Vdoc - Pub Medicinal Plants in Australia

MEDICINAL PLANTS IN AUSTRALIA
Volume 2 Gums, Resins, Tannin and Essential Oils

Melaleuca dealbata, the Silver-leaved Paperbark.
MEDICINAL PLANTS IN AUSTRALIA
Volume 2 Gums, Resins, Tannin and
Essential Oils
Cheryll J. Williams
ROSENBERG
First published in Australia in 2011
by Rosenberg Publishing Pty Ltd
PO Box 6125, Dural Delivery Centre NSW 2158
Phone: 61 2 9654 1502 Fax: 61 2 9654 1338
Email: rosenbergpub@smartchat.net.au
Web: www.rosenbergpub.com.au
Copyright © Cheryll J. Williams 2011
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior
permission of the publisher in writing.
National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data:
Author: Williams, Cheryll.
Title: Medicinal plants in Australia, Vol. 2 : gums, resins, tannin
and essential oils / Cheryll Williams.
Edition: 1st ed.
Print ISBN: 9781877058943 (hbk. : Vol. 2)
Epdf ISBN: 9781925078060
Notes: Includes bibliographical references and index. Subjects:
Medicinal plants–Australia.
Materia medica, Vegetable–Australia.
Dewey Number: 615.321
Printed in China by Everbest Printing Co Limited

Contents
Introduction 7 Beefwood and Grevillea Resins 94

Acknowledgments ? Grevillea Hazards 96
Elemi: Canarium Resins 99
1 Oleum Eucalypti 14 Turpentine Oleoresin 100
Discovery of the Native Peppermint 15 Fragrant Canarium Elemi Oleoresins 103
A Diversity of Eucalypt Peppermints 17 Syncarpia Turpentine 106
Therapeutic Mints 20
A Cure for Malaria? 21 4 Th
e Native Pines: Copal, Dammar and
Eucalypt Oil Chemistry 22 Sandarac 110
Commercial Considerations 24 Ancient Pines: Tales of Destruction and
The Australian Blue Gum 26 Exploitation 112
International Fame and Antimicrobial Studies 28 Resins of the Araucariaceae: Copal and Dammar 114
A Complex Chemistry 33 Resin acids 118
Insights from Modern Research 35 Medicinal Araucaria 120
Future Markets 39 Table 4.1 Araucariaceae essential oils 122
A Unique Diet 42 Native Pine Timbers 126
Table 1.1 Summary of the main chemical Famous Bunya Pine Feasts 129
constituents found in Eucalypt species 44 Australian Sandarac 130
Medicinal Callitris Pines 135
2 Kino: The Natural Panacea 51 Table 4.2 Constituents found in Callitris essential
The Eucalypt: A Versatile Medicine 52 oils: properties, species and oil yield 138
The Kino Cure 54 An Underestimated Environmental Role 141
What is Kino? 58 Brush Cypress or Stringybark Pine (Callitris
Resin and Oleoresin Classifications 63 macleayana 142
Table 2.1 Resin classification summary 63
Table 2.2 Summary of the major plant-derived 5 The Myrtaceae: Hidden Chemical Treasure 145
kino, resin, and oleoresin resources referred to in Natural Insect Repellents: The Lemon-scented Gum
the medicinal literature ? (Eucalyptus Citriodora) 145
A Medicinal Astringent 67 Battling the Mosquito, Naturally 150
A New Pharmacology: Lessons from Dragon’s Blood Flavonoids: Rutin Resources 154
Kino 79 Innovative Chemical Discoveries 157
FPCs: A New Class of Compounds 162
3 Resinous Resources 83 Wildlife Food Preferences 169
Angophora Kino 84 Table 5.1 Additional compounds of interest from
Baloghia: Bloodwood Kino 87 the genus Eucalyptus 169
Ceratopetalum: Christmas Trees and Table 5.2 E.-based compounds that can be utilised
Coachwoods 88 by the flavouring and perfumery industry 172
6 MEDICINAL PLANTS IN AUSTRALIA Volume 2: GUMS, RESINS, TANNIN AND ESSENTIAL OILS
6 Tannin and Trees: Native Floral Resources 177 9 T

ea-trees: Modern Investigations of an Ancient
The Search for Native ‘Tan Barks’ 178 Remedy 251
Exploitation Versus Conservation 179 Tea-tree Tales 252
Wattle and Mallett Barks 181 Manuka Chemotypes 254
Lillypilly Tans 184 A New Era of Research 256
Tannin Chemistry 186 The Scent of Lemon 258
Polyphenolics: An Era of Discovery 187 Table 9.1 Common chemical constituents found in
Table 6.1 Tannin categories 188 oils from the Genus Leptospermum 259
Terminalia Tannins 192 Pesticides and Insecticides 260
Terminalia: Investigations of a Traditional The Genus Baeckia 262
Medicine 195 Table 9.2 Essential oil components of Baeckea,
The Therapeutic Beach Almond 195 Kunzea and Leptospermum species of medicinal or
Table 6.2 Medicinal uses of the Beach Almond, aromatic interest 267
Terminalia catappa 196 The Australian Tea-tree 269
Table 6.3 Traditional Medicinal uses of Terminalia A Marketing Success 270
species 200 Research Matters 272
7 Wattle: Tales of an Australian Icon 202 10 Melaleuca: The Prosaic Paperbark 280
The Genus Acacia 202 An Ancient History 281
Table 7.1 Acacia species now classified as A Complex Classification 282
Vachellia 204 Table 10.1 Names of some common medicinal
Australian Wattle: A National Emblem 208 Melaleuca Tea-trees (including synonyms, varieties
Acacia: A Useful Crop 210 or subspecies) 284
The Perfumed Wattle 215 A Preference for Wetlands 285
Wattleseed Harvests 216 Paperbark and Swamp Orchids 289
The Acacia as a Weed 221 The Medicinal Melaleuca 292
Table 7.2 List of vulnerable, endangered, Astromyrtus: The Liniment Tree
critically endangered and extinct native Australian Table 10.2 Medicinal uses of native
Acacia 223 ‘Paperbarks’ 296
Unique Essential Oils 300
8 The Medicinal Mulga 227 Niaouli Oil 303
Wattle: A Major Medicinal Tannin 228 Medicinal Fragrance Components 306
Acacia Astringents 229 Oil of the Cajuput 306
Table 8.1 Medicinal uses of Australian Modern Investigations 309
Acacia 231 Table 10.3 Variations in oil composition:
Chemical Revelations 234 Melaleuca species with different essential oil
Medicinal Gums and Mucilages 237 chemotypes, varieties or subspecies 312
Table 8.2 Natural gums: official resources, Table 10.4 Melaleuca species of medicinal
allied or alternative gum resources 238 interest due to 1,8-cineole content 314
Bush Tucker Gums 243 Table 10.5 Essential oil components: native
Terminalia and Leopard Tree Gums 245 Melaleuca species with commercial or medicinal
Gums from Albizia 247 potential 315
Resources 318
Index 335
Foreword
Brought up in the suburbs of Sydney my experience It is with these thoughts in mind that I commend
of medicinal remedies came in packets and vials from Cheryll’s work with its mass of research and information
people in white coats. There was no connection with collated in such a readable format. In this book the
the traditions and history of pharmacy. I was inside Medicinal Plants in Australia are finally treated as
the cocoon of the industrial chemical world of the the fantastic resource they are with a thorough and
second half of the twentieth century. All that has clear description of their properties underpinned by
changed over the past two decades, as the reality of the scientific information and surrounded by anecdotes of
question: ‘How can some six billion and increasing long-gone users. There is no other book I know that
people continue to push the limits of global resources?’ has brought together this knowledge in such depth and
impacts on us. Not surprisingly, there has been more with such passion. Readers will feel enlightened, like
questioning of our place in nature and a need for more I do, about the medicinal value of Australian plants
information. My own journey of transformation had which have been until now, more based on a vague
its beginnings in the myrtle forests of North-west acceptance of personal experience and old memories
Tasmania. As a budding geologist straight out of than on facts. The modern medical worldview that
university I was overwhelmed by the fantastic diversity we all grew up with has fuelled our scepticism of all
of the ecology, the animals, plants and fungi of these remedies without a doctor’s prescription. There is
wonderful forests. Back then there were still sightings more to the Australian ‘bush plants’ after all.
of Tasmanian tigers. Tasmanian devils and tiger cats The book contains illustrations that are a pleasure
(the spotted-tail quoll) were two a penny! One of the on their own. Beautiful and intriguing pictures ignite
bushmen who helped me survey that isolated part of one’s interest to read the text. It will be hard for anyone
Australia, ‘Cutter’ Murray (he was a champion axe- to put this book down.
man), had caught alive and sold the last ‘wolf ’, as Cheryll has finished a work that must have given
he called the Thylacine, to Launceston zoo in 1938 her great pleasure and satisfaction to write and I feel
for the sum of 10 shillings. Sitting around the fire at that is passed down to the reader. I cannot imagine
night listening to Cutter and the other bushmen talk that it will disappoint in any way.
of the plants and animals they had lived with all their Bruce Allen
lives was fascinating. Years later, I regret that these BSc, University of Sydney
bushmen and many others have passed on without Director, The Timber Company Pty Ltd
documenting their intimate knowledge to encourage [[Cheryll please add location]]
more detailed scientific analyses. July 2010
7
Introduction
TAMING THE GREAT ISLAND:

