae Shrubland (CEGL004616) along the Texas Gulf Coast. This 

community is differentiated from Morella cerifera - Baccharis halimifolia / Spartina patens 

Shrubland (CEGL003809) by the presence of Iva frutescens (Jesuit's bark) and by the influence 

of tidal flooding. 


• Baccharis halimifolia - Iva frutescens - Morella cerifera - (Ilex vomitoria) Shrubland (CEGL003920). 

• Eleocharis rostellata - Spartina patens Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL006611). 

• Iva frutescens / Spartina cynosuroides Tidal Shrubland (CEGL006847). 

• Iva frutescens / Spartina patens Shrubland (CEGL006848)--has 

lower species diveristy, occurs at the borders of 

high salt marsh and often intergrades with it; tidal flooding is more regular than in CEGL003921. 

• Iva frutescens ssp. frutescens - Baccharis halimifolia / Spartina spartinae Shrubland (CEGL004616). 

• Panicum virgatum - Spartina patens Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL006150). 


• Baccharis halimifolia - Iva frutescens / Panicum virgatum Herbaceous Vegetation (Harrison and Stango 2003) = 

• Baccharis halimifolia - Iva frutescens ssp. oraria / Spartina patens 

Shrubland (Bartgis 1986) = 

• Iva frutescens - Baccharis halimifolia / Spartina patens - Panicum virgatum Tidal Shrubland (VDNH 2003) = 

281



• Iva frutescens-Baccharis halimifolia (Good 1965) ? 

• Iva frutescens and Baccharis halimifolia (Klemas et al. 1973) = 

• Estuarine scrub-shrub wetland (Tiner 1985a) = 

• Estuarine scrub-shrub wetland (Tiner 1985b) = 

• Salt Marsh (Rawinski 1984) ? 

• Salt Marsh Complex, marsh-upland border (Breden 1989) B 

• Salt Shrub (High Subtype) (Schafale 2000) ? 

• Salt bush - salt meadow marsh (Daiber et al. 1976) ? 

• Salt marsh and upper border (Barry 1980) B 

• Salt marsh community (Hill 1986) B 

• Salt shrub (Reschke 1990) B 

• Saltbush zone (Boule 1979) B 

• Shrub succession community (Higgins et al. 1971) B 

• Swamp thicket (Klotz 1986) B 

SOURCES 


References: Barry 1980, Bartgis 1986, Bell et al. 2002, Berdine 1998, Boule 1979, Bowman 

2000, Breden 1989, Breden et al. 2001, Clancy 1996, Coulling 2002, Coulling pers. comm., 

Daiber et al. 1976, Dowhan and Rozsa 1989, Eastern Ecology Working Group n.d., Edinger et al. 

2002, Enser 1999, Fleming 2001, Fleming et al. 2001, Fleming pers. comm., Good 1965, 

Harrison 2004, Harrison and Stango 2003, Higgins et al. 1971, Hill 1986, J. Harrison pers. 

comm., Klemas et al. 1973, Klotz 1986, Martin 1959, Metzler and Barrett 2001, NRCS 2001, 

Rawinski 1984, Reschke 1990, Schafale 2000, Schafale and Weakley 1990, Sneddon et al. 1995, 

Swain and Kearsley 2001, TNC 1995, Tiner 1984, Tiner 1985a, Tiner 1985b, VDNH 2003. 

Figure I26. Salt Scrub at Colonial National Historical Park. September 2004. NAD 1983 / 

UTM easting 362308, northing 4125637. 

282



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): CULTURAL MEADOW 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Orchard Grass - Timothy - Fescue species - Goldenrod species 

Herbaceous Vegetation 

USNVC Scientific Name: Dactylis glomerata - Phleum pratense - Festuca spp. - Solidago 

spp. Herbaceous Vegetation 



Environmental Description: This mapping unit includes herbaceous-dominated vegetation that 

is maintained as fields, lawns, and mowed roadsides throughout Colonial National Historical 

Park. These areas are vegetated by a mix of native and European grasses and forbs. Fields are 

maintained to keep an open landscape similar to the open farmland conditions found during the 

18th century, and thus they are allowed to grow to a height of 50-75 cm (20-30 inches) before 

being mowed. 

Vegetation Description: Cultural Meadow includes both fields and mowed areas. The fields are 

dense stands of sod-forming, mostly exotic grasses. Typical grasses in these fields include 

Lolium pratense (meadow ryegrass), Andropogon virginicus (broomsedge bluestem), and 

Dactylis glomerata (orchardgrass). Mowed roadsides are highly maintained grass-dominated 

areas next to the Colonial Parkway. A variety of exotic plant species are common in these areas, 

including Viola arvensis (European field pansy), Taraxacum officinale (common dandelion), 

Allium ampeloprasum var. atroviolaceum (broadleaf wild leek) (locally known as "Yorktown 

onion"), Ranunculus bulbosus (St. Anthony's turnip), and Duchesnea indica (Indian strawberry). 

Areas mapped as Cultural Meadow may have below minimum mapping unit (





Physiognomic Class Herbaceous Vegetation (V) 

Physiognomic Subclass Perennial graminoid vegetation (V.A.) 

Physiognomic Group Temperate or subpolar grassland (V.A.5.) 

Physiognomic Subgroup Natural/Semi-natural temperate or subpolar grassland (V.A.5.N.) 

Formation Medium-tall sod temperate or subpolar grassland (V.A.5.N.c.) 

Alliance Dactylis glomerata - Rumex acetosella Herbaceous Alliance (A.1190) 

Alliance (English name) Orchard Grass - Common Sheep Sorrel Herbaceous Alliance 

Association Dactylis glomerata - Phleum pratense - Festuca spp. - Solidago spp. 


Association (English name) Orchard Grass - Timothy - Fescue species - Goldenrod species Herbaceous 

Vegetation 



Concept Summary: This broadly defined vegetation type includes pastures and postagricultural 

fields and is largely composed of nonnative cool-season grasses and herbs (generally 

of European origin) in the early stages of succession. The fields are typically mowed at least 

annually. Physiognomically, these grasslands are generally comprised of mid-height (1-3 feet 

tall) grasses and forbs, with occasional scattered shrubs. Species composition varies from site to 

site, depending on land-use history and perhaps soil type, but in general this vegetation is quite 

wide-ranging in northeastern and midwestern states and at higher elevations (610-1220 m [2000 

4000 feet]) in the southeastern states. Dominant grasses vary from site to site but generally 

feature the nominal species. Other graminoid associates may include Agrostis stolonifera 

(creeping bentgrass), Agrostis hyemalis (winter bentgrass), Elymus repens (quackgrass), Bromus 

inermis (smooth brome), Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass), Lolium perenne (perennial ryegrass), 

Poa pratensis (Kentucky bluegrass), Poa compressa (Canada bluegrass), Schizachyrium 

scoparium (little bluestem) (not in abundance), and Anthoxanthum odoratum (sweet vernalgrass). 

Forbs scattered among the grasses are varied but include Hieracium spp. (hawkweeds), Oxalis 

stricta (common yellow oxalis), Achillea millefolium (common yarrow), Asclepias syriaca 

(common milkweed), Solidago rugosa (wrinkleleaf goldenrod), Solidago nemoralis (gray 

goldenrod), Solidago juncea (early goldenrod), Solidago canadensis (Canada goldenrod), 

Solidago altissima (tall goldenrod), Euthamia graminifolia (flat-top goldentop), Cerastium 

arvense (field chickweed), Oenothera biennis (common evening-primrose), Potentilla simplex 

(common cinquefoil), Symphyotrichum lateriflorum (calico aster), Symphyotrichum novaeangliae 

(New England aster), Symphyotrichum lanceolatum (white panicle aster), Daucus carota 

(Queen Anne's lace), Ambrosia artemisiifolia (annual ragweed), Vicia cracca (bird vetch), 

Trifolium spp. (clovers), and many others. 

Environmental Description: This association occurs on pastures and land that has been tilled. 

Generally the fields are mowed at least annually. 

Vegetation Description: In addition to Dactylis glomerata (orchardgrass) and Phleum pratense 

(timothy), these grassy fields are characterized by graminoids including Agrostis stolonifera 

(creeping bentgrass), Agrostis hyemalis (winter bentgrass), Elymus repens (quackgrass), Bromus 

inermis (smooth brome), Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass), Lolium perenne (perennial ryegrass), 

Poa pratensis (Kentucky bluegrass), Poa compressa (Canada bluegrass), Schizachyrium 

scoparium (little bluestem) (not in abundance), and Anthoxanthum odoratum (sweet vernalgrass). 

Forbs scattered among the grasses are varied but include Hieracium spp. (hawkweeds), Oxalis 

284



stricta (common yellow oxalis), Achillea millefolium (common yarrow), Asclepias syriaca 

(common milkweed), Solidago rugosa (wrinkleleaf goldenrod), Solidago nemoralis (gray 

goldenrod), Solidago juncea (early goldenrod), Solidago canadensis (Canada goldenrod), 

Solidago altissima (tall goldenrod), Euthamia graminifolia (flat-top goldentop), Cerastium 

arvense (field chickweed), Oenothera biennis (common evening-primrose), Potentilla simplex 

(common cinquefoil), Symphyotrichum lateriflorum (calico aster), Symphyotrichum novaeangliae 

(New England aster), Symphyotrichum lanceolatum (white panicle aster), Daucus carota 

(Queen Anne's lace), Ambrosia artemisiifolia (annual ragweed), Vicia cracca (bird vetch), 

Trifolium spp. (clovers), and many others. 



Species 

Herb (field) Forb Rumex acetosella (common sheep sorrel) 

Herb (field) 

Graminoid Dactylis glomerata (orchardgrass), 

Festuca rubra (red fescue), 

Phleum pratense (timothy) 

Characteristic Species: Achillea millefolium (common yarrow), Anthoxanthum odoratum 

(sweet vernalgrass), Dactylis glomerata (orchardgrass), Euthamia graminifolia (flat-top 

goldentop), Phleum pratense (timothy), Rumex acetosella (common sheep sorrel), Solidago 

altissima (tall goldenrod), Solidago canadensis (Canada goldenrod), Solidago rugosa 

(wrinkleleaf goldenrod). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This vegetation is quite wide-ranging in northeastern and midwestern states and 

possibly occurs at higher elevations in the southeastern states. 

States/Provinces: CT, DE, KY, MA, MD, ME, NB?, NH, NJ, NS?, NY, PA, QC?, RI, TN, VA, 

VT, WV. 

Federal Lands: NPS (Allegheny Portage Railroad, Appomattox Court House, Booker T. 

Washington, Boston Harbor Islands, Cape Cod, Colonial, Delaware Water Gap, Fire Island, Fort 

Necessity, Fredericksburg-Spotsylvania, Friendship Hill, Gateway, George Washington 

Birthplace, Gettysburg, Johnstown Flood, Marsh-Billings-Rockefeller, Minute Man, Morristown, 

Petersburg, Richmond, Saint-Gaudens, Saratoga, Upper Delaware, Valley Forge, Weir Farm); 

USFWS (Aroostook, Assabet River, Carlton Pond, Erie, Great Meadows, Moosehorn, Nulhegan 

Basin, Oxbow, Parker River). 


Rank: GNA (modified/managed) (8-Dec-2005). 

Reasons: This vegetation type includes pasture and post-agricultural fields and is largely 

composed of nonnative grasses and herbs (generally of European origin). 




Comments: Schizachyrium scoparium - (Andropogon virginicus) - Solidago spp. Herbaceous 

Vegetation (CEGL006333) is similar to this type but is dominated by warm-season grasses. 

285




• Lolium (arundinaceum, pratense) Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL004048). 

• Phleum pratense - Bromus pubescens - Helenium autumnale Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL004018). 

• Schizachyrium scoparium - (Andropogon virginicus) - Solidago spp. Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL006333)-has 

a greater component of native species and occurs on drier soils. 


SOURCES 

Description Authors: S. C. Gawler. 

References: Clark 1986, Dowhan and Rozsa 1989, Eastern Ecology Working Group n.d., 

Edinger et al. 2002, Ehrenfeld 1977, Elliman 2003, Keever 1979, NRCS 2004, Newbold et al. 

1988, Perles et al. 2006a, Perles et al. 2006b, Perles et al. 2006c, Perles et al. 2007, Sneddon et 

al. 1995, TDNH unpubl. Data. 

Figure I27. Cultural Meadow at Colonial National Historical Park. September 2004. NAD 


286



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): TIDAL OLIGOHALINE MARSH (COMMON 

REED TIDAL MARSH) 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Common Reed Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation 

USNVC Scientific Name: Phragmites australis Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation 



Environmental Description: This association is a dense, tall grassland indicative of 

disturbance. It occurs on dredge spoils and other disturbed areas, generally in areas that are 

regularly flooded with tidal water. Species within and adjacent to this community are typical of 

oligohaline conditions where salt concentrations are between 0.5 and 5 ppt. Substrates range 

from muck or peat to sand. 

Vegetation Description: This vegetation is characterized by dense stands of the invasive, 

nonnative grass Phragmites australis (common reed), typically to the exclusion of all other 

vascular plant species. Other species typical of oligohaline marsh may occur with low cover, 

such as Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), Typha angustifolia (narrowleaf cattail), Spartina 

cynosuroides (big cordgrass), and Polygonum punctatum (dotted smartweed). 



Species 

Herb (field) 

Graminoid Phragmites australis (common reed) 

Characteristic Species: Phragmites australis (common reed). 




Reference 

VA SNR* B 1 Tidal Oligohaline Marsh 


Local Range: Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Common Reed Tidal Marsh) was noted at College 

Creek / Kingsmill, Jamestown Island, and in other areas as small patches. It is one of five 

associations included in the map class Tidal Oligohaline Marsh. The five associations cannot be 

mapped separately based on photo signatures, and a combined map class was used the vegetation 

map. Polygons of Tidal Oligohaline Marsh may, in some cases, include several associations. 

Classification Comments: Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Common Reed Tidal Marsh) is 

distinguished by being dominated by Phragmites australis (common reed). 



Plots: None. 








Formation Tidal temperate or subpolar grassland (V.A.5.N.n.) 

Alliance Phragmites australis Tidal Herbaceous Alliance (A.1477) 

287



Alliance (English name) Common Reed Tidal Herbaceous Alliance 

Association Phragmites australis Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation 

Association (English name) Common Reed Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation 

Ecological System(s): Atlantic Coastal Plain Embayed Region Tidal Salt and Brackish Marsh 

(CES203.260). 

Central Atlantic Coastal Plain Salt and Brackish Tidal Marsh (CES203.270). 

Atlantic Coastal Plain Embayed Region Tidal Freshwater Marsh (CES203.259). 

Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Tidal Salt Marsh (CES203.519). 


Concept Summary: This community is a dense tall grassland indicative of disturbance. It 

occurs in a range of tidal wetland habitats from fresh to brackish in salinity. It is characterized by 

dense stands of Phragmites australis (common reed), a species which tends to grow in colonies 

of tall, stout, leafy plants often to the exclusion of all other vascular plant species. Associated 

species are highly variable, depending on the community that has been invaded. Spreading in 

large colonies, Phragmites (reed) eventually dominates disturbed areas at coverage up to 100%. 

More typically, though, scattered individuals of other species may occur, such as sparse Morella 

cerifera (wax myrtle) shrubs, Kosteletzkya virginica (Virginia saltmarsh mallow), Calystegia 

sepium (hedge false bindweed), Boehmeria cylindrica (smallspike false nettle), Typha 

angustifolia (narrowleaf cattail), Apocynum cannabinum (Indianhemp), Rosa palustris (swamp 

rose), Polygonum sp. (a knotweed), and Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine). Vines of 

Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy) are also frequent, but typically occur at low cover. 

This community has a broad geographic range, including coastal areas of the eastern and 

southeastern United States and Canada. 

Environmental Description: This community is a dense tall grassland indicative of 

disturbance. It occurs in a range of tidal wetland habitats from fresh to brackish in salinity. 

Vegetation Description: This community is a broadly defined reed-grass marsh. It is 

characterized by dense stands of Phragmites australis (common reed), a species which tends to 

grow in colonies of tall, stout, leafy plants often to the exclusion of all other vascular plant 

species. Associated species are highly variable, depending on the community that has been 

invaded. Spreading in large colonies, Phragmites (reed) eventually dominates disturbed areas at 

coverage up to 100%. More typically, though, scattered individuals of other species may occur, 

such as sparse Morella cerifera (wax myrtle) shrubs, Kosteletzkya virginica (Virginia saltmarsh 

mallow), Calystegia sepium (hedge false bindweed), Boehmeria cylindrica (smallspike false 

nettle), Typha angustifolia (narrowleaf cattail), Apocynum cannabinum (Indianhemp), Rosa 

palustris (swamp rose), Polygonum sp. (a knotweed), and Mikania scandens (climbing 

hempvine). Vines of Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy) are also frequent but typically 

occur at low cover. 