EXPLOITATION OR EXTINCTION?
The flora of Australia is a vast, unique and rich landscape familiar to the new settlers was undertaken
natural resource. Not only has the essential oil of with great enthusiasm. There was a need to construct
the Eucalypt become an iconic international export, housing and administrative buildings. Along with
there is a diversity of resins, gums and tannin-based this expansion went a desire for recreational sites and,
natural products that have achieved varied amounts importantly, the establishment of good farming lands
of commercial success over the last two centuries. that would support the colony. The general idea was
New discoveries tease at the boundaries of our to ‘civilise’ this new country and aim for a ‘European’
current knowledge – some of which have excellent style of agriculture. The consequences for the natural
therapeutic potential. For instance, research into environment were not a consideration. Some were to
the value of Tea Tree oil has continued to validate realise the folly of this attitude and tried to convince
its antibacterial reputation and expand its practical the public to adopt a more appropriate long-term
applications. In a medical world that is facing many view with regard to utilisation of the country’s forestry
challenges associated with the evolution of drug resources. For a long time their voices went unheeded.
resistant forms of microbes, the investigation of Just over a century after European settlement
natural products has found a new niche that differs began, serious concerns were being raised with regard
considerably from anything that has gone before. An to the misuse of the country’s resources. A discerning
understanding of essential oil chemistry is offering report by the Reverend W. Woolls, headed ‘The
advantages previously unthought of – and for many Destruction of Eucalypts’, was presented to the Field
it has become an exciting and challenging venture. Naturalists’ Club of Victoria in 1891 – and published
However, the continued exploitation of the flora must in The Victorian Naturalist. Woolls highlighted the
face numerous challenges that go beyond concerns environmental consequences of inaction and clearly
involving improved methods of extraction, refinement summed up the significance of the problem. His
and marketing. eloquence on the subject illustrates the fact that these
There is a tendency for humanity to recklessly issues were already a legitimate cause for concern:
exploit natural resources without regard for the future.
This is an all too familiar scenario. Unfortunately, the
No genus of plants in the colony of New South Wales
vastly diverse landscape that characterises Australia
has suffered more extensively from the hand of man,
also carries with it a legacy of environmental
and from natural causes, than that of Eucalyptus. When
mismanagement that must be addressed. The subject the first settlers landed at Port Jackson, one of their
of conservation with regard to medicinal plant principal objects was to destroy the forests by which
resources has been associated with a long history they were surrounded. This, indeed, was to a certain
characterised by conflicting interests. Usually the extent necessary for the purposes of building, cultivation,
commercial value of trees as a timber resource out- fencing and firing, but it appears that gangs of men were
classed any consideration of their medicinal value. employed to clear all before them, and that under the fear
In Australia this was compounded by the fact that of punishment, they had a certain amount of task work
an emphasis on land-clearing was a priority from to perform in that direction. Where Sydney now stands,
the beginning of settlement. The re-creation of a some of the trees, such as the Ironbarks (Eucalyptus
8
Introduction 9
siderophloia, Benth., and Eucalyptus paniculata, Sm.), enterprise is further complicated by the existence of
Swamp and Red Mahogany (Eucalyptus robusta, Sm., different varieties or distinct chemotypes within a
and Eucalyptus resinifera, Sm.), and the gums of different species, that can have quite marked variation in their
kinds, were of large dimensions, and therefore the labour oil constituents. This highlights the fact that, with so
of clearing must have been one of difficulty. The giants of
many species yet to be examined, there is extraordinary
the primeval forest, however, gradually disappeared, and
scope for new discoveries. On the other hand, the
as the grants of land were given to the early settlers …
the process was carried further inland. For the purposes increasing sophistication of analytical procedures has
already indicated, it was necessary that many trees should begun to open up entirely new avenues of research.
perish, but, in the early days of the colony it seemed Sadly, even the economic value of the environment
to be the policy of the settlers to clear off all the trees did not save the forests from heedless exploitation. In
irrespective of their industrial value or even of their 1886, the words of Mr A. Norton highlighted the
usefulness for fencing and firewood. Hence many of the extent of the crisis:
so-called farms were completely denuded of their timber.
No trees were left to shelter the cattle from the summer
sun, or to preserve wood for domestic purposes. The forests of Australia are, after many years of ill-
treatment, beginning to be regarded as sources of wealth,
for an important fact has forced itself into notice: The
Those without insight into these matters readily supply of timber is not inexhaustible, nor, according
disregarded such sentiments, despite their validity. to the rate at which the most useful kinds of trees are
Reverend Woolls voiced his concerns about a being felled, will they be sufficient for the demand this
matter that probably deserves consideration as the first is likely to be made upon them during the next fifty
environmental crisis associated with a major medicinal years. Not only have unserviceable classes of trees been
intentionally destroyed, but thousands of acres upon
plant in Australia:
which were many of the most valuable eucalypts have
been ring-barked, and scarcely a living specimen can be
As eucalypts are most valuable trees, whether considered seen in some places. This is the deliberate work of men
in an industrial, medicinal, or hygienic point of view, who persuade themselves that they are vastly improving
it is highly important to prevent their indiscriminate the country. It is because this artificial mode of destroying
removal. They furnish, and by judicious management has been so extravagantly carried out that the natural
they may continue to furnish, some of the strongest and decay of indigenous forests become more important in its
most durable of timber. They afford in their resins, their results and more interesting as a study. I have seen some
barks, and their volatile oils many substances useful for
economic and therapeutic purposes, whilst it is a fact
that those who live in the country and inhale the gases
emanating from the leaves can bear testimony to their
sanitary properties. Nor should it be forgotten that such
are their powers of absorption in relieving unhealthy
districts of malaria and stagnant water that their influence
has been acknowledged in the Old as well as the New
World.
Even today the evaluation of the oils from Eucalypts

has not been completed. This is quite understandable
as there are more than 1200 species in the genus.
Nevertheless, around 550 have been chemically
examined, a remarkable chemical task that has
been ongoing for more than a century. A thorough
assessment has become a remarkably complex affair.
The devastation caused by logging in this modern scene
It is not unexpected to find that there are variations from Tasmania parallels the devastation wrought all over the
in the oil produced by different species. However the country by earlier heedless exploitation of the native forests.
thousands of acres, chiefly in the New England district of remnants in the wild – a few struggling individuals
New South Wales, where a plague seems to have carried that would probably never again flourish as they
death through the forest … there are other districts where deserved to. The value of these plants, however, lies not
the same thing has occurred. only with their ornamental appeal as some have useful
medicinal attributes. The fluid from the pseudobulbs
No-one seems to have considered the horrendous cost of some species (Dendrobium canaliculatum and D.
to wildlife of this practice. affine), which have been employed to promote wound
The Eucalypts, those great icons of the Australian healing, was applied locally as a salve for burns or
flora, were not the only floral resources to suffer the diverse skin problems. In addition, there are several
vagaries of exploitation strategies that were characterised Australian species of Dendrobium orchids that have
by mismanagement and misappropriation. The been utilised by Aboriginal people as an adhesive,
Australian Orchidaceae suffered mightily at the hands body paint fixative and source of colouring matter.
of man. The story of many of the native orchids truly The story of the beautiful Cooktown Orchid
highlights the uniqueness of the flora and the need for (Dendrobium bigibbum var. phalaenopsis, now
rigorous conservation ethics. In the past, many unique Vappodes bigibba) which has been the floral emblem
and rare Australian species were subject to a level of of Queensland since 1959, illustrates the destructive
heedless and rapacious exploitation that left mere attitudes that have surrounded orchid collection for
centuries. A century before it was given this status,
in 1852, the orchid was illustrated and named by the
English orchid authority John Lindley. This led to a
rather long and interesting history of being plundered
from the wild. In 1885 the English explorer H.O.
Forbes visited Larat (one of the Tenimbar Islands
400 miles north of Darwin) and took a specimen to
the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. It was propagated
and an account (under Dendrobium phalaenopsis)
was published by the eminent botanist J.D. Hooker
in Kew’s Botanical Magazine. This aroused great
interest in English orchid enthusiasts and the nursery
firm Sander & Co. sent out harvesting expeditions.
Eventually, around a thousand plants identified as
‘Dendrobium schroederanum’ were imported – but
their origins were clouded with misinformation.
They were erroneously said to have come from an
island off New Guinea, a deliberate deception that
aimed to conceal their origins. However, the collector
published an account of his find in the Gardener’s
Chronicle that described the orchids’ habitat – they
had been found growing on limestone rocks on the
beach. He noted that the natives had used this site
for burial rites, placing their dead in coffins on the
rocks. This description agreed with Forbes’ account –
and left little doubt that they were the same orchids as
those previously collected at Larat (Blake 1972, cited
in Williams 1984).
The naming of this orchid was an interesting, if
Pink form of Cooktown Orchid, Dendrobium bigibbum. somewhat confused undertaking as it has also been
(Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native Plants of Queensland, known botanically as Dendrobium phalaenopsis and
Vol. 4)
Introduction 11
Dendrobium bigibbum var. phalaenopsis. The fact that

the blossom can vary greatly in size and colour, as
well as the number of flowers on the cane (i.e. the
flower spike), did not help matters. Despite various
interpretations of the plant’s name, the epithet
bigibbum refers to the flower’s double-spur – an
unusual feature that had not been previously seen in
botanical circles.
Unfortunately, the compulsive fascination that
many orchids seem to engender involves a love of
beauty that has often been associated with disastrous
consequences.
Few orchid enthusiasts of the time had the skills
to ensure these orchids lived, and for this reason many
orchid-collecting expeditions were accompanied by
a sense of futility, even fatalism. Nonetheless, orchid
poaching from the wild remained big business, even
after it was made illegal. Keith Williams, in Native
Plants of Queensland, Vol. 1, observed: ‘This beautiful
species is rapidly becoming endangered in the natural
habitat as poachers continue to gather large number of
plants for illegal sale’ (Williams 1984). Poaching from
the wild has continued to this day.
The less common white-flowered form has always
been sought after as a highly desirable addition
to orchid collections. The scarcity of this natural
variation also commanded high prices. In the 1930s
and 1940s, orchid collection in Australia’s tropical
rainforests was rampant, with the harvesting of White-flowering Cooktown Orchid. (Courtesy: KAW
thousands of Cooktown Orchids proving to be a very Williams, Native Plants of Queensland, Vol. 3)
profitable enterprise for some collectors. The normal
price ranged from £3 to £6 ($6–$12) per hundred, one collector used a 30cwt [about 2 tonnes] truck to
although the white form could fetch the tidy sum of ‘bring ’em back alive’ … It is believed that these old
£5 (more than $10) each. This was almost equal to the habitats are capable of regenerating if they are left strictly
average weekly wage at that time. alone. This may take a long time, but the future is a long
time (Williams 1987).
Keith’s reminiscences provide a personal insight
into the situation:
All Australian orchids are now protected by law and
Cairns was the centre of this trade and a majority of cannot be collected from the wild. It is hoped that
houses seemed to have a [Cooktown Orchid] plant tied this will be enough, in some places at least, to allow
to a Frangipanni, palm, Croton or Citrus trees. I often
for their regeneration. Certainly micropropagation
wonder how many of these plants still exist. The Cairns
Police Station was famous for the pergola of these plants
techniques have saved many rare and threatened
from the street to the main entrance … that made an species, as well as making orchids available for the
almost unbelievable display for some years. Tourists who general market. This had made wild collection a much
arrived by train and ship will remember these blooms. less attractive prospect – particularly when most of
Many of the tourists took plants back home but I suspect these plants will not survive once they have been
that very few… ever survived. No-one cared very much removed from the ecological niches to which they are
about these plants as there were plenty in the bush and so specially adapted.
These stories serve to illustrate the fact that Author’s acknowledgments