Species 

Herb (field) 

Graminoid Phragmites australis (common reed) 

Characteristic Species: Phragmites australis (common reed). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This community has a broad geographic range, including coastal areas of the eastern 

and southeastern United States and Canada. 

288



States/Provinces: AL, CT, DE, FL, GA, LA, LB?, MA, MD, ME, MS, NC, NF?, NH, NJ, NS?, 

NY, PA, PE?, QC?, RI, SC, TX, VA. 

Federal Lands: NPS (Assateague Island, Boston Harbor Islands, Cape Cod, Colonial, Fire 

Island, Gateway, George Washington Birthplace, Saugus Iron Works); USFWS (Back Bay, Bon 

Secour, Chesapeake Marshlands). 


Rank: GNA (invasive) (22-Nov-1997). 





Comments: Although Phragmites australis (common reed) rhizomes have been noted in salt 

marsh sediments exceeding three thousand years in age (Niering and Warren 1977) and is thus a 

native component of salt marshes in some areas in North America, the growth of the species in 

its native condition was likely to have been significantly different than the dense monotypic 

stands that characterize this community in parts of its range today. The invasive, nonnative strain 

has been labeled haplotype M (Saltonstall 2002). The presence of the Phragmites australis 

(common reed) community in wetlands today generally indicates human-induced disturbance, 

either through direct habitat manipulation or through passive introduction of reproductive 

material to naturally disturbed substrates. Historically, without alteration, these sites would 

generally be more saline. In New England, Phragmites (reed) tends to invade behind 

artificial/man-made levees where regular salt input is blocked, making the sites more brackish 

and less saline than prior to levee construction and anthropogenic modification. In cases where 

Phragmites australis (common reed) is a significant component of the vegetation but the 

vegetation retains sufficient species composition to retain its identity, the site is considered an 

unhealthy or degraded example of that original community. Where Phragmites australis 

(common reed) cover is so high that native species have been excluded and the original 

community is no longer recognizable, the occurrence is then treated as an example of Phragmites 

australis (common reed) Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL004187). 


• Phragmites australis - (Sagittaria platyphylla, Vigna luteola) Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL007891). 

• Phragmites australis Eastern North America Temperate Semi-natural Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL004141). 


• Phragmites australis Association (Fleming 1998) ? 

• Phragmites australis community (Metzler and Barrett 1992) ? 

• Phragmites australis tidal marsh association (Clancy 1993) ? 

• Brackish Tidal Marsh (Rawinski 1984) ? 

• Salt Marsh Complex (Breden 1989) B 

SOURCES 

Description Authors: R. E. Zaremba. 

References: Bell et al. 2002, Bowman 2000, Breden 1989, Clancy 1993, Edinger et al. 2002, 

Fleming 1998, Harrison 2001, Metzler and Barrett 1992, Metzler and Barrett 1996, Metzler and 

Barrett 2001, NRCS 2001, Nelson 1986, Niering and Warren 1977, Odum et al. 1984, Rawinski 

1984, Saltonstall 2002, Schafale and Weakley 1990, Schotz pers. comm., Southeastern Ecology 

Working Group n.d., Swain and Kearsley 2001. 

289



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): TIDAL OLIGOHALINE MARSH 

(SALTMEADOW CORDGRASS - OLNEY 

THREE-SQUARE LOW INTERIOR MARSH 

TYPE) 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Chairmaker's Bulrush - Saltmeadow Cordgrass Herbaceous 


USNVC Scientific Name: Schoenoplectus americanus - Spartina patens Herbaceous 




Environmental Description: This oligohaline marsh association is found on the upper reaches 

of tidal creeks where the hydrologic regime is primarily lunar tidal. The substrate is 

characterized by an unusual floating mat of partially decomposed organic matter, fine roots, and 

Schoenoplectus (bulrush) rhizomes to a depth of >40 cm. This vegetation may form extensive 

(>1000-square-meter) patches in the interior of marshes and is typically absent from a 20- to 50m 

edge zone along tidal channels. 

Vegetation Description: This species-diverse, relatively short-statured marsh contains a 

mixture of characteristically oligohaline and mesohaline species. This association is dominated 

by Schoenoplectus americanus (chairmaker's bulrush), occurring with Spartina patens 

(saltmeadow cordgrass). Other typical associates include Amaranthus cannabinus (tidalmarsh 

amaranth), Cyperus odoratus (fragrant flatsedge), Distichlis spicata (inland saltgrass), Hibiscus 

moscheutos ssp. moscheutos (crimsoneyed rosemallow), Kosteletzkya virginica (Virginia 

saltmarsh mallow), Panicum virgatum var. virgatum (switchgrass), Polygonum punctatum 

(dotted smartweed), and Typha angustifolia (narrowleaf cattail). 



Species 

Herb (field) 

Graminoid Schoenoplectus americanus (chairmaker's 

bulrush) 

Characteristic Species: Schoenoplectus americanus (chairmaker's bulrush), Spartina patens 

(saltmeadow cordgrass). 



Eleocharis rostellata (beaked spikerush) - plant VA watchlist (S3) 



Reference 

VA SNR* B . Tidal Oligohaline Marsh 


Local Range: Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Saltmeadow Cordgrass - Olney Three-Square Low 

Interior Marsh Type) is found at Jamestown Island. It is one of five associations included in the 

map class Tidal Oligohaline Marsh. The five associations cannot be mapped separately based on 

photo signatures, and a combined map class was used for the vegetation map. Polygons of Tidal 

Oligohaline Marsh may, in some cases, include several associations. 

Classification Comments: This association is distinguished by being dominated by 

Schoenoplectus americanus (chairmaker's bulrush) and occurring in the interior of marshes. 


290













Alliance Schoenoplectus americanus Tidal Herbaceous Alliance (A.2007) 

Alliance (English name) Chairmaker's Bulrush Tidal Herbaceous Alliance 

Association Schoenoplectus americanus - Spartina patens Herbaceous Vegetation 

Association (English name) Chairmaker's Bulrush - Saltmeadow Cordgrass Herbaceous Vegetation 

Ecological System(s): Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Brackish Tidal Marsh (CES203.894). 


Concept Summary: This brackish marsh occurs in wet depressions at the upper reaches of 

irregularly flooded tidal marshes of the mid-Atlantic coast. It occurs at the ecotone between low 

and high salt marsh zones. It is irregularly flooded, occurring just above the zone of regular tidal 

flooding, but is more frequently flooded than Spartina patens (saltmeadow cordgrass)-dominated 

high marsh. This community is dominated by colonies of Schoenoplectus americanus 

(chairmaker's bulrush), which often accounts for 40-75% of the total vegetation cover or 

codominant with Spartina patens (saltmeadow cordgrass) at some sites. Associated species can 

include Pluchea odorata (sweetscent), Juncus roemerianus (needlegrass rush), Spartina 

alterniflora (smooth cordgrass), Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass), Distichlis spicata (inland 

saltgrass), and Limonium carolinianum (Carolina sealavender) plus Typha spp. (cattails) and 

Phragmites australis (common reed). This community often grades into Spartina patens 

(saltmeadow cordgrass)- or Juncus roemerianus (needlegrass rush)-dominated high marsh 

landward or Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass)- or Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass)dominated 

low marsh seaward. This association is best developed where the elevation gradient 

across the marsh is more gradual, allowing for greater diversity of physical conditions of 

duration and frequency of flooding. 

Environmental Description: This association occurs in wet depressions of high salt marshes 

and in the ecotone between low and high salt marsh zones. It is irregularly flooded, occurring 

just above the zone of regular tidal flooding, but is more frequently flooded than Spartina patens 

(saltmeadow cordgrass)-dominated high marsh. This association is best developed where the 

elevation gradient across the marsh is more gradual, allowing for greater diversity of physical 

conditions of duration and frequency of flooding. 

Vegetation Description: This community is dominated by colonies of Schoenoplectus 

americanus (chairmaker's bulrush), which often accounts for 40-75% of the total vegetation 

cover or codominant with Spartina patens (saltmeadow cordgrass) at some sites. Associated 

species can include Pluchea odorata (sweetscent), Juncus roemerianus (needlegrass rush), 

Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos (crimsoneyed rosemallow), Spartina alterniflora (smooth 

cordgrass), Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass), Distichlis spicata (inland saltgrass), 

Limonium carolinianum (Carolina sealavender), and Typha spp. (cattails) Phragmites australis 

(common reed) also occurs in this vegetation. This community often grades into vegetation 

dominated by Spartina patens (saltmeadow cordgrass) or Juncus roemerianus (needlegrass rush) 

291



in high marsh landward and by vegetation dominated by Spartina alterniflora (smooth 

cordgrass) or Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass) in low marsh seaward. This vegetation does 

not typically occur along the edge of tidal channels. 



Herb (field) Graminoid Schoenoplectus americanus (chairmaker's 

bulrush) 

Characteristic Species: Schoenoplectus americanus (chairmaker's bulrush), Spartina patens 

(saltmeadow cordgrass). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This association is currently described from mid-Atlantic states of Delaware, Maryland 

and Virginia. It possibly extends south to Georgia. 

States/Provinces: DE, GA?, MD:S4, NC?, NJ, SC?, VA. 

Federal Lands: NPS (Colonial); USFWS (Back Bay, Chesapeake Marshlands). 


Rank: GNR (17-Apr-2000). 





Comments: The halinity range of this vegetation is uncertain, but the relatively higher species 

diversity suggests lower halinity than that characteristic of Spartina patens - Distichlis spicata - 

(Juncus gerardii) Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL006006). It is unclear whether stands attributed 

to this type at North Landing River and Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge represent the same 

vegetation. The prevailing tidal influence in these areas is generally wind-generated rather than 

strictly lunar (Coulling 2002). 


• Schoenoplectus americanus - (Spartina patens) - Typha spp. Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL008476) 

• Schoenoplectus pungens Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL004188) 


• Schoenoplectus americanus - Spartina patens Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation (Bartgis 1986) = 

• Spartina patens - Schoenoplectus americanus Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation (VDNH 2003) = 

SOURCES 

Description Authors: S.L. Neid, mod. L.A. Sneddon. 

References: Bartgis 1986, Bowman 2000, Coulling 2002, Eastern Ecology Working Group n.d., 

Fleming 2001, Fleming et al. 2001, Harrison 2001, Harrison 2004, VDNH 2003. 

292



Figure I28. Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Saltmeadow Cordgrass - Olney Three-Square Low Interior 

Marsh Type) (plot COLO.115) at Colonial National Historical Park. October 2001. NAD 1983 / 

UTM easting 343779, northing 4119291. 

Figure I29. Tidal Oligohaline Marsh 

(Saltmeadow Cordgrass - Olney Three- 

Square Low Interior Marsh Type) (plot 

COLO.115) at Colonial National Historical 

Park. July 2004. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 

343779, northing 4119291. 

293



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): TIDAL MESOHALINE AND POLYHALINE 

MARSH (LOW SALT MARSH) 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Saltmarsh Cordgrass - Saltgrass Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation 

USNVC Scientific Name: Spartina alterniflora - Distichlis spicata Tidal Herbaceous 




Environmental Description: Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Low Salt Marsh) are salt 

marshes characterized by very low species diversity and low plant stature. Mesohaline conditions 

comprise salt concentrations between 5 and 18 ppt, whereas polyhaline conditions range from 18 

to 30 ppt. In Colonial National Historical Park, these marshes occur as small riverine marshes 

fringing the mainland along the York River and in tidal reaches of its tributaries and are subject 

to regular, diurnal tides. 

Vegetation Description: These marshes are strongly dominated by short-statured Spartina 

alterniflora (smooth cordgrass), generally less than 1 meter in height, often in association with 

Distichlis spicata (inland saltgrass) and Spartina patens (saltmeadow cordgrass). Other common 

associates include Schoenoplectus robustus (sturdy bulrush), Symphyotrichum tenuifolium 

(perennial saltmarsh aster), Schoenoplectus americanus (chairmaker's bulrush), and Fimbristylis 

castanea (marsh fimbry). 



Herb (field) Graminoid Distichlis spicata (inland saltgrass), 

Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass) 

Characteristic Species: Distichlis spicata (inland saltgrass), Spartina alterniflora (smooth 

cordgrass), Spartina patens (saltmeadow cordgrass). 




Reference 

VA 

SNR . . 


Local Range: Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Low Salt Marsh) was noted along the 

York River from Ringfield / King Creek to Yorktown Creek. It is one of two associations 

included in the map class Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh. The two associations cannot 

be mapped separately based on photo signatures, and a combined map class was used for the 

vegetation map. 

Classification Comments: Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Low Salt Marsh) is 

distinguished by the dominance of Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass) occurring with 

species indicative of mesohaline conditions such as Spartina patens (saltmeadow cordgrass) and 

Distichlis spicata (inland saltgrass). 

Other Comments: Near-shore pocket marshes may have a fringe of Oligohaline Marsh 

dominated by Typha angustifolia (narrowleaf cattail) and Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass) 

next to shore that is too small to map separately. 


Plots: None. 


294










Alliance Spartina alterniflora Tidal Herbaceous Alliance (A.1471) 

Alliance (English name) Saltmarsh Cordgrass Tidal Herbaceous Alliance 

Association Spartina alterniflora - Distichlis spicata Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation 

Association (English name) Saltmarsh Cordgrass - Saltgrass Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation 

Ecological System(s): Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Tidal Salt Marsh (CES203.519). 


Concept Summary: This community represents low salt marsh vegetation dominated by the 

"short form" of Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass) and Distichlis spicata (inland saltgrass), 

although the latter species may be somewhat less abundant. Diversity is exceedingly low, but 

some stands may be codominated by Spartina patens (saltmeadow cordgrass). Most occurrences 

of this community type are located in non-riverine, mesohaline marshes subject to regular, 

diurnal tides. 

Environmental Description: Stands of this vegetation are located in mesohaline (5-18 ppt 

salinity), chiefly non-riverine marshes subject to regular, diurnal tides. The substrate typically 

consists of extremely dense, often firm, fibric peat rich in fine roots and rhizomes. This 

vegetation is documented from large estuaries that are somewhat more sheltered from storm 

overwash than similar vegetation of barrier island marshes. 

Vegetation Description: This community is dominated by short-statured Spartina alterniflora 

(smooth cordgrass), generally much less than 1 m in height; Distichlis spicata (inland saltgrass) 

is a constant and typically codominant associate. Spartina patens (saltmeadow cordgrass) may 

attain moderate to high cover in some stands. Infrequent components of this vegetation include 

Limonium carolinianum (Carolina sealavender), Schoenoplectus pungens (common threesquare), 

Iva frutescens (Jesuit's bark), Juncus roemerianus (needlegrass rush), Kosteletzkya virginica 

(Virginia saltmarsh mallow), Pluchea odorata (sweetscent) and Salicornia virginica (Virginia 

glasswort). Species richness is very low, with an average of five species per 100 square meters. 



Herb (field) Graminoid Distichlis spicata (inland saltgrass), 

Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass) 

Characteristic Species: Distichlis spicata (inland saltgrass), Spartina alterniflora (smooth 

cordgrass). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This association has been documented from several, chiefly non-riverine sites on the 

eastern and western shores of the Chesapeake Bay in Maryland and Virginia. 


Federal Lands: NPS (Colonial, George Washington Birthplace); USFWS (Chincoteague). 

295




Rank: GNR (2-Jun-2007). 





Comments: Stands of this vegetation generally occupy lower landscape positions than the 

typically adjacent high marsh represented by Spartina patens - Distichlis spicata - (Juncus 

roemerianus) Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL004197) and are usually flooded daily. Salt pannes 

dominated by Salicornia (virginica, bigelovii, maritima) - Spartina alterniflora Herbaceous 

Vegetation (CEGL004308) may form at intermediate landscape positions, where salt 

concentrations are higher due to evaporation between less regular episodes of inundation, and 

hence halophytic forbs attain greater importance. This type is documented by 11 vegetation plots 

from Virginia and Maryland. 


• Salicornia (virginica, bigelovii, maritima) - Spartina alterniflora Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL004308). 

• Spartina patens - Distichlis spicata - (Juncus roemerianus) Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL004197). 


SOURCES 

Description Authors: P. P. Coulling. 

References: Coulling 2002, Eastern Ecology Working Group n.d. 

Figure I30. Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Low Salt Marsh) at Colonial National 

Historical Park. July 2004. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 358470, northing 4126476. 

296



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): TIDAL MESOHALINE AND POLYHALINE 

MARSH (TRANSITIONAL MARSH) 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Saltmarsh Cordgrass - Dotted Smartweed - Water-hemp 


USNVC Scientific Name: Spartina alterniflora - Polygonum punctatum - Amaranthus 

cannabinus Herbaceous Vegetation 



Environmental Description: Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Transitional Marsh) 

occurs in mesohaline to oligohaline waters on the mid-tidal position of large tidal rivers and tidal 

guts. It receives freshwater input from alluvial sources inland and may also receive seepage from 

adjacent uplands. These marshes grow on silty mud and are subject to regular tidal flooding. 