the conservation initiatives that now surround the
Australian flora are rooted in harsh experience. It is The task of writing a book sounds like a grand
the environment that has ultimately suffered and, as adventure, but the undertaking can quickly
we are an integral part of this landscape, we have a become full of obstacles that all too often can
vested interest in maintaining its integrity. The ideal appear insurmountable. One of them is sourcing
of environmental exploitation needs to emphasize illustrations, for without a mountain of cash to throw
conservative values. Plants provide the basic essentials around, it is not an easy venture. The great diversity
of life: not only for food, medicine, and clothing of the Australian flora can make the task doubly
– they provide the very air that we breathe. It is difficult as quite a few desirable few images dealt with
estimated that every day, somewhere on the planet, a uncommon or rare flora.
species becomes extinct. There is no miraculous return Without the dogged determination and
to life for these plants and animals. painstaking attention to detail that Tony Young has
This work takes the opportunity to expand volunteered, the inclusion of many of the images
our knowledge of the remarkable resources that lie for the series would not have been possible. He has
within the Australian bush. The extraordinary wealth earned the unofficial title of Research Coordinator
of essential oils and their exceptional diversity offer (being promoted from a mere runaround gofer). The
exciting and innovative opportunities with both a generous gift of Keith Williams’ legacy of photos has
medicinal and commercial future. The study of the also made an enormous contribution that I know
Eucalypts has begun to yield new chemical compounds would have delighted him. Access to the Ecological
that were unknown a couple of decades ago – and Images Collection of Professor Len Webb, provided
their potential is not, as yet, fully understood. Resins by Griffith University, Brisbane was another delightful
and gums not only have historical value, today they discovery. I was in correspondence with Len for many
are finding new applications with very practical years, and he staunchly supported my writing efforts.
results. Some resins such as Kino, once widely used He would be greatly pleased at the outcome.
as a familiar antibacterial bush medicine, lapsed Those who have played a pivotal role have
into obscurity. Advances in the analysis of tannin- included the ever-generous contributions by Forest
based flora could well discover different uses or new and Kim Starr from Hawaii, Peter Woodard, and
methods of application that once again could make the Australian Native Plants Society (ANPS – both
old, and reliable remedies available for medicinal use. national and Tasmania). There were quite a few
A better understanding of polyphenolic chemistry individuals who came to the rescue with photos
has merely scratched the surface of the therapeutic of plants that we could find nowhere else. Special
potential of many native medicinal plants. There is a thanks must be given to those who went to the extra
lot of scope for advancement based on the uniqueness trouble of going on a photographic hunt for some
of the Australian flora. It will take the inventive and of the missing images, including Anja Toms of
innovative among us to bring these opportunities into Top End Explorer Tours, Kakadu, and Paul Davies
the spotlight. (Tygarah Apiaries). Wherever possible we have tried
This island continent, with its rich floral heritage, to track down those who contributed so generously to
may have come a long way from the devastating Wikipedia and released their images for general use.
wholesale harvests of the past (in most states at Many gracious contributions came from this source
least) – yet it still has a long way to go with regard including Ethel Aardvark and HelloMojo.
to environmental conservation. Short-term goals that For some reason, obtaining images of essential oils
do not involve responsible decisions on a nationwide proved to be a difficult undertaking. Many requests
scale are not going to make up for the shortfalls of were simply ignored, or sometimes a polite ‘no’
the past. For a multitude of reasons, among them the was offered. Those who came to the rescue include
medicinal value of our floral heritage, we need to look Lisa Johnstone, Bosisto’s Oils (Felton Grimwade &
to the future of this great land – of which we are all Bosisto’s Pty Ltd); John and Peta Day, Paperbark
custodians. Essential Oils (The Paperbark Co., Western Australia);
Introduction 13
This is tomorrow...
Professor Ian Southwell, for images of Tea Tree oil In addition, I must extend my gratitude to Andrew
plantations and oil distillation; and Milton James, Boys Small, Peter Newell and Bob Jaygo.
from the Bush (Queensland) supporting Indigenous Once again I have relied upon the excellent
youth in remote communities. Contributions from research skills of Brigitta Flick, who has been
further afield included Esoteric Oils in Zambia. To tireless in her support. Her contributions have been
all the companies and individuals who so willingly essential for maintaining the integrity of this work.
supplied their work and went to the trouble to send The proofreading capabilities of Rita Vinten, Tony
high resolution images, thank you. Young and Dermot McCabe must not be forgotten.
Botanical support has once again been proffered by Appreciation must also go to Helen Timms for
Brendan Lepschii (Australian National Herbarium), volunteering for the job of re-reading the manuscript,
who did not tire of trying to explain to me the and the editorial contributions of Anne Savage.
intricacies of botanical name changes – which I found There a also few special people who have provided
to be, at times, an incomprehensible maze that left me some marvellous emotional support to a tired and
quite baffled! As with the previous volume, I have stuck struggling would-be author. In addition to those
with the botanical names used in the research papers mentioned, appreciation for their unwavering faith
cited, and supplied synonyms where relevant. In places in this project must go to Bruce Allen, Chris and
there have been some truly confusing changes that Rebecca Shaw, Ian Mackay, Lynne Swift, Sue Jordan,
I have diligently investigated. I can only hope I did Chris Crossland, Jenny Sheppard, Jill Richardson,
not miss any that were important. Support for plant Christiana Roetgers and Ted Ludke.
identification also came from David Warmington There is also a heartfelt thank you to Dr Sue Cory,
and the staff of the Flecker Botanic Gardens, Cairns. without whose unstinting support I would have been lost.
Chapter 1
OLEUM EUCALYPTI
The study of essential oil chemistry in Australian

plants could not have been undertaken without
the pioneering efforts of a number of individuals
and their associates. In the mid-1800s distillation
enterprises started by the chemist Joseph Bosisto and
the physician, geographer and botanist Ferdinand
von Mueller initiated a commercial venture that was
to make Australian Eucalyptus oil famous across the
world. Von Mueller and Joseph Maiden were among
those who made an enormous contribution in the early
1900s to the botanical classification of the Australian
flora, as well as highlighting the potential for economic
Portrait of Ferdinand von Mueller as President of the

Royal Society of Victoria by an unknown artist. (Courtesy:
Wikimedia Commons Project)
development. They were followed by fellow scientists

who later opened up avenues of investigation and
experimentation that overcame many obstacles in the
chemical analysis of essential oils. In particular, the
early 1900s saw studies undertaken at the Museum
of Applied Arts and Sciences in Sydney, in which
the chemist H.G. Smith and the botanist R.T. Baker
played a central role. A couple of decades later A.R.
Penfold and F.R. Morrison were to continue this work.
Acacia muelleriana (syn. Acacia muelleri) is one of the
They not only evaluated essential oils from Eucalyptus
species named after Ferdinand von Mueller. He was an species, but extended these oil studies to other trees in
extraordinarily influential man who contributed greatly the Myrtaceae family – notably the Tea-trees from the
to the study of the Australian flora. (Courtesy: KAW genera Melaleuca and Leptospermum.
Williams, Native Plants of Queensland, Vol. 4)
14
Chapter 1 OLEUM EUCALYPTI 15
Eucalyptus piperita. (Courtesy: HelloMojo, Wikimedia

Commons Project)
Discovery of the Native Peppermint

The discovery of a native ‘Peppermint’ tree in the
early days of settlement was among the first medical
Eucalyptus piperita. (Courtesy: Peter Woodard)
achievements for the colony. The Sydney or Urn-fruited
Peppermint (Eucalyptus piperita) was an early export gave Dr. Smith any information which was available
in the late 1700s, and soon became a common sight to him’ (Maiden 1909).
in English gardens. The comments of Dr J.E. Smith, The explanation of the aromatic qualities of the
recorded in Surgeon-General John White’s Journal of a Peppermint tree, and its medicinal value, lay with the
Voyage to New South Wales (1790), provide some more analysis of its essential oil. The earliest report on the
details of this discovery: ‘The name of peppermint tree subject was made in 1793 by G. Shaw and J.E. Smith
has been given to this plant by Mr. White on account in Zoology and Botany of New Holland, Vol 1: ‘A fine
of the very great resemblance between the essential essential oil, much like that of Peppermint, is obtained
oil drawn from its leaves and that obtained from the from this species [E. piperita], and every part of the
Peppermint [Mentha piperita] which grows in England. dried plant exhales the same odour when rubbed. We
This oil was found by Mr. White to be much more are now convinced this is distinct from the following
efficacious in removing all cholicky complaints than [E. obliqua], having compared the flowers of both.
that of the English Peppermint, which he attributes At the same time we have observed the minute white
to its being less pungent and more aromatic.’ Later, spots on the leaves in E. piperita, as well as in the
NSW Government Botanist Joseph Maiden added other.’ There can be some chemical variation in the oil
further details of the story: ‘Mr. White sent a quart or of this species. Samples sourced from trees found in
more of the essential oil from this, or other Eucalypts, the Sydney region have a high content of piperitone
to England. This was the commencement of what (45–55%), while oil with a low piperitone content
is now a flourishing industry. Mr. White was Mr. (less than 10%) is more common from other regions.
[Surgeon] Considen’s official superior. The claim of Piperitone is responsible for the peppermint aroma
being the first to prepare and utilise Eucalyptus oil and the medicinal properties of the herb.
is very distinctly made by Mr. Considen, and there The Prickly Stringybark, or Yertchuk, is a species
seems no reason to doubt the justice of it. Mr. White from the Sydney region that closely resembles
probably acted officially in reporting the matter, and Eucalyptus piperita. This Stringybark was given its
one occasion, but I now dedicate to his memory a species

very closely allied to that from which he distilled the first
Australian Eucalyptus oil (Maiden 1921a).
Governor Phillip sent a sample of the oil to Sir Joseph

Banks in London for evaluation.
Plate 23 from John White’s Journal of a Voyage to New South