Vegetation Description: Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Transitional Marsh) is 

dominated by dense, saltmarsh grasses with local areas dominated by aquatic forbs. Spartina 

alterniflora (smooth cordgrass) is the dominant grass, occurring with Spartina cynosuroides (big 

cordgrass) and Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), which may dominate in patches. This 

marsh vegetation may occur as linear bands along tidal channels or as large patches. 



Herb (field) 

Graminoid Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass) 

Characteristic Species: Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), Spartina alterniflora (smooth 

cordgrass), Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass). 


Subnational Distribution with Crosswalk Data: Information not available. 

Local Range: Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Transitional Marsh) is found in the 

vicinity of College Creek / Kingsmill. It is one of two associations included in the map class 

Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh. The two associations cannot be mapped separately 

based on photo signatures, and a combined map class was used for the vegetation map. 

Classification Comments: Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Transitional Marsh) is 

distinguished by the dominance of Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass) occurring with 

species indicative of more oligohaline or freshwater conditions such as Spartina cynosuroides 

(big cordgrass), Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), and Zizania aquatica var. aquatica 

(annual wildrice). 



Plots: None. 







297





Alliance Spartina alterniflora Tidal Herbaceous Alliance (A.1471) 

Alliance (English name) Saltmarsh Cordgrass Tidal Herbaceous Alliance 

Association Spartina alterniflora - Polygonum punctatum - Amaranthus cannabinus 


Association (English name) Saltmarsh Cordgrass - Dotted Smartweed - Water-hemp Herbaceous Vegetation 

Ecological System(s): Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Brackish Tidal Marsh (CES203.894). 


Concept Summary: This oligohaline to mesohaline marsh of the mid-Atlantic occurs in silty 

mud along meanders in tidal rivers and guts in the interiors of extensive marshes where there is 

significant freshwater input. The vegetation is diverse and variable but is characterized by the 

consistent presence of Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass), Schoenoplectus robustus (sturdy 

bulrush), and Polygonum punctatum (dotted smartweed). Other associates include Amaranthus 

cannabinus (tidalmarsh amaranth), Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (softstem bulrush), 

Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), Pluchea odorata (sweetscent), Bidens coronata 

(crowned beggarticks), Kosteletzkya virginica (Virginia saltmarsh mallow), Eleocharis palustris 

(common spikerush), Asclepias incarnata (swamp milkweed), Schoenoplectus americanus 

(chairmaker's bulrush), Ptilimnium capillaceum (herbwilliam), and Echinochloa walteri (coast 

cockspur grass). Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass) is a common associate in Virginia 

examples and in some areas of Maryland. 

Environmental Description: This oligohaline to mesohaline marsh of the mid-Atlantic occurs 

in silty mud along meanders in tidal rivers and guts in the interiors of extensive marshes where 

there is significant freshwater input. 

Vegetation Description: The vegetation is diverse and variable but is characterized by the 

consistent presence of Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass), Schoenoplectus robustus (sturdy 

bulrush), and Polygonum punctatum (dotted smartweed). Other associates include Amaranthus 

cannabinus (tidalmarsh amaranth), Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (softstem bulrush), 

Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), Pluchea odorata (sweetscent), Bidens coronata 

(crowned beggarticks), Kosteletzkya virginica (Virginia saltmarsh mallow), Eleocharis palustris 

(common spikerush), Asclepias incarnata (swamp milkweed), Schoenoplectus americanus 

(chairmaker's bulrush), Ptilimnium capillaceum (herbwilliam), and Echinochloa walteri (coast 

cockspur grass). Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass) is a common associate in Virginia 

examples and in some areas of Maryland. An unusually diverse example of this vegetation in 

Delaware occurs on Blackbird Creek and supports the additional species Eleocharis parvula 

(dwarf spikerush), Cyperus filicinus (fern flatsedge), Sium suave (hemlock waterparsnip), Typha 

latifolia (broadleaf cattail), Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos (crimsoneyed rosemallow) and 

Sagittaria latifolia (broadleaf arrowhead). 


Characteristic Species: Polygonum punctatum (dotted smartweed), Schoenoplectus robustus 

(sturdy bulrush), Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass). 



Aeschynomene virginica (Virginia jointvetch) 

G2 plant 


298



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This vegetation occurs on the Coastal Plain of Maryland, Delaware and Virginia. 

States/Provinces: DE, MD, NJ:S3. 



Rank: GNR (15-Nov-2000). 





Comments: This association includes the former Spartina alterniflora - Amaranthus 

cannabinus Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL006147), now considered to be a depauperate variant 

of CEGL006418. 


• Spartina alterniflora - Lilaeopsis chinensis Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL004193). 


• Spartina alterniflora - Spartina cynosuroides Herbaceous Vegetation (Coulling 2002) = 

• Bishop-weed - Mixed Species Brackish Marsh (Bowman 2000) F 

• Marsh Type II (Nicholson and Van 

Deusen 1954) 

B 

• Smooth Cordgrass - Water Hemp Tidal Marsh (Bowman 2000) F 

SOURCES 

Description Authors: P. Bowman, mod. L. A. Sneddon. 

References: Bowman 2000, Coulling 2002, Eastern Ecology Working Group n.d., Harrison 

2004, Harrison and Stango 2003, Nicholson and Van Deusen 1954, Walz et al. 2006. 

299



Figure I31. Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh (Transitional Marsh) at Colonial National 


300



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): TIDAL OLIGOHALINE MARSH (BIG 

CORDGRASS TYPE) 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Giant Cordgrass Herbaceous Vegetation 

USNVC Scientific Name: Spartina cynosuroides Herbaceous Vegetation 



Environmental Description: This association is found in slightly brackish zones along tidal 

rivers and streams. Oligohaline conditions are defined as salt concentrations between 0.5 and 5 

ppt, although pulses of higher halinity may occasionally occur. This type favors oligohaline 

habitats on narrow levees along tidal channels, beyond which vegetation grades to more diverse 

marsh. 

Vegetation Description: Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Big Cordgrass Type) is a tidal wetland 

strongly dominated by the grass Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass), which often forms tall, 

extensive, nearly monospecific stands, particularly along edges of the main tidal channels. 

Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum) is a frequent associated species and can sometimes 

dominate in patches. Other species that occur with inconsistently with low cover include species 

typical of oligohaline environments such as Amaranthus cannabinus (tidalmarsh amaranth), 

Cyperus odoratus (fragrant flatsedge), Echinochloa walteri (coast cockspur grass), Hibiscus 

moscheutos ssp. moscheutos (crimsoneyed rosemallow), Phragmites australis (common reed), 

Pluchea odorata (sweetscent), Pontederia cordata (pickerelweed), Sagittaria lancifolia ssp. 

media (bulltongue arrowhead), Schoenoplectus robustus (sturdy bulrush), Spartina alterniflora 

(smooth cordgrass), and Typha angustifolia (narrowleaf cattail). 



Herb (field) Forb Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum) 

Herb (field) Graminoid Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass) 

Characteristic Species: Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), Spartina cynosuroides (big 

cordgrass). 




Reference 



Local Range: Tidal Oligohaline Marsh is mapped at Swanns Point, Jamestown Island, and at 

Ringfield / King Creek. Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Big Cordgrass Type) is one of five 

associations included in the map class Tidal Oligohaline Marsh. The five associations cannot be 

mapped separately based on photo signatures, and a combined map class was used the vegetation 

map. Polygons of Tidal Oligohaline Marsh may, in some cases, include several associations. 

Classification Comments: Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Big Cordgrass Type) is by being 

dominated by Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass). 



Plots: None. 


301










Alliance Spartina cynosuroides Tidal Herbaceous Alliance (A.1480) 

Alliance (English name) Giant Cordgrass Tidal Herbaceous Alliance 

Association Spartina cynosuroides Herbaceous Vegetation 

Association (English name) Giant Cordgrass Herbaceous Vegetation 

Ecological System(s): Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Brackish Tidal Marsh (CES203.894) 

Central Atlantic Coastal Plain Fresh and Oligohaline Tidal Marsh 

(CES203.376). 

Atlantic Coastal Plain Embayed Region Tidal Freshwater Marsh (CES203.259). 


Concept Summary: This community includes narrow, almost pure stands of Spartina 

cynosuroides (big cordgrass) along tidal creeks and sloughs or on levees of oligohaline tidal 

marshes along the central Atlantic Coast. Some occurrences are nearly monospecific, while 

others have a diverse component of other graminoids and forbs. Where mixed, associated plants 

include Schoenoplectus pungens (common threesquare), Schoenoplectus robustus (sturdy 

bulrush), Schoenoplectus americanus (chairmaker's bulrush), Kosteletzkya virginica (Virginia 

saltmarsh mallow), Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos (crimsoneyed rosemallow), 

Amaranthus cannabinus (tidalmarsh amaranth), Panicum virgatum (switchgrass), Peltandra 

virginica (green arrow arum), and Polygonum punctatum (dotted smartweed). Where more 

saline, Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass) and Iva frutescens (Jesuit's bark) can become 

more frequent. Where less saline, associates can include Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani 

(softstem bulrush), Pontederia cordata (pickerelweed), Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), 

Leersia oryzoides (rice cutgrass), Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine), Rumex verticillatus 

(swamp dock), Echinochloa walteri (coast cockspur grass), Polygonum hydropiperoides (swamp 

smartweed), and Typha angustifolia (narrowleaf cattail) (or Typha domingensis (southern cattail) 

in the south), among others. In more disturbed areas, this association can be displaced by 

Phragmites australis (common reed). 

Environmental Description: This association occurs along tidal creeks, guts, and levees of 

oligohaline to mesohaline marshes in irregularly flooded high marsh situations, but in areas that 

are well-drained. 

Vegetation Description: Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass) is strongly dominant in this 

community, often occurring in pure stands. Where stands are mixed, common associates can 

include Schoenoplectus robustus (sturdy bulrush), Schoenoplectus pungens (common 

threesquare), Schoenoplectus americanus (chairmaker's bulrush), Peltandra virginica (green 

arrow arum), Kosteletzkya virginica (Virginia saltmarsh mallow), Amaranthus cannabinus 

(tidalmarsh amaranth), Panicum virgatum (switchgrass), Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), 

and Polygonum punctatum (dotted smartweed). Where more saline, Spartina alterniflora 

(smooth cordgrass) and Iva frutescens (Jesuit's bark) can become more frequent. Where less 

saline, Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (softstem bulrush), Polygonum hydropiperoides (swamp 

smartweed), Pontederia cordata (pickerelweed), Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), 

Leersia oryzoides (rice cutgrass), Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine), Rumex verticillatus 

(swamp dock), Echinochloa walteri (coast cockspur grass), and Typha angustifolia (narrowleaf 

302



cattail) are also common associates. In more disturbed areas, this association can be displaced by 

Phragmites australis (common reed). 



Species 

Herb (field) 

Graminoid 

Characteristic Species: Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass). 



Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass) 

DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This association occurs along the Atlantic coast from New Jersey to Georgia. 

States/Provinces: DE:S3?, GA, MA, MD:S4?, NC, NJ:S3, SC, VA. 

Federal Lands: NPS (Cape Cod, Colonial, Fort Pulaski, George Washington Birthplace); 

USFWS (Back Bay, Chesapeake Marshlands). 


Rank: G4 (13-Aug-1997). 





Comments: Spartina cynosuroides - Panicum virgatum - Phyla lanceolata Herbaceous 

Vegetation (CEGL007741) is similar in terms of dominant and codominant species, however, 

associated species differ somewhat and CEGL007741 occurs in wind-tidal situations in North 

Carolina and Virginia. North of New Jersey, Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass) is a 

component of brackish high marsh associations, but does not tend to dominate. 


• Spartina cynosuroides - Panicum virgatum - Phyla lanceolata Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL007741). 


• Spartina cynosuroides Herbaceous Vegetation (Coulling 2002) = 

• Big Cordgrass Community Type (Odum et al. 1984) ? 

• Brackish Marsh (Wharton 1978) B 

• Brackish tidal marsh complex (Breden 1989) ? 

• Tidal Freshwater Marsh (Giant Cordgrass Subtype) (Schafale 2000) ? 

SOURCES 

Description Authors: S. L. Neid. 

References: Bowman 2000, Breden 1989, Breden et al. 2001, Clancy 1996, Coulling 2002, 

Fleming 2001, Fleming and Moorhead 1998, Fleming et al. 2001, Harrison 2001, Harrison 2004, 

Nelson 1986, Odum 1988, Odum and Smith 1981, Odum et al. 1984, Schafale 2000, Schafale 

2003, Schafale and Weakley 1990, Southeastern Ecology Working Group n.d., Wharton 1978. 

303



Figure I32. Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Big Cordgrass Type) at Colonial National Historical Park. 


Figure I33. Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Big Cordgrass Type) at Colonial National Historical Park. 


304



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): TIDAL OLIGOHALINE MARSH (MIXED 

FORBS TYPE) 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Eastern Rosemallow - Dotted Smartweed - Green Arrow-arum 

Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation 

USNVC Scientific Name: Hibiscus moscheutos - Polygonum punctatum - Peltandra 

virginica Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation 



Environmental Description: This association is found in slightly brackish zones along tidal 

rivers and streams. Oligohaline conditions are defined as salt concentrations between 0.5 and 5 

ppt, although pulses of higher halinity may occasionally occur. Substrate is muck or peat, and 

there is often an accumulation of Typha (cattail) litter. 

Vegetation Description: This association is characterized by dense herbaceous vegetation 

dominated by mixtures of tidal forbs. This marsh vegetation is relatively diverse and variable in 

composition. Polygonum punctatum (dotted smartweed), Peltandra virginica (green arrow 

arum), and Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos (crimsoneyed rosemallow) occur in most 

stands. Typha angustifolia (narrowleaf cattail), Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass), and 

Schoenoplectus robustus (sturdy bulrush) may form extensive dominance patches when present. 

Infrequently present are several species that are characteristic of chiefly oligohaline conditions, 

including Echinochloa walteri (coast cockspur grass), Kosteletzkya virginica (Virginia saltmarsh 

mallow), Pluchea odorata (sweetscent), Rumex verticillatus (swamp dock), and Sagittaria 

lancifolia ssp. media (bulltongue arrowhead). 

Tidal Oligohaline Marsh varies in its species composition and dominant species as described 

above. Polygons mapped as Tidal Oligohaline Marsh may contain small inclusions of Freshwater 

Tidal Marsh. 



Species 

Herb (field) 

Graminoid Typha angustifolia (narrowleaf cattail) 

Characteristic Species: Polygonum punctatum (dotted smartweed), Typha angustifolia 

(narrowleaf cattail). 




Reference 



Local Range: Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Mixed Forbs Type) is mapped at Jamestown Island and 

Ringfield / King Creek. It is one of five associations included in the map class Tidal Oligohaline 

Marsh. The five associations cannot be mapped separately based on photo signatures, and a 

combined map class was used for the vegetation map. Polygons of Tidal Oligohaline Marsh may, 

in some cases, include several associations. 

Classification Comments: Information not available. 




305







Physiognomic Subclass Perennial forb vegetation (V.B.) 

Physiognomic Group Temperate or subpolar perennial forb vegetation (V.B.2.) 

Physiognomic Subgroup Natural/Semi-natural temperate or subpolar perennial forb vegetation (V.B.2.N.) 

Formation Tidal temperate perennial forb vegetation (V.B.2.N.g.) 

Alliance Peltandra virginica - Pontederia cordata Tidal Herbaceous Alliance (A.1703) 

Alliance (English name) Green Arrow-arum - Pickerelweed Tidal Herbaceous Alliance 

Association Hibiscus moscheutos - Polygonum punctatum - Peltandra virginica Tidal 


Association (English name) Eastern Rosemallow - Dotted Smartweed - Green Arrow-arum Tidal 


Ecological System(s): Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Fresh and Oligohaline Tidal Marsh 

(CES203.516). 


Concept Summary: This association is a diverse oligohaline marsh characterized by variable 

dominance of species found in the Chesapeake and Delaware bays. Species that form locally 

dominant patches can include Polygonum arifolium (halberdleaf tearthumb), Hibiscus 

moscheutos ssp. moscheutos (crimsoneyed rosemallow), Polygonum punctatum (dotted 

smartweed), Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), Leersia oryzoides (rice cutgrass), 

Polygonum sagittatum (arrowleaf tearthumb), Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine), Spartina 

cynosuroides (big cordgrass), and Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy), among others. 

All of these species are able to tolerate a broad range of halinity, and the high mean species 

richness of this type suggests that it is generally restricted to only slightly oligohaline habitats. 