Wales (1790). The plant is nominally Eucalyptus piperita,
which at the time was called the Peppermint Tree. Today
it is known as the Sydney Peppermint or Urn-fruited
Peppermint. The plate accompanied the formal publication
of the species by James Edward Smith. It was later found that
only the centre and right images are of this species – the left
image, in fact, illustrates the fruit of Eucalyptus capitellata.
botanical name for reasons of historical interest when

The Salmon Gum (Eucalyptus salmonophloia) is a species that
Joseph Maiden named it Eucalptus consideniana in shows interesting chemical variation in oil composition. The
honour of the First Fleet Surgeon, Denis Considen: oil can be piperitone-rich (42%), in combination with with
pinene, cineole and aromadendrene. Other oil samples that
From the following passage it would appear that Considen contained low levels of 1,8-cineole (10%), p-cymene (17%)
was the founder of the Eucalyptus oil industry: ‘We have and cryptone (11%) were devoid of piperitone (Brophy &
a large peppermint tree, which is equal, if not superior, Southwell 2002). A recent analysis of oil from trees grown
to our English peppermint. I have sent you a specimen in Tunisia yielded an oil with higher cineole (37.8%) and
of it. If there is any merit in applying these and many p-cymene levels (29.4%), as well as some cryptone (5.1%)
other samples to the benefit of the poor wretches here, and a vast array of minor components (Elaissi 2010). (Image
courtesy: Len Webb Ecological Images Collection, Griffith
I certainly claim it, being the first who discovered and
University)
recommended them.’1 … I think that some effort should
be made to rescue the name of the first user of Australian
plants from oblivion. I trust that at least a species will be
named after the pioneer before many months are over. I
1 Quoted from a letter to Sir Joseph Banks dated 18 November 1788.
regret that the matter slipped my memory on more than Historical Records of New South Wales (Vol. 1, Part 2).
A diversity of Eucalypt Peppermints

It was later found that species of Eucalypt with a
‘peppermint’ character could be found throughout the
continent. They include:
• Wattle-leaved Peppermint (Eucalyptus

acaciiformis)
• Black Peppermint (Eucalyptus amygdalina)
• Gum-topped or New England Peppermint
(Eucalyptus andrewsi)
• Narrow-leaved Peppermint (Eucalyptus australis)
• Fuzzy Box or White Peppermint (Eucalyptus
baueriana var. conica)
• Gum-topped Peppermint (Eucalyptus brassiana)
• Coast Peppermint (Eucalyptus croajingolensis)
• Broadleaf or Blue Peppermint (Eucalyptus dives)
• Queensland Peppermint (Eucalyptus exserta)
• Willow or Small-leaved Peppermint (Eucalyptus
nicholii)2a
• River Peppermint (Eucalyptus numerosa)
• Black or New England Peppermint (Eucalyptus This lithograph, labelled Eucalyptus amygdalina, actually
nova-anglica) depicts E. radiata. Source: JH Maiden, Forest Flora of New
• Peppermint Box or Western Peppermint South Wales, Vol. 2, 1904, plate 62, illustrations by Lilian
(Eucalyptus odorata) Margaret Flockton.
• White Peppermint (Eucalyptus pulchella)2b
• Robertson’s Peppermint (Eucalyptus radiata)2c
• Robertson Eucalypt (Eucalyptus robertsonii)
• Peppermint-leaved White Gum (Eucalyptus
signata)
• Blackbutt or Gully Peppermint (Eucalyptus
smithii)
The Black Peppermint, Eucalyptus radiata (under the

name E. amygdalina) rated highly among the trees
that most impressed Joseph Maiden – who accorded
it effusive praise:
A beautiful and health-promoting tree. – It is this tree,

more than any other which, on the higher parts of the
Blue Mountains and on the high table-lands south and
north, makes the air at times redolent of Eucalyptus oil.
It is one of the oils with pleasing odour, of a peppermint
character, and appears to be emitted most during the
prevalence of light rains or mist. During hot weather or
spells of drought this delicious aroma is far less exhaled,
2a, b, c The common name Narrow-leaved Peppermint has been used for
each of these three species. The West Australian ‘Peppermint’ refers to Agonis Eucalyptus radiata. (Courtesy: HelloMojo, Wikimedia
flexuosa. Commons Project)
or, if emitted, it at once ascends, and is not evident to

the olfactory organs of man. A commonly-held opinion
is that the function of the emission of Eucalyptus oil
vapour from the leaves of trees is to envelop the tree with
a medium which checks the transpiration of water from
them. But this explanation, based on an observation of
Tyndall, may not be true, or not of general application,
in view of the fact above stated, the result of observations
extending over many years, that a moist state of the
atmosphere induces the emission of Eucalyptus oil in
Eucalyptus amygdalina. To me this aroma is delicious, and
directly one observes it one is tempted to expand one’s
lungs and drink it in. I can only compare it to the delicious
odour of the Pine forests of Europe. Residence in the
vicinity of Pine forests, it is well known, alleviates certain
distressing symptoms in throat and lung diseases, and in
the early stages of consumption may assist to bring about
a permanent cure. Let Pine trees be planted in Australia
for health and other reasons, by all means, but I think the
tree I am now describing will be found even more useful
to Australian conditions. It is very readily propagated, and
although it is naturally only indigenous in the colder parts
of New South Wales, I do not doubt that it can be readily
acclimatised in many other parts … If I were to be asked
my favourite Eucalyptus tree, I think I should probably
name Eucalyptus amygdalina. When allowed fair-play it
is a beautiful species, with dense masses of pendulous
foliage, and shapely withal. So many of our Eucalypts
rapidly grow into forest trees, that it is a pleasure to know Eucalyptus dives. (Courtesy: Robert Myers, Wikimedia
a tree of medium size which affords excellent shade. It Commons Project)
can be readily controlled by judicious pruning, and the
delicious and exhilarating odour its leaves naturally emit,
and which is much intensified if they be crushed in the
hand, has been dilated upon (Maiden 1904).
The oils of different samples of this species were found

to be piperitone-rich (63%) or cineole-rich (70%).
Another sample contained α-phellandrene (16%),
with low levels of 1,8-cineole (15%) and piperitone
(13%) (Brophy & Southwell 2002).
The Broadleaf Peppermint, Eucalyptus dives, which
is found in Victoria and southern New South Wales,
yields a piperitone-rich (40–56%) oil that is very
similar to that of Eucalyptus piperita – although it does Eucalyptus dives has a number of other chemical forms
contain various other minor constituents. This oil can that yield different essential oils. The cineol-rich
be used to manufacture menthol and thymol, which strain (68–75%) is used as a medicinal oil resource.
have medicinal and antiseptic value. Thymol has In addition, there is a low piperitone (12–18%) oil
potent fungicidal activity, while menthol is a popular type with good levels of cineole (25–45%). A fourth
flavouring that has also been used as a cooling agent oil type, which is rich in α-phellandrene (60–80%),
in liniments, medicines and personal care products. contains only a small amount of piperitone (2–8%)
(Boland 1991). Phellandrene-rich oils have excellent