Typha angustifolia (narrowleaf cattail) and Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass) often form 

large dominance patches. Infrequently present are several species that are more specific to 

oligohaline conditions, including Echinochloa walteri (coast cockspur grass), Kosteletzkya 

virginica (Virginia saltmarsh mallow), Pluchea odorata (sweetscent), Rumex verticillatus 

(swamp dock), Sagittaria lancifolia (bulltongue arrowhead), and Teucrium canadense (Canada 

germander). The colonial sedge Carex stricta sometimes forms local dominance patches, 

characteristically on hummocks raised 20-25 cm above the primary marsh surface. 

Environmental Description: Most stands are located near the edge of an extensive marsh but 

set by the main river channel and often bordered by scattered clumps of shrubs. There is often 

hummock-and-hollow microtopography. 

Vegetation Description: These are diverse oligohaline marshes characterized by variable 

dominance patterns but generally containing Polygonum arifolium (halberdleaf tearthumb), 

Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos (crimsoneyed rosemallow), Polygonum punctatum (dotted 

smartweed), Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), Leersia oryzoides (rice cutgrass), 

Polygonum sagittatum (arrowleaf tearthumb), Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine), and 

Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy). Bidens laevis (smooth beggartick), Cicuta 

maculata (spotted water hemlock), Cuscuta sp. (a dodder), Impatiens capensis (jewelweed), 

Lycopus americanus (American water horehound), and Sagittaria latifolia (broadleaf 

arrowhead), and graminoids such as Typha latifolia (broadleaf cattail) and Schoenoplectus 

fluviatilis (river bulrush) may also be present at variable cover. Typha angustifolia (narrowleaf 

306



cattail) and Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass) may form extensive dominance patches. All of 

these species are able to tolerate a broad range of halinity, and the high mean species richness of 

this type suggests that it is generally restricted to only slightly oligohaline habitats. Infrequently 

present are several species that are more specific to oligohaline conditions, including 

Echinochloa walteri (coast cockspur grass), Kosteletzkya virginica (Virginia saltmarsh mallow), 

Pluchea odorata (sweetscent), Rumex verticillatus (swamp dock), Sagittaria lancifolia 

(bulltongue arrowhead), and Teucrium canadense (Canada germander). Spartina cynosuroides 

(big cordgrass) occurs in approximately two-thirds of the representative vegetation sample plots 

and at times codominates. The colonial sedge Carex stricta (upright sedge) often forms local 

dominance patches, characteristically on hummocks raised 20-25 cm above the primary marsh 

surface. Such stands also characteristically contain scattered individuals of Rosa palustris 

(swamp rose) or Cephalanthus occidentalis (common buttonbush). 


Characteristic Species: Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. moscheutos (crimsoneyed rosemallow), 

Leersia oryzoides (rice cutgrass), Mikania scandens (climbing hempvine), Peltandra virginica 

(green arrow arum), Polygonum arifolium (halberdleaf tearthumb), Polygonum punctatum 

(dotted smartweed), Polygonum sagittatum (arrowleaf tearthumb), Spartina cynosuroides (big 

cordgrass), Toxicodendron radicans (eastern poison ivy). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This association is currently described from Virginia, Maryland, and New Jersey. 

States/Provinces: MD, NJ, VA. 

Federal Lands: NPS (Colonial, George Washington Birthplace); USFWS (Chesapeake 

Marshlands). 


Rank: GNR (12-May-2002). 





Comments: In Virginia, occurrences are known from the Mattaponi (New and Gleason 

marshes), Pamunkey (Sweet Hall, Cousiac, and Cohoke marshes), and Rappahannock (Otterburn 

Marsh) rivers. In Maryland, an occurrence documented from the Pocomoke River (Cypress 

Swamp) is currently attributed to this type. In New Jersey, an occurrence is known from 

Rancocas Creek. 


• Impatiens capensis - Peltandra virginica - Polygonum arifolium - Schoenoplectus fluviatilis - Typha angustifolia 

Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL006325). 


• Hibiscus moscheutos - Polygonum arifolium - Leersia oryzoides - (Carex stricta) Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation 

(Coulling 2002) ? 

• Hibiscus moscheutos - Polygonum punctatum - Peltandra virginica - (Typha angustifolia) - (Spartina 

cynosuroides) Herbaceous Vegetation (Coulling 2002) = 

• Osmunda regalis - Rosa palustris Herbaceous Vegetation (Bartgis 1986) ? 

307



SOURCES 

Description Authors: S.L. Neid, mod. L.A. Sneddon. 

References: Bartgis 1986, Coulling 2002, Eastern Ecology Working Group n.d., Fleming et al. 

2004, Harrison 2004, J. Harrison pers. comm., New Jersey Department of Environmental 

Protection 2001, Strakosch Walz et al. 2006. 

308



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): TIDAL FRESHWATER MARSH 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Green Arrow-arum - Pickerelweed Tidal Herbaceous 


USNVC Scientific Name: Peltandra virginica - Pontederia cordata Tidal Herbaceous 




Environmental Description: Tidal Freshwater Marsh includes herbaceous wetlands subject to 

regular diurnal flooding along the upper tidal reaches of large rivers and tributaries. Tidal 

Freshwater Marsh is found in the uppermost portion of the estuarine zone, where the inflow of 

saltwater from tidal influence is diluted by a much larger volume of freshwater from upstream. 

Strictly speaking, freshwater conditions have salt concentrations 1 m) graminoid-dominated Tidal Freshwater Marsh typically occurs along tidal 

river systems in shallow bays, at the heads of pocket marshes, or at the mouth of channels where 

Zizania aquatica var. aquatica (annual wildrice) dominates or codominates with other tidal 

marsh graminoids, such as Typha angustifolia (narrowleaf cattail). In Colonial National 

Historical Park, other species that may occur as minor associates, but not dominate, in the 

Freshwater Tidal Marsh include Eleocharis palustris (common spikerush), Leersia oryzoides 

(rice cutgrass), Typha angustifolia (narrowleaf cattail), Sagittaria subulata (awl-leaf arrowhead), 

Schoenoplectus pungens (common threesquare), Schoenoplectus americanus (chairmaker's 

bulrush), and Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass). 

Tidal Freshwater Marsh can occur as zoned vegetation with Typha angustifolia (narrowleaf 

cattail) as a near-shore zone, grading to Zizania aquatica var. aquatica (annual wildrice), with 

Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum) in the middle, open-water zone. Small areas of Tidal 

Freshwater Marsh may occur as inclusions in Oligohaline Marsh and are not mapped separately. 



Herb (field) Forb Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum) 

Herb (field) Graminoid Zizania aquatica var. aquatica (annual wildrice) 

Characteristic Species: Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), Pontederia cordata 

(pickerelweed), Zizania aquatica var. aquatica (annual wildrice). 




Reference 

VA SNR* B 1 Tidal Freshwater Marsh 


309



Local Range: Tidal Freshwater Marsh is mapped at Jamestown Island in the vicinity of Sandy 

Bay and the upper portions of the Back River, at Papermill Creek, and at College Creek / 

Kingsmill along Halfway Creek. In total it covers 125 hectares (308 acres) in Colonial National 

Historical Park. 

Classification Comments: Tidal Freshwater Marsh is distinguished from other tidal marsh 

vegetation in Colonial National Historical Park by occurring in areas where there is enough 

freshwater input to influence the vegetation composition so that the dominant species include 

Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum) and Zizania aquatica var. aquatica (annual wildrice) and 

without dominance by Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass). Some areas mapped as Freshwater 

Tidal Marsh may be transitional to Oligohaline Marsh and have species composition 

intermediate between the two concepts. 














Association Peltandra virginica - Pontederia cordata Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation 

Association (English name) Green Arrow-arum - Pickerelweed Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation 

Ecological System(s): Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Fresh and Oligohaline Tidal Marsh 

(CES203.516). 

Acadian Estuary Marsh (CES201.579). 


Concept Summary: This freshwater low tidal marsh is dominated by variable mixtures of 

Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum) and Pontederia cordata (pickerelweed) that are best 

expressed along the North Atlantic Coast southward to Virginia. It occurs on mucky substrates of 

variable depth at low elevations within the freshwater tidal zone, often bordering open water. 

Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum) and Pontederia cordata (pickerelweed) are codominant. 

Associated species can include Bidens spp. (beggarticks), Zizania aquatica (annual wildrice), 

Sagittaria latifolia (broadleaf arrowhead), Acorus americanus (sweetflag), Nuphar lutea ssp. 

advena (yellow pond-lily), Polygonum arifolium (halberdleaf tearthumb), Polygonum 

hydropiperoides (swamp smartweed), and Polygonum sagittatum (arrowleaf tearthumb). 

Environmental Description: This community occurs low within freshwater tidal marshes on 

muck substrates of variable depth. There is a long duration of tidal flooding, and the community 

is exposed only for a short period of time each day when the tide is out. 

Vegetation Description: This community is codominated by leafy forbs Peltandra virginica 

(green arrow arum) and Pontederia cordata (pickerelweed). Associated species can include 

Zizania aquatica (annual wildrice), Sagittaria latifolia (broadleaf arrowhead), Acorus 

americanus (sweetflag), Polygonum arifolium (halberdleaf tearthumb), Polygonum 

310



hydropiperoides (swamp smartweed), Polygonum sagittatum (arrowleaf tearthumb), and Bidens 

spp. (beggarticks). Species occurring less frequently can include Typha spp. (cattails) and 

Impatiens capensis (jewelweed). At the southern end of the range in Virginia, there is a wellmarked 

variant in which Nuphar lutea ssp. advena (yellow pond-lily) is codominant with 

Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum) and Pontederia cordata (pickerelweed) in variable 

mixtures. This variant differs from the almost monospecific Nuphar lutea ssp. advena (yellow 

pond-lily) Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL004472) in that it occurs on slightly higher 

landscape positions where the duration of inundation is shorter, supports higher mean species 

richness, and contains a number of taxa absent from the low intertidal portions of mudflats. 



Herb (field) Forb Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), 

Pontederia cordata (pickerelweed) 

Characteristic Species: Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), Pontederia cordata 

(pickerelweed). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This freshwater tidal marsh occurs from Maine to Virginia, excluding Rhode Island and 

New Hampshire. 

States/Provinces: CT, DE, MA, MD:S4?, NJ, NY, VA. 

Federal Lands: DOD (Fort Belvoir); NPS (Colonial, George Washington Parkway, National 

Capital-East); USFWS (Chesapeake Marshlands, Prime Hook). 


Rank: G3G4 (4-Nov-1998). 

Reasons: This community is restricted in range (Atlantic Coast from Maine to Virginia, not 

including New Hampshire and Rhode Island) and available habitat (freshwater tidal rivers with 

broad shoreline expanses subjected to moderate to high tidal fluctuation), with a liberal estimate 

of




• Impatiens capensis - Peltandra virginica - Polygonum arifolium - Schoenoplectus fluviatilis - Typha angustifolia 

Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL006325). 

• Nuphar lutea ssp. advena Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL004472). 

• Pontederia cordata - Peltandra virginica - Sagittaria latifolia Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL006191). 


• Nuphar advena - Peltandra virginica Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation (Coulling 2002) ? 

• Peltandra virginica - (Pontederia cordata) Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation (Coulling 2002) ? 

• Arrow-arum/Pickerelweed Community Type (Odum et al. 1984) ? 

SOURCES 

Description Authors: S. L. Neid, mod. G. P. Fleming. 

References: Bowman 2000, Breden et al. 2001, Coulling 2002, Eastern Ecology Working 

Group n.d., Edinger et al. 2002, Fleming 2001, Fleming et al. 2001, Harrison 2001, Harrison 

2004, McCoy and Fleming 2000, Metzler and Barrett 2004, Odum et al. 1984, Peet et al. unpubl. 

data 2002. 

Figure I34. Tidal Freshwater Marsh at Colonial National Historical Park. July 2004. NAD 


312



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): TIDAL OLIGOHALINE MARSH (INTERIOR 

DEPRESSION MARSH) 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Arrow-arum - (Common Three Square, Softstem Bulrush) 


USNVC Scientific Name: Peltandra virginica - Schoenoplectus (pungens, 

tabernaemontani) Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation 



Environmental Description: This oligohaline marsh association occupies small (generally



Other Comments: This association occurs as small patches within other Tidal Oligohaline 

Marsh types. 


Plots: COLO.108, COLO113, COLO.114, COLO.118. 











Association Peltandra virginica - Schoenoplectus (pungens, tabernaemontani) Tidal 


Association (English name) Arrow-arum - (Common Three Square, Softstem Bulrush) Vegetation 

Ecological System(s): Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Tidal Salt Marsh (CES203.519). 


Concept Summary: This sparsely to densely vegetated herbaceous community occurs in low 

intertidal portions of marshes along tidal rivers and large tributaries in Virginia. It occupies both 

narrow zones along channel edges in chiefly freshwater regimes and in local subsidence areas in 

the interior of small to large marshes under freshwater to oligohaline conditions. Peltandra 

virginica (green arrow arum) is a constant and typically dominant or codominant constituent. 

Most stands also contain Schoenoplectus pungens (common threesquare) or Schoenoplectus 

tabernaemontani (softstem bulrush). Other common associates include Polygonum punctatum 

(dotted smartweed), Zizania aquatica (annual wildrice), Leersia oryzoides (rice cutgrass), 

Pontederia cordata (pickerelweed), and in freshwater habitats Eleocharis quadrangulata 

(squarestem spikerush). Stature of prevailing vegetation is generally



forms narrow bands under freshwater conditions, Schoenoplectus pungens (common threesquare) 

or Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (softstem bulrush) typically attains high cover and density. 

Eleocharis quadrangulata (squarestem spikerush) and Pontederia cordata (pickerelweed) are 

codominant; common associates include Leersia oryzoides (rice cutgrass), Polygonum punctatum 

(dotted smartweed), Polygonum arifolium (halberdleaf tearthumb), Zizania aquatica (annual 

wildrice), Bidens laevis (smooth beggartick), Asclepias incarnata (swamp milkweed), 

Amaranthus cannabinus (tidalmarsh amaranth), Impatiens capensis (jewelweed), Nuphar lutea 

ssp. advena (yellow pond-lily), Dulichium arundinaceum (threeway sedge), Sagittaria latifolia 

(broadleaf arrowhead), Galium obtusum (bluntleaf bedstraw), and the exotic Murdannia keisak 

(wartremoving herb). In rare instances Schoenoplectus fluviatilis (river bulrush) or 

Schoenoplectus americanus (chairmaker's bulrush) may share dominance. Oligohaline variants 

are typically less diverse and more sparsely vegetated, although Schoenoplectus pungens 

(common threesquare) or Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (softstem bulrush) may attain high 

cover. Characteristic associates include Polygonum punctatum (dotted smartweed), Zizania 

aquatica (annual wildrice), Echinochloa walteri (coast cockspur grass), Hibiscus moscheutos 

ssp. moscheutos (crimsoneyed rosemallow), Leersia oryzoides (rice cutgrass), Pluchea odorata 

(sweetscent), Amaranthus cannabinus (tidalmarsh amaranth), Rumex verticillatus (swamp dock), 

and Pontederia cordata (pickerelweed). 



Species 

Herb (field) Forb 

Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum) 

Characteristic Species: Peltandra virginica (green arrow arum), Schoenoplectus pungens 

(common threesquare), Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (softstem bulrush). 



DISTRIBUTION 

Range: This association has been documented from several tidal river systems in Virginia. Its 

potential occurrence outside Virginia has not been evaluated. 




Rank: GNR (2-Jun-2007). 





Comments: This community exhibits considerable variation in composition and structure, 

largely as functions of prevailing salinity and hydroperiod. Schoenoplectus pungens (common 

threesquare) Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL004188) forms similarly narrow patches and 

occupies similar habitats along channel margins, as do freshwater variants of this association, but 

is typically much less diverse and is restricted to gravelly or otherwise coarse-textured substrates 

on shorelines frequently subject to ice-scour. Peltandra virginica - Pontederia cordata Tidal 

Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL004706) occurs in similarly low landscape positions, often 

adjacent to open water, but generally lacks emergent graminoids (Schoenoplectus spp. 

(bulrushs), Eleocharis quadrangulata (squarestem spikerush)) as important associates, and 

315



patches are not characteristically linear. This type is documented by more than 20 vegetation 

plots from the James, Mattaponi, Pamunkey, Potomac, Rappahannock and York river drainages 

in Virginia. 


• Schoenoplectus pungens Tidal Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL004188). 


• Eleocharis quadrangulata - Pontederia cordata - Schoenoplectus (pungens, tabernaemontani) (Coulling 2002) F 

• Peltandra virginica - Echinochloa walteri - Schoenoplectus (pungens, tabernaemontani) (Coulling 2002) F 

SOURCES 

Description Authors: P. P. Coulling. 

References: Coulling 2002, Eastern Ecology Working Group, n.d. 

Figure I35. Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Interior Depression Marsh) (plot COLO.114) at Colonial 

National Historical Park. September 2001. NAD 1983 / UTM easting 344977, northing 

4117908. 

316



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): DENSE HARDWOOD REGENERATION 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Not Applicable 

USNVC Scientific Name: Not Applicable 

USNVC Identifier: Nonstandard 


Environmental Description: This mapping unit includes dense, shrubby regeneration of 

hardwood species on areas that have been cleared in the recent past (less than 20 years). 

Vegetation Description: Deciduous sprouts from stumps and small trees form an impenetrable 

thicket 4-6 m tall, often intertwined with woody vines. Occasional mature trees may be scattered 

in the canopy. Species composition varies from stand to stand, but typical species include Acer 

rubrum (red maple), Carpinus caroliniana (American hornbeam), Carya alba (mockernut 

hickory), Cornus florida (flowering dogwood), Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), 

Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), Nyssa sylvatica (blackgum), Prunus serotina var. serotina 

(black cherry), Quercus phellos (willow oak), Quercus rubra (northern red oak), Robinia 

pseudoacacia (black locust), Smilax spp. (greenbriers), and Viburnum prunifolium (blackhaw). 

Species composition varies depending on the composition of the original and surrounding 

forests. 






Reference 

VA 

NA . . 

[not crosswalked, not ranked] . 

Local Range: Dense Hardwood Regeneration is mapped as two small patches at Ringfield / 

King Creek and Yorktown Battlefield. 

Classification Comments: This mapping unit is deciduous and is dominated by small trees and 

shrubs. It is distinguished from Successional Mixed Scrub by being predominately native 

species. 



Plots: None. 



Dense Hardwood Regeneration is a park-specific, nonstandard type and has no global 

information. 

317



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): DISTURBED CALCAREOUS FOREST 

SYNONYMS 





Environmental Description: Disturbed Calcareous Forest is mapped along a 4-km (2.5-mile) 

stretch of Colonial Parkway along the York River. These forests have extensive wind damage, 

have been invaded by exotic plants, and have been bisected by the construction of the Colonial 

Parkway. 

Vegetation Description: Disturbed Calcareous Forest is a deciduous forest dominated by 

species indicative of disturbance or associated with early-successional forests, but with a high 

frequency of species indicative of calcareous or fertile. The canopy is often dominated by earlysuccessional 

species such as Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), Liquidambar styraciflua 

(sweetgum), Pinus taeda (loblolly pine), and Quercus falcata (southern red oak). Additional 

trees species indicative of a calcareous soil influence include Quercus muehlenbergii (chinkapin 

oak), Acer barbatum (southern sugar maple), Carya cordiformis (bitternut hickory), and Juglans 

nigra (black walnut). Other tree species, such as Quercus rubra (northern red oak), Quercus alba 

(white oak), Fraxinus americana (white ash), and Platanus occidentalis (American sycamore), 

may also occur but are not dominant. Species in the subcanopy include those from the canopy, 

along with Ostrya virginiana (hophornbeam), Ulmus rubra (slippery elm), and Celtis 

occidentalis (common hackberry). Typical tall shrubs are the exotic shrub Ailanthus altissima 

(tree of heaven), as well as Ostrya virginiana (hophornbeam), Lindera benzoin (northern 

spicebush), Acer barbatum (southern sugar maple), and Cornus florida (flowering dogwood). 

Short shrubs include Asimina triloba (pawpaw), and Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana 

(eastern redcedar). The herb layer is dominated by the exotic grass Microstegium vimineum 

(Nepalese browntop) and the exotic vine Lonicera japonica (Japanese honeysuckle). Other 

species can include Arabis laevigata (smooth rockcress), Bromus pubescens (hairy woodland 

brome), Campsis radicans (trumpet creeper), Elymus villosus (hairy wildrye), Elymus virginicus 

(Virginia wildrye), and Verbesina alternifolia (wingstem). 



Tree canopy Broad-leaved deciduous tree Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree) 

Herb (field) Vine/Liana Lonicera japonica (Japanese honeysuckle) 


Characteristic Species: Liriodendron tulipifera (tuliptree), Lonicera japonica (Japanese 

honeysuckle), Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop), Quercus muehlenbergii (chinkapin 

oak). 




Reference 

VA 

NA . . 


Local Range: Disturbed Calcareous Forest is mapped along a 4-km (2.5-mile) stretch of 

Colonial Parkway along the York River. It is mapped as six polygons ranging in size from 0.6 to 

2.6 ha (1.6 to 6.4 acres). 

318



Classification Comments: Forests mapped as Disturbed Calcareous Forest may have formerly 

been either Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest or Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous 

Forest, but now have a species composition too altered to assign them a natural community 

classification. The plot COLO.10 was originally analyzed with the mesic acidic forest group, but 

was determined to be an outlier and was removed from the analysis and reclassified as Disturbed 

Calcareous Forest. 






Disturbed Calcareous Forest is a park-specific, nonstandard type and has no global information. 

319



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): DISTURBED DEPRESSIONAL WETLAND 

SYNONYMS 





Environmental Description: Disturbed Depressional Wetland is a seasonally flooded wetland 

that is flooded to a depth of 1 meter in the early part of the growing season and may dry out 

completely later in the season. It is an isolated wetland, occurring in an otherwise upland 

landscape with no fluvial inputs. Its origin may have been anthropogenic, resulting from 

silvicultural operations on an area with a perched water table, or as a borrow pit or farm pond 

that has since filled in. 

Vegetation Description: Disturbed Depressional Wetland has an open, forested canopy 

composed of deciduous trees and shrubs, mainly Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum) and Acer 

rubrum (red maple). Trees are young and short-statured. The herb layer is composed of various 

grasses and sedges, such as Juncus effusus (common rush). 



Species 

Tree canopy 


Characteristic Species: Juncus effusus (common rush), Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum). 




Reference 

VA 

NA . . 


Local Range: Disturbed Depressional Wetland is mapped as a single polygon at Green Spring 

covering a total of 1.5 hectares (3.7 acres). 

Classification Comments: This map class was developed for a single stand of disturbed 

wetland forest. Unlike Coastal Plain Depression which forms through the dissolution of 

underlying carbonate-rich, shell marl deposits, Disturbed Depressional Wetland is thought to 

have originated from anthropogenic disturbance. 

Other Comments: This seasonally flooded wetland is used as breeding habitat for amphibians. 


Plots: None. 



Disturbed Depressional Wetland is a park-specific, nonstandard type and has no global 

information. 

320



Figure I36. Disturbed Depressional Wetland at Colonial National Historical Park. May 2004. 


321



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): DISTURBED SEEPAGE SWAMP 

SYNONYMS 





Environmental Description: Disturbed Seepage Swamp is a forested wetland with saturated 

hydrology. These forests have developed in areas where the natural hydrology has been altered 

by impoundments or roads. In Colonial National Historical Park, this map class is found where 

the Colonial Parkway bisects former bottomlands or in the upper reaches of impounded ravine 

systems where exotic plants have invaded the ravine bottoms. 

Vegetation Description: Disturbed Seepage Swamp may occur as a well-formed forest or as 

dense regeneration of hardwood trees. The canopy is typically dominated by Acer rubrum (red 

maple) with associates such as Platanus occidentalis (American sycamore), Liquidambar 

styraciflua (sweetgum), or Fraxinus pennsylvanica (green ash). Shrubs are variable but can 

include Asimina triloba (pawpaw), Salix nigra (black willow), and Liquidambar styraciflua 

(sweetgum). The herb layer is often dominated by Leersia virginica (whitegrass) or the exotic 

grass Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop). Other characteristic herbs include 

Boehmeria cylindrica (smallspike false nettle), Cardamine pensylvanica (Pennsylvania 

bittercress), Cinna arundinacea (sweet woodreed), Circaea lutetiana ssp. canadensis (broadleaf 

enchanter's nightshade), Hedera helix (English Ivy), Impatiens capensis (jewelweed), Saururus 

cernuus (lizard's tail), Packera aurea (golden ragwort), and Woodwardia areolata (netted 

chainfern). 



Tree canopy Broad-leaved deciduous tree Acer rubrum (red maple) 


Characteristic Species: Acer rubrum (red maple), Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese 

browntop). 




Reference 

VA 

NA . . 


Local Range: Disturbed Seepage Swamp is mapped along Colonial Parkway near Papermill 

Creek and in Yorktown and in the upper reaches of Yorktown Creek ravines. 

Classification Comments: Forests mapped as Disturbed Seepage Swamp may have formerly 

been Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp or other seepage wetlands, but now have a 

species composition too altered to assign them a natural community classification. 



Plots: None. 


322




Disturbed Seepage Swamp is a park-specific, nonstandard type and has no global information. 

323



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): DISTURBED TIDAL HARDWOOD SWAMP 

SYNONYMS 





Environmental Description: Disturbed Tidal Hardwood Swamp includes formerly tidal 

wetlands that have been cut off from all or most of their tidal influence, either by roads or berms. 

The hydrology is now semipermanently flooded. These wetlands may periodically be flooded by 

storm surge and can have somewhat oligohaline waters. Most examples have sustained heavy 

wind damage from past hurricanes. 

Vegetation Description: Disturbed Tidal Hardwood Swamp has an open deciduous canopy 

with 25-50% cover dominated by Acer rubrum (red maple), sometimes with Pinus taeda 

(loblolly pine), Nyssa biflora (swamp tupelo), and Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum). Fallen 

and standing dead trees are common. Shrub dominants are Morella cerifera (wax myrtle) and 

Persea palustris (swamp bay). Other shrubs include Baccharis halimifolia (eastern baccharis) 

and Cornus foemina (stiff dogwood). Decodon verticillatus (swamp loosestrife), a suffrutescent 

(shrubby) herb, can be a patch dominant. Vines are common and include Mikania scandens 

(climbing hempvine), Smilax rotundifolia (roundleaf greenbrier), Toxicodendron radicans 

(eastern poison ivy), and Vitis rotundifolia (muscadine). Areas of deep water may have floating 

aquatic plants such as Lemna minor (common duckweed). A variety of wetland plants may be 

found in the herb layer: rooted aquatic plants such as Hydrocotyle verticillata var. verticillata 

(whorled marshpennywort), Murdannia keisak (wartremoving herb), Pontederia cordata 

(pickerelweed), Typha angustifolia (narrowleaf cattail), and Typha latifolia (broadleaf cattail); 

many wetland grasses and grasslike plants such as Carex crinita (fringed sedge), Carex 

hyalinolepis (shoreline sedge), Cinna arundinacea (sweet woodreed), Elymus virginicus var. 

halophilus (Virginia wildrye), Juncus effusus (common rush), Leersia virginica (whitegrass), and 

Panicum virgatum var. virgatum (switchgrass); as well as other plants of mesic to wet habitats, 

including Polygonum arifolium (halberdleaf tearthumb), Polygonum punctatum (dotted 

smartweed), Teucrium canadense (Canada germander), and Thelypteris palustris var. pubescens 

(eastern marsh fern). 



Tree canopy Broad-leaved deciduous tree Acer rubrum (red maple) 

Shrub/sapling (tall & short) Broad-leaved deciduous shrub Morella cerifera (wax myrtle) 

Herb (field) Graminoid Typha latifolia (broadleaf cattail) 

Characteristic Species: Acer rubrum (red maple), Morella cerifera (wax myrtle), Murdannia 

keisak (wartremoving herb), Typha latifolia (broadleaf cattail). 




Reference 

VA 

NA . . 


Local Range: Disturbed Tidal Hardwood Swamp is mapped as three polygons on Jamestown 

Island, covering a total of 4.6 hectares (11.4 acres). Small areas below minimum mapping unit 

may occur as inclusions in the surrounding landscapes. 

324



Classification Comments: Forests mapped as Disturbed Tidal Hardwood Swamp are 

semipermanently flooded and have a species composition suggestive of oligohaline vegetation, 

as well as components of disturbed freshwater wetlands. These wetland forests have a species 

composition too altered to assign a natural community classification. 

Other Comments: Polygons classed as Disturbed Tidal Hardwood Swamp may have small 

inclusions of Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland. 





Disturbed Tidal Hardwood Swamp is a park-specific, nonstandard type and has no global 

information. 

Figure I37. Disturbed Tidal Hardwood Swamp at Colonial National Historical Park. July 2004. 


325



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): SEMIPERMANENT IMPOUNDMENT 

SYNONYMS 





Environmental Description: Semipermanent Impoundment includes non-tidal complexes of 

open water with areas of shrubby and coarse herbaceous vegetation associated with both beaver 

ponds and persistent man-made impoundments. Over time, or more rapidly when drained, these 

wetlands tend to fill in with sediment and undergo invasion by emergent and woody vegetation. 

Vegetation Description: In Colonial National Historical Park, these areas commonly have 

standing dead trees with areas of open water and emergent vegetation dominated by Peltandra 

virginica (green arrow arum), Decodon verticillatus (swamp loosestrife), Phragmites australis 

(common reed), and Typha latifolia (broadleaf cattail) with floating aquatics such as Lemna sp. 

(a duckweed). 

Semipermanent Impoundment can vary in structure from very shrubby to emergent herbaceous 

vegetation with scattered trees. Some examples may have been formerly tidal but are now cut off 

from any tidal influence. Species composition can vary from site to site. 






Reference 

VA 

NA . . 


Local Range: Semipermanent Impoundment is mapped at Green Springs, in the vicinity of 

Yorktown Battlefield, and in various locations along Colonial Parkway. 

Classification Comments: Semipermanent Impoundment is distinguished by being non-tidal 

with a semipermanent to permanent flooded hydrology. 

Other Comments: This is not a natural / semi-natural community type, although various 

associations may apply to small areas within these impoundments. 


Plots: None. 



Semipermanent Impoundment is a park-specific, nonstandard type and has no global 

information. 

326



Figure I38. Semipermanent Impoundment at Colonial National Historical Park. April 2005. 


327



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): SUCCESSIONAL MIXED SCRUB 

SYNONYMS 





Environmental Description: This mapping unit is not a natural / semi-natural vegetation type 

and includes successional shrubby areas bordering roadways and Cultural Meadow. 

Vegetation Description: Successional Mixed Scrub can vary from a tangle of native and exotic 

vines over short trees to dense mixtures of shrubby, successional and exotic species. Species 

composition and dominance vary greatly from site to site. Vines found in this mapping unit can 

include Hedera helix (English ivy), Lonicera japonica (Japanese honeysuckle), Parthenocissus 

quinquefolia (Virginia creeper), Rubus spp. (blackberries), Vinca minor (common periwinkle), 

Vitis vulpina (frost grape), and Wisteria sinensis (Chinese wisteria). Other shrubby species can 

include Ailanthus altissima (tree of heaven), Diospyros virginiana (common persimmon), 

Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana (eastern redcedar), Ligustrum sinense (Chinese privet), 

Paulownia tomentosa (princesstree), Prunus serotina var. serotina (black cherry), and Sassafras 

albidum (sassafras). 

This mapping unit varies from vine thickets to tall shrublands. Species composition varies from 

site to site. 






Reference 

VA 

NA . . 


Local Range: Successional Mixed Scrub is mapped as seven polygons in the vicinity of 

Yorktown Battlefield and Yorktown Village. 

Classification Comments: This mapping unit is distinguished from other shrublands by 

occurring on uplands adjacent to roadways and Cultural Meadow and being composed of exotic 

and successional vines and shrubs. 

Other Comments: Successional Mixed Scrub can occur as small inclusions within forests that 

have sustained heavy wind damage. 


Plots: None. 



Successional Mixed Scrub is a park-specific, nonstandard type and has no global information. 

328



Figure I39. Successional Mixed Scrub at Colonial National Historical Park. September 2004. 


329



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): BEACHES 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: Not applicable 

USNVC Scientific Name: Not applicable 

USNVC Identifier: Not applicable 

LOCAL DESCRIPTION 

Local Range: Beaches are mapped along the shoreline throughout Colonial National Historic 

Park. Erosion control structures such as riprap, seawalls, and jetties are mapped as Other Urban 

and Built-up Land. 

Classification Comments: This map class includes accumulations of sand along shorelines. 

Beaches may have small areas of shrubby vegetation, but is considered a non-vegetated map 

class. It is equal to the Anderson (1976) Level II unit 72 - Beaches. 


Plots: None. 

Citation: Anderson et al. 1976. 

330



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL 

COMPLEXES 

SYNONYMS 





Local Range: Industrial and Commercial Complexes is mapped in the vicinity of Yorktown 

Battlefield. 

Classification Comments: This map class includes areas with buildings or structures associated 

with functions such as warehousing, wholesaling, and retailing. It includes all buildings, 

walkways, minor roads, and their associated lawns and vegetation. This map class is equal to the 

Anderson et al. (1976) Level II unit 15, Industrial and Commercial Complexes. 


Plots: None. 


331



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): OTHER URBAN OR BUILT-UP LAND 

SYNONYMS 





Local Range: Other Urban or Built-up Land is mapped at Yorktown Battlefield, Colonial 

Parkway in the vicinity of Williamsburg, Jamestown Island, and Swanns Point. 