2-en-1-ol 9-12%), as well as α-phellandrene,
solvent properties and are used to make cleaning
eudesmol, and possibly cineol and p-cymene, as
products that remove grease, fats and oils – and to
the main constituents (Brophy & Southwell 2002).
make paint-stripping agents. Cineole-rich Eucalyptus
This cold-tolerant Tasmanian Eucalypt is well
oils are similarly effective for removing fatty residue.
suited to poor soil conditions and has been used for
revegetation projects in Australia and overseas. The
Cold-tolerant Peppermints tree has been widely cultivated in England, where
it has become a common garden feature. Other
cold-tolerant Tasmanian ‘Peppermints’ include
the Risdon Peppermint (Eucalyptus risdonii), the
Swamp Peppermint (E. rodwayii), and the Silver
Peppermint (E. tasmanica, syn. E. tenuiramis) –
although only the latter contains menthol (trans-
menth-2-en-1-ol 10%) among its oil components.
Oil of the Risdon Peppermint and the Swamp
Peppermint can be high in cineole (60%) – with
the latter also yielding a phellandrene-rich (43%)
oil form (Brophy & Southwell 2002).
In the late 1800s, international optimism

with regard to the potential of Australian plants as
sources of new medicines stimulated a great deal of
investigation into the country’s unique and unusual
flora. The oil of the Sydney Peppermint was first
distilled in 1788 – although it was not until 1854
that the Yorkshire pharmacist Joseph Bosisto set up
Smithton Peppermint, Eucalyptus nitida. commercial production in Victoria. He was assisted
by Dr Ferdinand von Mueller, who had a keen interest
in the Australian flora and was to later take on the
influential post of Government Botanist of Victoria.4
From 1850 to 1860 Bosisto produced a good quality
medicinal oil by steam distillation. The oil not only
fulfilled the needs of the domestic market, but overseas
demand soon established European markets. Export
began in 1865. The medicinal use of the oil was very
similar to the Aboriginal use of the raw material –
that is, for making liniments, decongestant inhalants
and cough syrups. In 1870 a distinctive compound
named eucalyptol was isolated. However, it was not
until the early 1900s that the chemistry of Eucalypt
oils began to be properly understood, and eucalyptol
was chemically identified as 1,8-cineole. This is the
compound that gives the oil its characteristic aromatic
and flavouring qualities.
The Smithton Peppermint, Eucalyptus nitida, 3 In research papers this tree has also been referred to as Eucalyptus amygdalina
var. nitida and E. radiata var. D.
is also known as the Shining or Shining-leaved
4 He was later to be ennobled by both Britain and Germany as Baron Sir
Peppermint.3 The oil contains menthol (menth- Ferdinand von Mueller.
Therapeutic Mints
Flowers of the Field Mint, Mentha arvensis.
The main therapeutic properties of peppermint oil There are numerous types of Mint with medicinal
relate to its carminative, cholagogue, antibacterial, attributes. The four most familiar would be Peppermint
insecticidal and secretolytic properties. Its pain- (Mentha spicata x M. piperita), Spearmint (M. spicata),
relieving action on headaches and gastrointestinal Pennyroyal (M. pulegium) and the Field or Corn Mint
spasm has been confirmed clinically. However, it is (M. arvensis). These herbs differ in their essential oil
not recommended for use where there is obstruction constituents. Peppermint contains a high proportion of
of the biliary tract, gall-bladder inflammation, or menthol (30–55%), while Spearmint contains carvone
severe hepatitis (PDR for Herbal Medicines 2004). The (50%) and some limonene. Pennyroyal is characterised
antispasmodic and analgesic properties of Mint have by pulegone. Other constituents in Peppermint oil
been acknowledged since ancient times. In the mid- include cineole (3.5–14%), menthone (14–32%),
seventeenth century Nicolas Culpeper mentioned isomenthone (1.5–10%), limonene (1–5%) (Van
that ‘applied to the forehead and temples, it easeth Wyk & Wink 2004; Evans 2002). Menthol, which
headache’. Herbalists were familiar also with the value is widely used as an aromatic flavouring in pharmacy,
of alcoholic extracts of the herb, and its effects on cosmetics and toiletries, is sourced from the Field
the digestive system were highly regarded. Culpeper Mint. The most common extraction process involves
commented: ‘if a spirit thereof be chemically drawn, it freezing the oil of Mentha arvensis to crystallise the
is more powerful than the herb itself … It helpeth cold menthol component, which is then centrifuged to
liver, strengtheneth the belly, causeth digestion, stayeth further separate the crystals. The traces of the oil that
vomits and the hiccup; it taketh away obstructions of the remain in the menthol impart a slight peppermint
liver’. However there could be a couple of adverse effects: aroma to it. Menthol has been particularly valued as a
‘it stirreth up venery or bodily lust’, and ‘angry [choleric] cooling component of liniments. It has also been widely
persons must abstain from it’ (Culpeper 1653). incorporated into digestive and decongestant mixtures.
Drawings of Mentha spicata and M. piperita from Köhler’s

Medicinal Plants, 1887.
A cure for malaria?

The popularity of eucalyptus oil was not only due to
its antibacterial and antiseptic properties. From the
early days of settlement malarial fevers continually
plagued the tropical regions of Australia.5 One of
the early fever remedies was Eucalyptus oil, without
which the household medical cabinet would have
been considered incomplete. However, the widespread
cultivation of the Eucalypt overseas coincided with a
reduction in the incidence of malaria. This gave the
tree a measure of notoriety. At the 1882 Intercolonial
Medical Congress of Australasia, the eminent Brisbane
doctor Joseph Bancroft delivered an article titled ‘On
the Materia Medica and Pharmacology of Queensland
Plants’. He understood the value of the native flora
and wrote eloquently on the value of Eucalyptus oil:
‘There can be no doubt that the commercial oil of
eucalyptus, whether containing eucalyptol or not, is
extremely valuable when vaporised with steam as an
inhalation in the treatment of diphtheria. Internally
Flowering Peppermint herb (Mentha spicata x piperita). The it is tolerated better than turpentine, and appears
main European and American source of Peppermint oil is to be quite as efficacious. There may be an error in
Mentha piperita. Black Mint refers to Mentha piperita var.
vulgaris, and White Mint to Mentha piperita var. officinalis 5 At the time malaria was not differentiated from the numerous other
tropical fevers that were due to parasitic agents.
(Evans 2002).
regarding eucalyptol, and not terpene, as the medicinal

ingredient in eucalyptus oils.’ Eucalypt oil distillation
Although Bancroft’s observations confirmed his
faith in its medicinal value, rumours regarding the
tree’s overwhelming curative abilities in malaria were
debatable. The profit that could be made from touting
the Eucalypt as a malaria cure certainly inspired some
of the promotion strategies employed by marketing
concerns:
There is a mistake often made in regarding eucalyptus

trees as being antimalarial. Why, it might be asked, is
it then that people get ague repeatedly while living in
eucalyptus forests? The error originated on account of
certain malarial districts, where there were few or no
trees, having been rendered non-malarial by the growth
there of eucalyptus. The reason, of course, is that these Contemporary distillation equipment for Eucalyptus and
quick-growing trees have dried up these localities. Other Tea-tree (Melaleuca) oils, West Wyalong, New South
trees would have done the same. The error might be Wales. (Courtesy: Ian Southwell)
overlooked but for the fact that some persons have traded
upon it, and sell preparations of eucalyptus, stating the
same to cure ague (Bancroft 1882).
Steam distillation is a common method utilised

for oil extraction and mobile stills are a practical
way of doing the job close to the site where the raw
materials are collected. The oil glands of Eucalypt
leaves are buried deep within the leaf tissue. This
means that the distillation process can take a
reasonably long time to rupture and release their
contents. The oil from flowers or leaves with oil
glands located in the upper leaf surface is more
readily released. Eucalypt foliage is sometimes
crushed to allow access to the oil glands. Although
this can shorten the time that it takes to steam-
Acacia bancroftiorum (syn. Acacia bancroftii) was named for
Dr Joseph Bancroft, and his son Dr Thomas Lane Bancroft. distil the oil, the process is more labour intensive.
The Orange Gum (Eucalyptus bancroftii), also known as It appears that a longer distillation time (without
Bancroft’s Gum or Bancroft’s Eucalypt, was also named in crushing the leaf ) may also yield better quality
honour of Thomas Bancroft. The latter yields a cineole-rich oils. The colour and viscosity of the essential oil
oil. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native Plants of Queensland, alters as the distillation progresses, indicating
Vol. 2)
changes in its chemical composition. Erich Lassak