Classification Comments: Other Urban or Built-up Land includes areas with buildings or 

structures associated with park maintenance, recreation, or historic interpretation, as well as 

urban parks, golf courses, cemeteries, and water control structures (e.g. spillways, riprap). This 

map class includes all buildings, walkways, minor roads, and their associated lawns and 

vegetation. This map class is equal to the Anderson et al. (1976) Level II unit 17, Other Urban or 

Built-up Land. 


Plots: None. 


332



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): RESIDENTIAL 

SYNONYMS 





Local Range: Areas mapped as Residential occur at Swanns Point and Yorktown Battlefield. 

Classification Comments: This map class includes single family dwellings and associated 

outbuildings, maintained lawns and plantings. This map class is equal to the Anderson (1976) 

Level II unit 11, Residential. 


Plots: None. 


333



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): MIXED URBAN OR BUILT-UP LAND 

SYNONYMS 





Local Range: Mixed Urban or Built-up Land is mapped at Yorktown Village and in the vicinity 

of Yorktown Battlefield at Moore House and Hickory Hill. 

Classification Comments: Mixed Urban or Built-up Land is used to map areas where 

individual Anderson level II land uses cannot be separated at mapping scale. It includes areas 

that could be classed as Residential or as Other Urban or Built-up Land. This map class is equal 

to the Anderson et al. (1976) Level II unit 15, Mixed Urban or Built-up Land. 


Plots: None. 


334



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND 

UTILITIES 

SYNONYMS 





Local Range: Areas mapped as Transportation, Communications, and Utilities occur 

throughout Colonial National Historical Park. 

Classification Comments: This map class includes major paved roads, interchanges, parking 

areas and utility line corridors. Mowed roadsides < 0.5 ha are included in this map class, 

including those that are forested with a mowed ground layer. This map class is equal to the 

Anderson (1976) Level II unit 14, Transportation, Communications, and Utilities. 

Other Comments: The comment field in the map attribute table indicates if a polygon 

represents transportation or utilities. 


Plots: None. 


335



COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): WATER 

SYNONYMS 





Local Range: Water is mapped in the vicinity of Yorktown Battlefield at Wormley Pond, along 

Colonial Parkway where the park boundary crosses the York River and its tributaries, at College 

Creek / Kingsmill where the park boundary includes portions of College Creek, the tidal creeks 

at Jamestown Island, and at Swanns Point where the park boundary includes portions of the 

James River. 

Classification Comments: This map class includes large areas of open water within the 

boundary of Colonial National Historic Park. This map class is equal to the Anderson (1976) 

Level II units 54, Bays and Estuaries; 53, Reservoirs; and 51, Streams and Canals. 


Plots: None. 


336



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Appendix J. Field definitions for local and global descriptions of vegetation associations and 

other vegetaion-map classes. 

Local descriptions describe vegetation associations as they occur at specific national parks. Data 

from field observation points and quantitative plots were used to write the local, park-specific 

descriptions. These descriptions were entered into NatureServe Central Databases, and reports 

with local and global descriptions for each association were generated for each park. The 

following document lists the content of those reports with definitions of each field in the report. 

COMMON NAME (PARK-SPECIFIC): A common or colloquial name for the Association or 

map class. These names follow the Natural Communities of Virginia (Fleming et al 2006) or, if 

no appropriate name exists in Fleming et al (2006), the Association common name from the U.S. 

National Vegetation Classification (USNVC) was used, or a park-specific common name was 

assigned. Names for map classes not representing natural or semi-natural vegetation follow the 

Anderson Level II land use and land cover classification scheme (Anderson et al. 1976). 

SYNONYMS 

USNVC English Name: The standard Association name from USNVC databases, but with a 

translation of the scientific names using standard NatureServe Central Ecology-accepted 

common names for the plant taxa used in the name (see below). 

USNVC Scientific Name: The standard Association name from USNVC databases, based on 

Latin names of dominant and diagnostic plant species. The Association is the finest level of the 

USNVC. Species occurring in the same stratum are separated by a hyphen ( - ), and those 

occurring in different strata are separated by a slash ( / ). Species occurring in the uppermost 

strata are listed first, followed successively by those in lower strata. Within the same stratum, 

the order of species names generally reflects decreasing levels of dominance, constancy, or 

indicator value. In physiognomic types where there is a dominant herbaceous layer with a 

scattered woody layer, Association names can be based on species found in either the herbaceous 

layer or the woody layer, whichever is more diagnostic of the type. If both layers are used, then 

the uppermost layer is always listed first, regardless of which may be more diagnostic. 

Species less consistently found in all occurrences of the Association are placed in parentheses (). 

In cases where a particular genus is dominant or diagnostic but individual species of the genus 

may vary among occurrences, only the specific epithets are placed in parentheses. Association 

names conclude with the Class Name in which they are classified. 

In cases where diagnostic species are unknown or in question, a more general term may be used 

as a species placeholder (e.g., Sphagnum spp., Mixed Herbs, Mesic Graminoids). An 

environmental or geographic term, or one that is descriptive of the height of the vegetation (e.g., 

Dwarf Forest, Northern Shrubland), can also be used as a modifier when such a term is necessary 

to adequately characterize the Association. For reasons of standardization and brevity, however, 

this is kept to a minimum. For Provisional Associations, [Provisional] is added at the end of the 

name (ex. Salix wolfii Shrubland [Provisional]). 

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Vascular plant species nomenclature for Association and Alliance names follows the nationally 

standardized list of Kartesz (1999), with very few exceptions. Nomenclature for nonvascular 

plants follows Anderson (1990) and Anderson et al. (1990) for mosses, Egan (1987, 1989, 1990, 

1991) and Esslinger and Egan (1995) for lichens, and Stotler and Crandall-Stotler (1977) for 

liverworts/hornworts. 

USNVC Identifier: A unique identifier code for the Association from USNVC databases. 

Associations have a code that begins with the string “CEGL” (Community Element GLobal) 

followed by a unique 6-digit number. Units that are not defined in the USNVC are listed as 

“nonstandard” in this field. 


Environmental Description: A summary of available information on the environmental 

conditions associated with the Association and any other important aspects of the environment 

which affect this particular type within the park, including elevation ranges and, where relevant, 

information on large landscape context, geology, and soils. 

Vegetation Description: A summary of available information on the vegetation, species 

composition (including dominant and diagnostic taxa, as well as problematic exotic species), 

structure (defining strata and their heights and percent cover), and variability of the vegetation of 

this Association as it occurs in the park. 

Most Abundant Species: Component plant species that are dominant (i.e., most abundant in 

terms of percent cover) for the Association as it occurs in the park. 

Stratum: For each component plant species, the stratum (or strata) in which it occurs in the 

Association within the park. Values for Stratum are: 

Tree (canopy & subcanopy) Short shrub/sapling 

Tree canopy Herb (field) 

Tree subcanopy Nonvascular 

Shrub/sapling (tall & short) Floating aquatic 

Tall shrub/sapling Submerged aquatic 

Lifeform: The lifeform of each component plant species that is present within each 

designated stratum of the community as it occurs within the park. Lifeform definitions are 

from Table 3.1, page 37, of Whittaker, R. H. 1975. Communities and ecosystems. Second 

edition. Macmillan Publishing Co. New York. 387 pp. Values for Lifeform are: 

Needle-leaved tree Palm shrub 

Broad-leaved deciduous tree Dwarf-shrub 

Broad-leaved evergreen tree Semi-shrub 

Thorn tree Succulent shrub 

Evergreen schlerophyllous tree Ephiphyte 

Succulent tree Vine/Liana 

Palm tree Forb 

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Tree fern Graminoid 

Bamboo Succulent forb 

Needle-leaved shrub Aquatic herb (floating & submergent) 

Broad-leaved deciduous shrub Moss 

Broad-leaved evergreen shrub Alga 

Thorn shrub Lichen 

Evergreen schlerophyllous shrub Fern or fern ally 

Other/unknown Other herbaceous 

Other shrub Liverwort/hornwort 

Species: Global scientific name (and common name) for each floristic component species of 

the Association as it occurs within the park. 

Characteristic Species: Component plant species that are characteristic for the Association as it 

occurs within the park. 

Other Noteworthy Species: Other noteworthy species (i.e., species that are not necessarily 

diagnostic of the Association, but that are worth noting for some other reasons, such as those that 

are rare species or nonnative invasives) that are found within the Association in the park. 

Subnational Distribution with Crosswalk Data 

State: The two-letter postal code of the for U.S. state(s) in which the park occurs. 

State Rank (SRank): The Heritage Conservation Subnational Rank that best characterizes the 

relative rarity or endangerment of the Association within the specified state. Values for State 

Rank are listed in Appendix D. An asterisk (*) indicates that the Subnational Rank is for the 

Natural Heritage Program (NHP) Element (nonstandard), not the USNVC Association 

(standard) (see below). 

Relationship (Rel): The State Name (see below) is the name that the state NHP applies to 

their community Element. The Relationship to Standard is a value that indicates the 

relationship between the NHP (Nonstandard) Element and the related Standard Association 

(USNVC). Values for Relationship to Standard are: 

= – Equivalent: NHP community is equivalent to the standard Association 

B – Broader: the NHP community is more broadly classified than the standard 

Association 

F – Finer: the NHP community is more finely classified than the standard Association 

I – Intersecting: the NHP community is not clearly broader or finer than this standard 

Association; the standard and NHP communities are related in a way that is more 

complex than a simple broader/finer relationship 

? – Undetermined: the relationship between the NHP community and this standard 

Association is unknown 

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Confidence (Conf): Values for Confidence are: C - Certain; S - Somewhat certain; N - Not 

certain (null) - Not assessed or unknown. 

State Name (SName): If the USNVC Association has been crosswalked to a state 

classification type and it is equivalent to the USNVC type, the State Name is the name that 

the Natural Heritage Program applies to the same community. A value of [gname] indicates 

that the State Name is the same as the Global Name. A value of [not crosswalked] indicates 

that no state type representing the concept of the USNVC Association has been identified. If 

a state type has been identified that is NOT equivalent to the USNVC Association 

(Standard), then the subnational type is considered a Nonstandard community. In this case, 

the State Name is the name of the nonstandard community. 

Reference: This is the primary reference for the Natural Heritage Program classification that 

contains the State Name and confirms the presence of the Association in the state. 

Local Range: A description of the total range (including present and historic, if known) of the 

Association within the park. 

Classification Comments: Comments about classification criteria used to define the 

Association or description of any remaining issues associated with its classification in the park. 

Other Comments: Additional comments about the Association within the park. 

Local Description Authors: Name(s) of the person(s) primarily responsible for authorship of 

the current description of this Association in the park. 

Plots: List of plot codes for plots used in the identification and classification of the Association 

in the park. 

Inventory Notes: Information regarding the sampling of the Association in the park. 


USNVC Classification 

Physiognomic Class: The second level of the USNVC which is a vegetation structural 

classification adapted from UNESCO 1973 and Driscoll et al. 1984. This level is based on the 

structure of the vegetation. This is determined by the height and relative percentage of cover of 

the dominant life-forms: tree, shrub, dwarf-shrub, herbaceous, and nonvascular. 

Physiognomic Subclass: The third level of the USNVC. This level is determined by the 

predominant leaf phenology of classes defined by a tree, shrub, or dwarf-shrub stratum, the 

persistence and growth form of herbaceous and nonvascular vegetation, and particle size of the 

substrate for sparse vegetation (e.g., consolidated rocks, gravel/cobble). 

Physiognomic Group: The fourth level of the USNVC. The group generally represents a 

grouping of vegetation units based on leaf characters, such as broad-leaf, needle-leaf, 

351



microphyllous, and xeromorphic. These units are identified and named with broadly defined 

macroclimatic types to provide a structural-geographic orientation, but the ecological climate 

terms do not define the groups per se. 

Physiognomic Subgroup: The fifth level of the USNVC represents a distinction between natural 

vegetation, including natural, semi-natural and some modified vegetation, and cultural vegetation 

(planted/cultivated). 

Formation: The sixth level of the USNVC; represents a grouping of community types that share 

a definite physiognomy or structure and broadly defined environmental factors, such as elevation 

and hydrologic regime. 

Classification Code (parenthetical following each of the above levels): The U. S. National 

Vegetation Classification (USNVC) Standard Classification code for the respective level of 

the hierarchy. Classification codes for the different levels are comprised of the following: 

Class: Roman numerals (I-VII) 

Subclass: Class code plus an uppercase letter (A–Z) 

Group: Subclass code plus an Arabic number 

Subgroup: Group code plus either the uppercase letter N (Natural/Semi-natural) or the 

uppercase letter C (Planted/Cultivated) 

Formation: Subgroup code plus a lowercase letter (a–z) 

Alliance: Level of USNVC reflecting a physiognomically uniform group of plant Associations 

sharing one or more diagnostic species (dominant, differential, indicator, or character), which 

(generally) are found in the uppermost stratum of the vegetation. The names of dominant and 

diagnostic species are the foundation of the Alliance Name. At least one species from the 

dominant and/or uppermost stratum is included. In rare cases, where the combination of species 

in the upper and lower strata is strongly diagnostic, species from other strata are included in the 

name. Species occurring in the same stratum are separated by a hyphen ( - ), and those occurring 

in a different strata are separated by a slash ( / ). Species occurring in the uppermost stratum are 

listed first, followed successively by those in lower strata. In physiognomic types where there is 

a dominant herbaceous layer with a scattered woody layer, alliance names can be based on 

species found in the herbaceous layer and/or the woody layer, whichever is more diagnostic of 

the type. 

Species less consistently found in all associations of the alliance may be placed in parentheses, 

and these parenthetical names are generally listed alphabetically. In cases where a particular 

genus is dominant or diagnostic but the presence of individual species of the genus may vary 

among associations, only the specific epithets are placed in parentheses. 

Nomenclature for vascular plant species follows a nationally standardized list (Kartesz 1999), 

with very few exceptions. Nomenclature for nonvascular plants follows Anderson (1990), 

Anderson et al. (1990), Egan (1987, 1989, 1990), Esslinger and Egan (1995), and Stotler and 

Crandall-Stotler (1977). 

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Alliance Key (parenthetical following Alliance): A unique identifier from the USNVC 

central database for each Alliance that begins with the string “A.” followed by a unique 3- or 

4-digit number. 

Alliance (English name): A repeat of the Alliance name with a translation of the scientific 

names using standard NatureServe Central Ecology-accepted common names for the plant taxa 

in the name. 

Association: The Association name includes the scientific names of dominant and diagnostic 

species. Species occurring in the same stratum are separated by a hyphen ( - ), and those 

occurring in different strata are separated by a slash ( / ). Species occurring in the uppermost 

strata are listed first, followed successively by those in lower strata. Within the same stratum, 

the order of species names generally reflects decreasing levels of dominance, constancy, or 

diagnostic value. In physiognomic types where there is a dominant herbaceous layer with a 

scattered woody layer, Association names can be based on species found in either the herbaceous 

layer or the woody layer, whichever is more diagnostic of the type. If both layers are used, then 

the uppermost layer is always listed first, regardless of which may be more diagnostic. 

Species less consistently found in all occurrences of the Association are placed in parentheses (). 

In cases where a particular genus is dominant or diagnostic but individual species of the genus 

may vary among occurrences, only the specific epithets are placed in parentheses. Association 

names conclude with the Class Name in which they are classified. 

In cases where diagnostic species are unknown or in question, a more general term may be used 

as a species placeholder (e.g., Sphagnum spp., Mixed Herbs, Mesic Graminoids). An 

environmental or geographic term, or one that is descriptive of the height of the vegetation (e.g., 

Dwarf Forest, Northern Shrubland), can also be used as a modifier when such a term is necessary 

to adequately characterize the Association. For reasons of standardization and brevity, however, 

this is kept to a minimum. For Provisional Associations, [Provisional] is added at the end of the 

name (ex. Salix wolfii Shrubland [Provisional]). 

Vascular plant species nomenclature for Association and Alliance names follows the nationally 

standardized list of Kartesz (1999), with very few exceptions. Nomenclature for nonvascular 

plants follows Anderson (1990) and Anderson et al. (1990) for mosses, Egan (1987, 1989, 1990, 

1991) and Esslinger and Egan (1995) for lichens, and Stotler and Crandall-Stotler (1977) for 

liverworts/hornworts. 

Association (English name): A repeat of the Association Name, but with a translation of the 

scientific names using standard Central Ecology-accepted common names for the plant taxa used 

in the name. 

Ecological System(s): A list of the Ecological Systems of which the Association is a member 

(NatureServe 2003). Ecological Systems are groups of plant associations unified by similar 

ecological conditions and processes (e.g., fire, riverine flooding), underlying environmental 

features (e.g., shallow soils, serpentine geology), and/or environmental gradients (e.g., elevation, 

hydrology in coastal zones). They should form relatively robust, cohesive, and distinguishable 

353



units on the ground. In most landscapes, the Ecological System will manifest itself on the 

ground as a spatial aggregation at an intermediate scale (e.g., between the USNVC Alliance and 

Formation scales). 


Concept Summary: A description of the range, structure, composition, environmental setting, 

and dynamics associated with the community. Information includes a general understanding of 

the type, often with some concept of its distribution; environmental setting in which the type 

occurs, and a summary of the important disturbance regimes, successional status, and temporal 

dynamics for this community rangewide; community structure/physiognomy; species by strata 

(dominant and diagnostic taxa); and key diagnostic characteristics that distinguish it from similar 

types. 

Environmental Description: A summary of available information on the environmental 

conditions of the Association rangewide and any other important aspects of the environment 

which affect this particular type, including elevation ranges and, where relevant, information on 

large landscape context, geology, and soils. 

Vegetation Description: A summary of available information on the leaf type and phenology, 

species composition (including dominant and diagnostic taxa, as well as problematic exotic 

species), structure (defining strata and their heights and percent cover), and variability of the 

vegetation of this Association rangewide, and any additional comments relating to the 

vegetation. 

Most Abundant Species: Component plant species that are dominant (i.e., most abundant in 

terms of percent cover) for the Association as it occurs rangewide. 

Stratum: For each component plant species, the stratum (or strata) in which it occurs in the 

Association rangewide. Values for Stratum are: 

Tree (canopy & subcanopy) Short shrub/sapling 

Tree canopy Herb (field) 

Tree subcanopy Nonvascular 

Shrub/sapling (tall & short) Floating aquatic 

Tall shrub/sapling Submerged aquatic 

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Lifeform: The lifeform of each component plant species that is present within each 

designated stratum of the community as it occurs rangewide. Lifeform definitions are from 

Table 3.1, page 37, of Whittaker, R. H. 1975. Communities and ecosystems. Second edition. 

Macmillan Publishing Co. New York. 387 pp. Values for Lifeform are: 

Needle-leaved tree Palm shrub 

Broad-leaved deciduous tree Dwarf-shrub 

Broad-leaved evergreen tree Semi-shrub 

Thorn tree Succulent shrub 

Evergreen schlerophyllous tree Ephiphyte 

Succulent tree Vine/Liana 

Palm tree Forb 

Tree fern Graminoid 

Bamboo Succulent forb 

Needle-leaved shrub Aquatic herb (floating & submergent) 

Broad-leaved deciduous shrub Moss 

Broad-leaved evergreen shrub Alga 

Thorn shrub Lichen 

Evergreen schlerophyllous shrub Fern or fern ally 

Other/unknown Other herbaceous 

Other shrub Liverwort/hornwort 

Species: Global scientific name (and common name) for each floristic component species of 

the Association as it occurs rangewide. 

Characteristic Species: Component plant species that are characteristic for the Association as it 

occurs rangewide. 

Other Noteworthy Species: Other noteworthy species (i.e., species that are not necessarily 

diagnostic of the Association, but that are worth noting for some other reasons, such as those that 

are rare species or nonnative invasives) that are found within the Association rangewide. 

USFWS Wetland System: Systems developed for the classification of wetlands by the U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service. System refers to a complex of wetlands and deepwater habitats 

that share the influence of similar hydrologic, geomorphic, chemical, or biological factors. 

As defined in Cowardin et al. (1979), the values are: 

Marine - consists of open ocean overlying the continental shelf and its associated highenergy 

coastline. 

Estuarine - consists of deepwater tidal habitats and adjacent tidal wetlands that are 

usually semi-enclosed by land but have open, partly obstructed, or sporadic access to 

the open ocean, and in which ocean water is at least occasionally diluted by 

freshwater runoff from the land. 

Riverine - includes all wetlands and deepwater habitats contained with a channel, with 

two exceptions: (1) wetlands dominated by trees, shrubs, persistent emergents, 

emergent mosses, or lichens, and (2) habitats with water containing ocean-derived 

salts in excess of 0.5%. 

355



Lacustrine - includes wetlands and deepwater habitats with all of the following 

characteristics: (1) situated in a topographic depression or a dammed river channel; 

(2) lacking trees, shrubs, persistent emergents, emergent mosses, or lichens with 

greater than 30% areal coverage; and (3) total area exceeds 8 ha (20 ac). 

Palustrine - includes all nontidal wetlands dominated by trees, shrubs, persistent 

emergents, emergent mosses, or lichens, and all such wetlands that occur in tidal 

areas where salinity due to ocean-derived salts is below 0.5%. 

DISTRIBUTION 

Range: A description of the total range (present and historic, if known) of the Association 

rangewide, using names of nations, subnations or states, ecoregions, etc. 

States/Provinces: The two-letter postal codes for U.S. states and Canadian provinces in which 

the Association occurs. Mexican two-letter state abbreviations are preceded by “MX”. When 

the occurrence of the Association in a state/province is uncertain, a ? is appended. The state 

code may be followed by the State Rank when known. 

Federal Lands: List of federal lands where the Association occurs or is believed to occur. 

Names used are shortened versions of the official name of the Federal land unit with “National 

Park, National Forest,” etc., dropped from the name. A ? indicates that presence is uncertain. 

Federal Agency Abbreviations are: 

BIA = Bureau of Indian Affairs 

BLM = Bureau of Land Management 

COE = U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

DOD = Department of Defense 

DOE = Department of Energy 

NPS = National Park Service 

PC = Parks Canada 

TVA = Tennessee Valley Authority 

USFS = U.S. Forest Service 

USFWS = U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 


Rank: The Heritage Conservation Status Global Rank which best characterizes the relative 

rarity or endangerment of the Association worldwide and the date the Global Rank was last 

reviewed (regardless of whether the rank was changed); values for Global Rank are listed in 

Appendix D. 

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For non-natural types, a Global Rank of GNA = Rank not applicable is assigned. They are 

further identified as one from the following: 

Cultural - indicates that the Association is cultivated. Planted/cultivated areas are defined 

as being dominated by vegetation that has been planted in its current location by 

humans and/or is treated with annual tillage, a modified conservation tillage, or other 

intensive management or manipulation. The majority of these areas are planted 

and/or maintained for the production of food, feed, fiber, or seed. 

Ruderal - indicates that the Association is considered ruderal. Ruderal communities are 

vegetation resulting from succession following anthropogenic disturbance of an area. 

They are generally characterized by unnatural combinations of species (primarily 

native species, though they often contain slight to substantial numbers and amounts of 

species alien to the region as well). In many landscapes, ruderal communities occupy 

large areas - sometimes more than any other category of communities - and can 

provide important biodiversity functions. 

Modified/Managed - indicates that the Association is modified or managed. 

Modified/managed communities are vegetation resulting from the management or 

modification of natural/near-natural vegetation, but producing a structural and 

floristic combination not clearly known to have a natural analogue. Modified 

vegetation may be easily restorable by either management, time, or restoration of 

ecological processes. It is not yet clear how to deal with these communities in the 

USNVC. 

Invasive - indicates that the Association is weedy and invasive. Invasive communities 

are dominated by invasive alien species. Although these communities are often 

casually considered as “planted/cultivated,” they are spontaneous, self-perpetuating, 

and not the (immediate) result of planting, cultivation, or human maintenance. Land 

occupied by invasive communities is generally permanently altered (converted) 

unless restoration efforts are undertaken. It is also important to recognize that these 

communities are novel; they are not merely a community “transplanted” from the 

native range of the dominant species. Melaleuca in south Florida, kudzu in the 

southeastern United States, tamarisk in the western United States, and red mangrove 

in Hawaii all form communities which have no equivalent in the native range of the 

dominant species (associated species, processes, landscape context, fauna, etc., are all 

significantly different). 

Reasons: Reasons that the Heritage Conservation Status Global Rank for the Association was 

assigned, including key ranking variables and other considerations used. 

357




Status: The status of the Association in relation to the standard USNVC. Values for 

Classification Status are: 

Standard - the Association has been formally recognized, described, and accepted by 

NatureServe Central Ecology as a standard Association in the USNVC. 

Nonstandard - the Association has not been accepted by NatureServe Central Ecology as 

a standard Association (i.e., it does not follow the standard classification). 

Provisional* - the Association is a candidate for acceptance into the standard 

classification but has not yet been comprehensively reviewed by NatureServe Central 

Ecology. 

Confidence: The degree of confidence associated with the classification of the Association. 

This confidence is based on the quality and type of data used in the analysis, as well as the extent 

to which the entire (or potential) range of the Association was considered. Values for 

Circumscription Confidence are: 

1 – Strong: Classification is based on quantitative analysis of verifiable, high-quality field 

data (species lists and associated environmental information) from plots that are 

published in full or are archived in a publicly accessible database. A sufficient 

number of high-quality plots covering the expected geographic distribution and 

habitat variability of the vegetation type, as well as plots from related types across the 

region, have been used in the analysis. 

2 – Moderate: Classification is based either on quantitative analysis of a limited data set 

of high-quality, published/accessible plots, and/or plots from only part of the 

geographic range, or on a more qualitative assessment of published/accessible field 

data of sufficient quantity and quality. 

3 – Weak: Classification is based on limited, or unpublished/inaccessible plot data or 

insufficient analysis, anecdotal information, or community descriptions that are not 

accompanied by plot data. These types have often been identified by local experts. 

Although there is a high level of confidence that these types represent recognized 

vegetation entities, it is not known whether they would meet national standards for 

floristic types in concept or in classification approach if sufficient data were 

available. 

Comments: Comments about classification criteria used to define the Association, or to 

describe any remaining issues associated with the classification. Any potentially confusing 

relationships with other existing Associations should be indicated if there is a potential that 

further scrutiny may result in a change in the classification of the Association. Discussion of any 

atypical occurrences and why they are included in this Association concept may also be 

addressed. In addition, rationale for choosing nominal species that are not dominant and other 

comments about nominal species pertaining to the classification of the Association should be 

included. Comments may explain confusion about the similarity between types that may not be 

distinguishable. 

358



Similar Associations: The Global Name and Elcode of any closely related or apparently similar 

USNVC association(s) which may be mistaken for this Association. They may be in the same or 

different Formation or Alliance. This includes only types whose classification is not at issue 

(e.g., two types have similar sounding names but are differentiated by the degree of canopy 

closure and lower frequency of associated light-requiring species). Notes regarding the 

relationship and/or distinction of each particular Similar Association may follow. 

Related Concepts: Name used by agencies or other published or unpublished classification 

systems to describe Associations that may be related to this Association. These might include 

Society of American Foresters (SAF) cover types, Kuchler PNV types, U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service (USFWS) wetland types, or other local or regional vegetation classifications. The Other 

Community Name is followed by the associated Reference and Relationship. The Related 

Concept Reference is the source reference for the Related Concept. Relationship indicates 

whether the type designated in Other Community Name is more, less, or equally inclusive of the 

USNVC Association concept. Values for Relationship are: 

B – Broader: the concept of the Other Community is broader than the Association 

concept 

F – Finer: the concept of the Other Community is finer (more narrow) than the 

Association concept 

I – Intersects: the concepts of the Other Community and the Association overlap (i.e., 

neither fully includes the other) and are related in a way that is more complex 

than a simple “broader/finer” relationship 

= – Equivalent: concept designated in Other Community Name is equivalent to the 

Association concept 

? – Unknown: the relationship of the Other Community to the Association has not 

been determined 

Note: Names used by the NHPs are listed in the section entitled Subnational Distribution with 

Crosswalk data. 

SOURCES 

Description Authors: Name(s) of the person(s) primarily responsible for authorship of the 

current version of the Association’s description and characterization including descriptions in 

Environment, Vegetation, and Dynamics. The abbreviation mod. before a name indicates that 

modifications were subsequently made to the original description by the person(s) listed. 

References: Short citations of all references used in documenting the classification/concept and 

characterization of this Association. 

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Appendix K. Key to the vegetation classes 2 at Colonial National Historical Park. 

1a Vegetation dominated by trees and shrubs. ....................................................................................... 2 

1b Vegetation dominated by herbaceous plants; woody species absent or very 

sparse. .............................................................................................................................................. 34 

WOODY VEGETATION 

2a Woody vegetation dominated by native species in the upper stratum 

(exotics may be present, but not dominant). ..................................................................................... 3 

2b Woody vegetation (forests or shrublands) dominated by exotic species in 

the uppermost stratum, e.g. golden bamboo (Phyllostachys aurea), tree of 

heaven (Ailanthus altissima), Chinese wisteria (Wisteria sinensis), 

princesstree (Paulownia tomentosa), Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera 

japonica), or English ivy (Hedera helix). ....................................................................................... 20 

3a Upland forest and shrubland, not influenced by flooding or groundwater. ....................................... 4 

3b Woody vegetation of wetlands. ....................................................................................................... 22 

4a Forest with canopy dominated by oaks (Quercus spp.), hickories (Carya 

spp.), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), tuliptree (Liriodendron 

tulipifera), and/or sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua); loblolly pine 

(Pinus taeda) may be present in some stands. .................................................................................. 5 

4b Forest or shrubland not dominated by oaks (Quercus spp.), hickories 

(Carya spp.), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), or tuliptree 

(Liriodendron tulipifera). ................................................................................................................ 15 

5a Forest with shrub layer dominated by dense ericaceous (heath) species such 

as blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia), or 

huckleberry (Gaylussacia spp.) forming a nearly continuous shrub strata. ...................................... 6 

5b Forest not characterized by heath-dominated shrub layer (heaths may be 

present, but not dominant). ................................................................................................................ 7 

6a Heath species are deciduous; blueberries (Vaccinium spp.) or huckleberries 

(Gaylussacia spp.). ..................................... Piedmont / Low Elevation Mixed Oak / Heath Forest 

6b Heath species are evergreen; mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia) dominant 

shrub. ......................................................... Piedmont / Coastal Plain Oak – Beech / Heath Forest 

7a Forest dominated by mesophytic trees such as tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), 

American beech (Fagus grandifolia), white oak (Quercus alba), northern red oak 

(Quercus rubra), bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis), white ash (Fraxinus 

americana), and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua); mesic sites on slopes, flats, or 

low lying areas. ................................................................................................................................. 8 

7b Forest dominated by white oak (Quercus alba), chestnut oak (Quercus prinus), 

chinkapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii), southern red oak (Quercus falcata), or sand 

hickory (Carya pallida); sites submesic to subxeric slopes or low sandy ridges. ............................. 9 

2 If a vegetation-map class name differs from the vegetation class common name (i.e. Common Name (Parkspecific) 

used in Appendix I), the vegetation-map class name follows in brackets. 