(2002) showed that sesquiterpenoid levels in the
essential oils of Eucalyptus globulus and E. nitens,
following two or three hours of distillation, were
insignificant or absent. However, after eight hours
significant levels were present.
Eucalypt oil chemistry
Eucalyptus polybractea (Blue Mallee). (Courtesy: HelloMojo,

The Eucalypts’ international fame subsequently

Bosisto’s Eucalyptus Oil and Parrot Brand advertisement.
(Courtesy: Felton Grimwade & Bosisto’s Pty Ltd) saw crops of the tree appear around the world. There
were, however, some obstacles to ensuring the quality
of the oil. It needs to be appreciated that there are a
vast number of oil-yielding species. The existence of
different chemical types, even within a single species,
can result in great variation in the oil constituents. In
addition to the piperitone-rich Peppermint oils, three
major classifications have been established:
• Oils rich in phellandrine provide useful

disinfectants or antiseptics, e.g. the Manna Gum
(Eucalyptus viminalis).
• Oils primarily for medicinal purposes: This
type is characterised by its cineol content (at
least 70–80%) e.g. the Blue Gum (Eucalyptus
globulus), Eucalyptus radiata, and the Blue Mallee
(Eucalyptus polybractea). These oils are devoid of
Leaf of Eucalyptus polybractea (Blue Mallee), yields a cineole- the undesirable components phelladrone and
rich essential oil of medicinal quality. (Courtesy: John Moss,
Wikimedia Commons Project) isovaleric aldehyde (see Table 1.1, pages 45–50).
• Oils employed in the perfume industry. Eucalyptus

macarthurii can yield an essential oil characterised
by geranyl acetate which imparts a citrus and
floral scent, while citronella is the component
that predominates in the Lemon-scented Gum
(Eucalyptus citriodora, now Corymbia citriodora)
(see Table 1.1).
During the twentieth century new medical discoveries

and chemical developments began to overshadow the
use of herbal medicines. As time progressed, those
dedicated to the search for plant-based drugs became a
minority. Once the initial waves of settlement passed,
the urgent need for native drug plants diminished and
attitudes became complacent. A general apathy and
lack of inspiration came to surround the investigation
and development of floral resources for medicines.
Despite this trend, the Eucalypt continued to establish
a sustainable international market. Ultimately,
Australia’s most famous tree was to achieve recognition
as the most popular, versatile and enduring of this Eucalyptus globulus, leaf and flower cap. (Courtesy: JB
country’s early discoveries. Indeed, for more than Friday)
a century, Eucalyptus oil has been a major player in
to remain this way for the foreseeable future because the
the medicinal oil market – although the Australian
oil is a low-cost by-product of the timber industry in
contribution has not been as successful as one would
China. Australia has even imported Eucalyptus oil from
expect. The current world demand for cineole-rich
some of these sources. This appears to be changing to
Eucalyptus oil is around 3000–4000 tonnes per year
some extent, with local entrepreneurs taking a renewed
(Michael 2000). Only 10–15 per cent (120 tons) of
interest in the market. The establishment of West
the total world Eucalyptus oil production comes from
Australian plantations has the potential to increase
Australia, of which 60–70 per cent is exported (Davis
Australian output to around 1000 tonnes per year (Davis
& Bartle 2004).
& Bartle 2004). Most overseas-produced oil is sourced
from Eucalyptus globulus. Certain subspecies can yield
Commercial considerations a higher quality oil – for example, cineole-rich oil from
In the past, Eucalypt Eucalyptus globulus subsp.
oil from Eucalyptus biocostata is produced in India
globulus was produced (Dayal & Ayyar 1986).
commercially in Spain, Australian resources are
Brazil and South Africa. far more diverse. Eucalyptus
Today Portugal, India radiata contains an oil that
and South Africa are is comparable to that of
substantial oil producers the Blue Gum. The level in
– although China Eucalyptus radiata subsp.
controls over 50 per cent radiata was 74.5–80.6 per
of the market. It is likely cent cineole, plus α-terpineol
Eucalyptus Oil. (Courtesy: Eucalyptus oil from Eucalyptus

Esoteric Oils at www. plenissima. (Courtesy: Peta &
EssentialOils.co.za) John Day, The Paperbark Co)
Lassak 2004; Bartle & Brennan 2002; Lassak 2002;

Singh 1994; Lassak & McCarthy 1992; Boland 1991).
The complex fragrance characteristics of other
Eucalypt species can give them an individual appeal
– particularly for the aromatic oil industry, which
has recently developed an interest in unique native
products. Pinene is an antibacterial and aromatic
compound that is widely used in the perfume and
flavouring industry. Species with very high α-pinene
levels include Eucalyptus saligna (71–84%), E.
myriadena and E. vegrandis. Other species with
equally useful variations in their chemical constituents
include the piperitone-rich oils from the Broad-leaved
Peppermint Gum (Eucalyptus dives),7 the Sydney
Peppermint (E. piperita subsp. piperita) and the Urn-
fruited Peppermint (E. piperita subsp. urceolaris)
(Foley & Lassak 2004; Bartle & Brennan 2002; Singh
1994; Lassak & McCarthy 1992; Boland 1991).
In addition to the medicinal use of the cineole-
based oil, an expanding commercial market is
seeking this type of oil for use as a degreasing agent.
Eucalyptus cinerea. (Courtesy: HelloMojo, Wikimedia The cleaning powers of Eucalyptus oil have been
Commons Project) valued for more than a century. As early as 1888, a
10–11.6 per cent (as well as lesser amounts of various Eucalyptus-based boiler-cleaning agent was developed
other components such as limonene, 4.5%). From by George Downie from decocted leaves. Joseph
the early 1900s Eucalyptus cinerea oil (54–78% Maiden reported: ‘1909 – Eucalyptus leaves extract
cineole) has been utilised as a commercial oil source (left after the distillation of the oil of E. globulus) has
– although since then other high-yielding species been used at Port Esperance, Tasmania, to prevent
have been discovered. Over the last decade Eucalyptus incrustation in boilers.’ It was an important discovery
polybractea (cineole 60–90%) has become the favoured that allowed proper cleaning of ships’ boilers on a
oil resource. Other official sources have included monthly basis – a chore that was essential to mitigate
Eucalyptus angustissima (91.9% cineole), the York the serious risk of an explosion. The liquid was poured
Gums (E. loxophleba subspp. lissophloiea and gratiae into the boiler to eliminate the scale accumulation on
– 68% cineole or higher), and E. pulverulenta (82% the interior. The oils of some species, such as the York
cineole). There are at least twenty other species with Gums (Eucalyptus loxophleba subspp. lissophloiea and
potential for medicinal oil production. They include gratiae), have additional components (e.g. α-pinene,
a number with which few would be familiar. These methylpentyl acetate) that can enhance their solvent
species, and their cineole content, include: Eucalyptus potential (Foley & Lassak 2004).
badjensis (70%), E. bakeri (85–96%), E. brownii (80– Indeed, Eucalypt-derived piperitone- and
89%), E. nichollii (84%), E. pumila (80–90%), E. 6 Western Australia has a serious salinity problem that could have disastrous
salubris (78%), E. saxatilis (64–79%), E. sturgissiana consequences if not rectified. The amount of degraded agricultural land is
(80–90%) and E. subcrenulata (61–66%). In addition, around 10 per cent – a figure that could rise as high as 30 per cent in 50 years.
Over 15 million hectares of land in the wheat belt has been affected in some
there are the Western Australian ‘mallees’ Eucalyptus way. In particular, the majority of the creeks and rivers throughout the region
horistes (syn. E. oleosa var. borealis), E. kochii and E. have become saline. Regeneration projects have become a high priority.
Around 20 per cent of all farmland needs to be planted with saline-tolerant
plenissima – all of which have high essential oil yields vegetation and tree crops are seen as a particularly good solution to the
with a good cineole content. In particular, saline- problem. Over 10,000 hectares had been planted by 2003, and rehabilitation
efforts continue (Davis & Bartle 2004).
tolerant species have the advantage that they can be 7 Another cineole-rich form, Eucalyptus dives var. C, has been used for
used as crops with environmental benefits6 (Foley & commercial oil production.
The fact that cineole-based oils can dissolve grease and

have good biodegradable characteristics is a substantial
bonus. Not only are they aromatically pleasant, they
are not associated with adverse environmental impacts
and will not affect the ozone layer. They also have a
low level of chemical reactivity (Lasssak 2002).
The Australian Blue Gum