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8a Forest on disturbed flats and disturbed slopes, often with extensive wind 

damage and high cover by nonnative species in the shrub and herb strata; 

Canopy dominance by tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera) and/or sweetgum 

(Liquidambar styraciflua), with or without loblolly pine (Pinus taeda). ........................................ 10 

8b Forests on undisturbed slopes and flats. Tree canopy diverse (many 

different species present); mixed age classes; a mixture of oaks (Quercus 

spp.), hickories (Carya spp.), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), and 

others; pines absent, or of very low cover. ...................................................................................... 11 

9a Forest on slopes with canopy somewhat open or interupted; dominated by 

chinkapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii), sometimes with bitternut hickory 

(Carya cordiformis) and southern sugar maple (Acer barbatum). .................................................. 12 

9b Closed forests on slopes or low sandy ridges adjacent to salt marshes; 

chinkapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii) and other calciphylic species 

absent; pines can be present and abundant. ..................................................................................... 13 

10a Forest of small, disturbed stands on slopes bisected by the Colonial 

Parkway; high cover by exotics species, especially the vine japanese 

honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), but also with species indicative of 

calcareous soil such as common hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), white ash 

(Fraxinus americana), black walnut (Juglans nigra), souther sugar maple 

(Acer barbatum), and bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis). ........... Disturbed Calcareous Forest 

10b Forest on disturbed flats; tree canopy of low diversity, mostly even-aged, 

most often characterized by dominance of tuliptree (Liriodendron 

tulipifera), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), or both; common associates include 

sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), red maple (Acer rubrum), and 

southern red oak (Quercus falcata); in general, oaks (Quercus spp.) and 

American beech (Fagus grandifolia) absent or of low cover; herb layer 

often characterized by weeds such as Nepalese browntop (Microstegium 

vimineum). .............................................................. Successional Tuliptree – Loblolly Pine Forest 

11a Forest on mesic slopes or undisturbed flats. ................................................................................... 14 

11b Forest on low lying areas surrounded by tidal wetlands; dominated by 

sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) and loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) with 

white oak (Quercus alba), southern red oak (Quercus falcata), cherrybark 

oak (Quercus pagoda), American holly (Ilex opaca var. opaca), and 

slender woodoats (Chasmanthium laxum). .................... Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine – Oak Forest 

12a Forest with wind disturbance and dominance by exotic species in the 

shrub and herb layers; Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) and 

Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum) common; pines (Pinus 

spp.) can be common. ......................................................................... Disturbed Calcareous Forest 

12b Oak – hickory forest on slopes, often with exposed shell fragments; 

canopy somewhat open or interrupted; herb layer sparse but species rich 

and dominated by native species; calciphylic species evident including 

chinkapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii), red columbine (Aquilegia 

canadensis), smooth rockcress (Arabis laevigata), and others; grasses 

such as Bosc's panicgrass (Dichanthelium boscii), blackseed speargrass 

(Piptochaetium avenaceum), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), 

slender Indiangrass (Sorghastrum elliottii), and others prevalent; pines 

(Pinus spp.) absent or very sparse. ........................................ Coastal Plain Dry Calcareous Forest 

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13a Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) usually present and often abundant; substrate 

typically sandy; oaks include white oak (Quercus alba), black oak 

(Quercus velutina), southern red oak (Quercus falcata), or post oak 

(Quercus stellata); shrub layer characterized by wax myrtle (Morella 

cerifera) or swamp bay (Persea palustris); vines prevalent and often form 

part of shrub or tree strata. ............................................. Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine – Oak Forest 

13b Forests on short slopes and flats often adjacent to salt marshes; chestnut 

oak (Quercus prinus) or white oak (Quercus alba) dominant; sand hickory 

(Carya pallida) often present; Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana) often in 

understory; herb layer very sparse, mostly graminoid with mosses and 

includes poverty oatgrass (Danthonia spicata), cypress panicgrass 

(Dichanthelium dichotomum), rattlesnakeweed (Hieracium venosum), and 

striped prince's pine (Chimaphila maculata). .................................... Acidic Oak – Hickory Forest 

14a Herbaceous layer sparse to absent; or may be dominated by Nepalese 

browntop (Microstegium vimineum); canopy dominated by American 

Beech (Fagus grandifolia), white oak (Quercus alba), or tuliptree 

(Liriodendron tulipifera) without calciphilic species such as southern sugar 

maple (Acer barbatum), eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis var. 

canadensis), and chinkapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii); Christmas fern 

(Polystichum acrostichoides) and partridgeberry (Mitchella repens) are 

characteristic. ................................................................................. Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest 

14b Herbaceous and shrub cover moderate to very dense, tree species can include 

southern sugar maple (Acer barbatum), redbud (Cercis canadensis), common 

hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), and chinkapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii); 

lush herb layer characterized by patch-dominance of clonal forbs and ferns and 

with species indicative of rich conditions; includes species such as Jack in the 

pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum), mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum), bloodroot 

(Sanguinaria canadensis), roundlobe hepatica (Hepatica nobilis var. obtusa), 

northern maidenhair (Adiantum pedatum) [note: some herbs may not be evident 

late in the growing season]; shrub species can include northern spicebush 

(Lindera benzoin) and pawpaw (Asimina triloba); often a forest of ravine 

slopes cutting into shell deposits. .......................... Coastal Plain Mesic Calcareous Ravine Forest 

15a Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) abundant. ............................................................................................ 16 

15b Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) absent or of low cover. ....................................................................... 18 

16a Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) in dense, even-aged stands, or in obvious rows; 

virtually no other trees present, with shrub and herbaceous layers 

essentially lacking. ..................................................................................... Loblolly Pine Plantation 

16b Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) mixed with other tree species (although 

loblolly pine may be dominant); shrub layer present. ..................................................................... 17 

17a Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) growing in association with oaks; shrub layer 

comprised of wax myrtle (Morella cerifera) or swamp bay (Persea 

palustris). ....................................................................... Coastal Plain Loblolly Pine – Oak Forest 

17b Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) growing in association with tuliptree 

(Liriodendron tulipifera) and / or sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua); 

shrub layer comprised of northern spicebush (Lindera benzoin) and 

pawpaw (Asimina triloba). ..................................... Successional Tuliptree – Loblolly Pine Forest 

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18a Open forest characterized by abundant black walnut (Juglans nigra); 

shrub layer poorly developed, and lawn-like herbaceous layer with 

weedy or exotic grasses. ............................................................ Successional Black Walnut Forest 

18b Closed forest, tall shrub thicket, or vine-dominated vegetation. ..................................................... 19 

19a Sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) dominated vegetation occurring as 

young even-aged forest stands or tall shrublands; often occurring 

adjacent to cultural meadows. .......................................................... Successional Sweetgum Forest 

19b Dense thicket of tall shrubs or vines, or combination of both; bordering 

roads and meadows; can include the native species frost grape (Vitis 

vulpina), Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), and 

blackberries (Rubus spp.) as well as the nonnative species Chinese 

wisteria (Wisteria sinensis), tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), and 

princesstree (Paulownia tomentosa). ...................................................... Successional Mixed Scrub 

20a Forest strongly dominated by tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima); 

taller, emergent loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) may be present or even 

abundant. ................................................................................ Successional Tree-of-Heaven Forest 

20b Vegetation shrubby, forming a more or less, single height stratum. ............................................... 21 

21a Golden bamboo (Phyllostachys aurea) strongly dominant. ................. Golden Bamboo Shrubland 

21b Shrubland a mixture of species, including Chinese wisteria (Wisteria 

sinensis), tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), princesstree (Paulownia 

tomentosa), and others. ........................................................................... Successional Mixed Scrub 

22a Woody vegetation tidally flooded; wetlands along rivers that are influenced 

by marine tides. ............................................................................................................................... 23 

22b Woody vegetation of non-tidal wetlands not influenced by tidal flooding; 

includes non-tidal portion of larger rivers or areas that may have formerly 

been tidal but are now cut off from regular tidal waters. ................................................................ 25 

23a Vegetation dominated by shrubs. .................................................................................................... 24 

23b Vegetation dominated by trees; tidal forest or woodland dominated by bald 

cypress. ............................................................................... Tidal Bald Cypress Forest / Woodland 

24a Mucky, very wet shrubland adjacent to tidal marsh and in tidally flooded 

ravine bottoms; wax myrtle (Morella cerifera) dominant; halophytes 

such as saltmeadow cordgrass (Spartina patens), inland saltgrass 

(Distichlis spicata), eastern baccharis (Baccharis halimifolia), and 

Jesuit's bark (Iva frutescens) absent; narrowleaf cattail (Typha 

angustifolia) often present. .............................................. Tidal Shrub Swamp (Wax Myrtle Type) 

24b Adjacent to active river channel; dominated by eastern baccharis 

(Baccharis halimifolia) and Jesuit's bark (Iva frutescens), sometimes 

mixed with wax myrtle (Morella cerifera) ); other halophytic species 

often present; narrowleaf cattail (Typha angustifolia) absent. .......................................... Salt Scrub 

25a Semipermanently flooded vegetation with surface water present throughout 

most of the growing season; vegetation may be disturbed, with standing 

dead trees or with shrubby structure. .............................................................................................. 26 

25b Forested wetland with saturated, seasonally flooded, or temporarily flooded 

hydrology. ....................................................................................................................................... 27 

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26a Patchy and variable wetland altered by beavers or humans; shrubs and 

herbaceous vegetation, often with standing dead trees; open water present, 

with wetland forbs such as pickerelweed (Pontederia cordata), cattails 

(Typha spp.), and swamp loosestrife (Decodon verticillatus); common reed 

(Phragmites australis) often present. .............................................. Semipermanent Impoundment 

26b Open forest or woodland cut off from regular tidal waters; dominated by 

red maple (Acer rubrum) with loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), swamp tupelo 

(Nyssa biflora), and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), with standing 

dead trees; shrubs include wax myrtle (Morella cerifera) and swamp bay 

(Persea palustris). ..................................................................... Disturbed Tidal Hardwood Forest 

27a Forested wetland occurring on the floodplains of small streams and rivers, 

with at least occasional overland flooding. ..................................................................................... 28 

27b Forested wetland of low-lying areas situated away from or well above 

rivers or streams; vegetation is groundwater flooded (seepage fed) and 

rarely, if ever, flooded by rivers or streams. ................................................................................... 29 

28a Forested wetland of small stream floodplains; soils well-drained; 

canopy characterized by sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), red 

maple (Acer rubrum), and tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera); diverse 

herbs but WITHOUT hydrophytic forbs characteristic of mucky 

substrates, such as lizard’s tail (Saururus cernuus); Nepalese browntop 

(Microstegium vimineum) may dominate along with herbs 

characteristic of more well-drained floodplains such as sweet 

woodreed (Cinna arundinacea), nodding fescue (Festuca 

subverticillata), white avens (Geum canadense), and New York fern 

(Thelypteris noveboracensis). ........... Coastal Plain / Piedmont Small-Stream Floodplain Forest 

28b Forested wetland occurring on the outer edges of large floodplains; 

substrate mucky with standing water; canopy characterized by green ash 

(Fraxinus pennsylvanica) and red maple (Acer rubrum); hydrophytic forbs 

such as lizard’s tail (Saururus cernuus), rice cutgrass (Leersia oryzoides), 

blunt broom sedge (Carex tribuloides), greater marsh St. Johnswort 

(Triadenum walteri), and threeway sedge (Dulichium arundinaceum). .............................................. 

................. Coastal Plain / Piedmont Floodplain Swamp Forest (Green Ash – Red Maple Type) 

29a Small forested wetland of topographic basins surrounded by uplands. .......................................... 30 

29b Forested wetland of ravine bottoms or broad, flat terraces. ............................................................ 32 

30a Isolated pond of anthropogenic origin, dominated by small diameter red 

maple (Acer rubrum) and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) in the 

vincity of Green Spring. ............................................................... Disturbed Depressional Wetland 

30b Seasonally flooded forested wetland of natural sinkhole ponds in the 

vicinity of Yorktown Battlefield. .................................................................................................... 31 

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31a Canopy characterized by swamp tupelo (Nyssa biflora), red maple (Acer rubrum), 

and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua); shrub layer (if present) characterized by 

swamp doghobble (Leucothoe racemosa) and common buttonbush (Cephalanthus 

occidentalis). ...................................... Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Swamp Tupelo Type) 

31b Canopy characterized by sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), red 

maple (Acer rubrum), black gum (Nyssa sylvatica), and/or willow oak 

(Quercus phellos); shrub layer characterized by American holly (Ilex 

opaca var. opaca) and highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum). ............................................... 

...................... Coastal Plain Depression Wetland (Red Maple – Sweetgum – Willow Oak Type) 

32a Narrow, seepage-influenced forest of disturbed, roadside wetlands or in 

the upper reaches of impounded ravine systems; exotic plant species 

common. ................................................................................................. Disturbed Seepage Swamp 

32b Wetland forest of undisturbed ravine bottoms or seasonally flooded to 

saturated broad, flat terraces. ........................................................................................................... 33 

33a Wetland forest of ravine bottoms; substrate very mucky, with pronounced 

hummock and hollow microtopography; canopy characterized by green ash 

(Fraxinus pennsylvanica) and red maple (Acer rubrum); hydrophytic oak 

species absent; golden ragwort (Packera aurea), drooping bulrush (Scirpus 

lineatus), lizard’s tail (Saururus cernuus), and lesser clearweed (Pilea 

fontana) are characteristic; bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) may be 

important in some stands. ............................................. Coastal Plain Calcareous Seepage Swamp 

33b Wetland forest of broad flat terraces; sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), 

red maple (Acer rubrum), and green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) present 

in combination with the hydrophytic oak species swamp chestnut oak 

(Quercus michauxii), willow oak (Quercus phellos), water oak (Quercus 

nigra), or pin oak (Quercus palustris). .......................................... Non-Riverine Saturated Forest 

HERBACEOUS VEGETATION 

34a Upland herbaceous vegetation; meadow dominated by the sod-forming 

exotic grass species meadow ryegrass (Lolium pratense), orchard grass 

(Dactylis glomerata), and broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus); 

and the forb species European field pansy (Viola arvensis), common 

dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), and others; may include scattered trees 

and shrubs, windrows, ditches, and small isolated wetland areas. ........................ Cultural Meadow 

34b Herbaceous wetland. ....................................................................................................................... 35 

35a Nontidal wetland; wetland associated with beaver or anthropogenic 

impoundments; open water, herbaceous, and shrubby patches; may have 

standing dead trees. ......................................................................... Semipermanent Impoundment 

35b Tidal wetland; herbaceous wetland of rivers influenced by tidal flooding. .................................... 36 

36a Tidal marsh dominated by smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora), often 

less than 1 m tall. ............................................................................................................................. 37 

36b Tidal marsh dominated by grasses and/or forbs other than smooth 

cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora); typically greater than 1 m tall. .................................................. 38 

365



37a Tidal marsh dominated by smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora), typically less 

than 1 m tall; often in association with inland saltgrass (Distichlis spicata) and/or 

saltmeadow cordgrass (Spartina patens). .........................Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh 

(Low Salt Marsh) [Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh] 

37b Tidal marsh dominated by smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) occurring with 

big cordgrass (Spartina cynosuroides) and green arrow arum (Peltandra virginica); 

often as linear bands along tidal channels. ..................................................... Tidal Mesohaline and 

Polyhaline Marsh (Transitional Marsh) [Tidal Mesohaline and Polyhaline Marsh] 

38a Tidal marsh dominated by annual wild rice (Zizania aquatica var. 

aquatica) or green arrow arum (Peltandra virginica), pickerelweed 

(Pontederia cordata), or dotted smartweed (Polygonum punctatum). ...... Tidal Freshwater Marsh 

38b Tidal marsh dominated by big cordgrass (Spartina cynosuroides), 

narrowleaf cattail (Typha angustifolia), or common reed (Phragmites 

australis); associates can include chairmaker's bulrush (Schoenoplectus 

americanus), crimsoneyed rosemallow (Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. 

moscheutos), and others. ................................................................................................................. 39 

39a Tidal marsh dominated by common reed (Phragmites australis); typically 

monospecific stands with few associates. ............................................................................................ 

................... Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Common Reed Tidal Marsh) [Tidal Oligohaline Marsh] 

39b Tidal marsh dominated by big cordgrass (Spartina 

cynosuroides), narrowleaf cattail (Typha angustifolia), or 

various species of bulrushes (Schoenoplectus spp.) with or 

without other associates. ................................................................................................................. 40 

40a Tidal marsh strongly dominated by big cordgrass (Spartina 

cynosuroides); may have patch dominance by green arrow arum 

(Peltandra virginica). ........................................................................................................................... 

................................. Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Big Cordgrass Type) [Tidal Oligohaline Marsh] 

40b Tidal marsh dominated by grasses and/or forbs with variable 

dominance by narrowleaf cattail (Typha angustifolia), chairmaker's 

bulrush (Schoenoplectus americanus), common threesquare 

(Schoenoplectus pungens var. pugens), or softstem bulrush 

(Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani), or with no clear dominant. ..................................................... 41 

41a Tidal marsh dominated by mixtures of the tidal forbs narrow leaf cattail 

(Typha angustifolia), dotted smartweed (Polygonum punctatum), green arrow 

arum (Peltandra virginica), crimsoneyed rosemallow (Hibiscus moscheutos 

ssp. moscheutos), and others. ............................................................................................................... 

.................................... Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Mixed Forbs Type) [Tidal Oligohaline Marsh] 

41b Tidal marsh located within the interior of another marsh type, well away 

from tidal channels and sometimes in depressions; dominated by the tidal 

grasses chairmaker's bulrush (Schoenoplectus americanus), common 

threesquare (Schoenoplectus pungens var. pungens), or softstem bulrush 

(Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani), sometimes with saltmeadow cordgrass 

(Spartina patens). ............................................................................................................................ 42 

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42a Interior tidal marsh away from tidal channels; on spongy, organic 

substrate and dominated by chairmaker's bulrush (Schoenoplectus 

americanus) with saltmeadow cordgrass (Spartina patens). ................................................................ 

..................................... Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Saltmeadow Cordgrass - Olney Three-Square 

Low Interior Marsh Type) [Tidal Oligohaline Marsh] 

42b Interior tidal marsh on small depressions or mudflats with common threesquare 

(Schoenoplectus pungens var. pungens) or softstem bulrush (Schoenoplectus 

tabernaemontani) and other species. .................................................................................................... 

..................... Tidal Oligohaline Marsh (Interior Depression Marsh) [Tidal Oligohaline Marsh] 

367



As the nation’s primary conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned 

public land and natural resources. This includes fostering sound use of our land and water resources; protecting our fish, wildlife, 

and biological diversity; preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places; and 

providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The department assesses our energy and mineral resources and 

works to ensure that their development is in the best interests of all our people by encouraging stewardship and citizen 

participation in their care. The department also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for 

people who live in island territories under U.S. administration. 

NPS D-340 June 2008 

368







NPS Northeast Region 

Natural Resource Stewardship and Science 

200 Chestnut Street 

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106-2878 

http://www.nps.gov/nero/science/ 

EXPERIENCE YOUR AMERICA 

369

Vegetation Classification and Mapping Project Report - USGS

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