The best known oil-yielding species on the
New England Peppermint (Eucalyptus nova-anglica). The

New England Peppermint (Eucalyptus nova-anglica) is
found only at a limited number of sites that are listed as
endangered ecosystems on the New England Tablelands
of New South Wales. The leaf oil is rich in the aromatic
component nerolidol (77%) with a good oil yield (2.7%)
(Lassak 2002). This sesquiterpene, which is rarely found
in the Eucalyptus genus, also has antibacterial attributes. In
addition, another fragrance component, aromadendrene,
may be present in the oil (up to 40%) (Brophy & Southwell
2002; see also Table 1.1). (Image courtesy: Hello Mojo,
phellandrene-rich oils have been employed as
Drawing of Eucalyptus globulus from Köhler’s Medicinal
industrial solvents for paint-making purposes Plants, 1887. (Wikimedia Commons Project)
(paint and varnish), as well as for the production
of various tar, grease, resin and gum products. This
international market has been the Blue Gum,
oil type can also be utilised for the production of
Eucalyptus globulus subsp. globulus.8 Throughout
plasticisers – another product range with a good
the world this Eucalypt has been popularly used
commercial future. Cineole-rich oils (with or without
for treating respiratory disorders, as well as colds
phellandrene) can be utilised as paint-removers and
and influenza. These treatments are based upon the
clothes-cleaners. This has particular appeal for those
decongestant and antibacterial effects of the leaf tea or
who experience chemical sensitivities to many of the
the oil. In general, folk medicines utilised the inhaled
available commercial cleaning agents. The latter are
steam vapour (boiling water poured over the leaf )
usually based on chlorinated solvents and increased
8 Eucalyptus globulus subsp. maidenii and E. globulus subsp. pseudoglobulus
attention is being directed at reducing their harmful also have commercial potential, with a 1,8-cineole content of 46–70 per cent.
environmental impact. Eucalyptus oils appear to offer However, the oil yield of these subspecies can differ dramatically – subsp.
maidenii 2.2–2.8 per cent and subsp. pseudoglobulus 2.3–5.5 per cent (Lassak
a highly attractive alternative with very low toxicity. 2002).
as a respiratory antiseptic. In Australia, Aboriginal

people often made Eucalyptus leaves into a type of
steam bath. As a household remedy, a few drops of
oil in hot water was equally effective as an inhalant.
The camphoraceous cooling effect of the remedy even
led some cultures to call it ‘camphor oil’.9 A century
ago the vaporised oil was a popular inhalation therapy
for serious childhood disorders including croup
(inflammation of the upper respiratory tract, i.e.
laryngotracheobronchitis, due to the parainfluenza
virus) and diphtheria (an infectious condition due to
the bacillus Corynobacterium diphtheriae, which affects
the mucous membranes of the throat). Sometimes
the inflammation could result in serious airways
obstruction that rapidly turned into a life-threatening
situation. The 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) in Eucalyptus
oil helps to reduce the swelling of mucous membranes
and loosens mucus. The resultant easing of respiratory
tract congestion explains the popular addition of the
oil to cough and cold medicines (Riechelmann 1997;
Lassak & McCarthy 1992; Burrow 1983).
9 True Camphor is sourced from the tree Cinnamomum camphora, which has
become an invasive weed in parts of Australia. It is also rather odd to note
that Eucalyptus camphora, although named for its camphoraceous quality,
does not contain camphor. The oil is composed of 1,8-cineole, α-pinene,
p-cymene, various eudesmols and limonene. Subspecies with high (70–84%)
and moderate (57%) cineole levels were identified, while another subspecies
had high levels of eudesmols (75%) and p-cymene (15%) (Boland 1991).
Eucalypt leaves have even been given to poultry and

A remedy for the farmyard chooks caged birds as an antidiarrhoeal agent.
The antimicrobial properties of the Eucalypt have
I have recommended the remedy to several people, and
been deployed in a few unexpected ways. Perhaps
in none has there been a single failure. I lost at the same
one of the more surprising cures was described in
time a collection of Australian parrots from the same
a Town and Country Journal of the late 1800s. The complaint, and it was by observing a flock of parrots
author recounted in detail a treatment he used for on a white gum tree that I found out the remedy. I have
his poultry – a home-grown Gum Tree remedy, not lost a single parrot since. I give any parrot ailing a
easily procurable from the backyard: little powdered leaf in a tube, inserting one end into
the throat of the bird, and blowing the powder into it.
For diarrhoea, and dysentery and cholera in fowls, get Put a few leaves into the cage for them to eat. Finally, I
a quantity of Eucalyptus leaves (white or blue gum; may add that I have taken a large pill, composed of the
I have used both) dry the leaves sufficiently to make blue gum, for a very severe attack of dysentery, which
them brittle, crush and make into pills with the aid of a proved effectual, and the best remedy I have ever used.
little bread or dough … Give one to each fowl affected, I have been a severe sufferer. I think the Eucalyptus is
and if necessary repeat the dose next day. I have not nature’s remedy for the foregoing complaints and is
had a single death among my fowls since I used the worth trying (quoted in Maiden 1889).
foregoing remedy. I lost 17 in 2 days with cholera, and
the 4 I saved out of the 21 I had, could not stand when
I gave them the pills. They are now fine healthy birds. Testimony to the international popularity of the
International fame and antimicrobial Eucalypt lies in its inclusion in many pharmacopoeias
and medicinal texts. One example is Harvey Wicks
studies Felter’s The Eclectic Materia Medica, Pharmacology and
Therapeutics. In this 1922 publication, the American
herbalist provides an insight into the extensive use
of Eucalyptus oil and how highly valued this remedy
was: ‘Eucalyptus preparations are antiseptic and
disinfectant. They may be sprinkled or sprayed upon
offensive material and used to disinfect and deodorize
the sick room. They also may form an ingredient of
antiseptic poultices and ointments. Dropped upon hot
water, or used in suitable oil dilution in sprays, they
are useful as throat and pulmonary antiseptics and
stimulants. Eucalyptol is especially much employed
in subacute inflammations and chronic diseases of the
broncho-pulmonic tract, with fetor, relaxation and
abundant secretions. Used upon cancerous surfaces
they mask the fetid odor and give some relief from
pain.’ A vaginal wash for leucorrhoeal discharge was
prepared from the fluid extract of Eucalyptus or
Specific Medicine Eucalyptus, combined with sea-salt
and dissolved in hot water. He also drew attention to
the versatility of the remedy for treating infections:
‘All preparations of eucalyptus may be used from
Eucalyptus globulus seedling in the Chelsea Physic Garden,

London.
Eucalyptus globulus, Maui, Hawaii. (Courtesy: Kim & Forest Starr)

full strength to any desired dilution upon old ulcers, treatment of choice for children with ear, nose and throat
wounds, gonorrhoeal discharges, ozaena [a nasal (ENT) disorders (Tarasova 1998). A large German
disorder characterised by crusting, atrophy and foetid clinical study of the use of cineole in rhinosinusitis
odour], septicaemia and gangrene; all with free but has likewise shown excellent results, with substantial
fetid discharges. Inhalations of them are especially amelioration of symptoms such as nasal congestion,
useful in pulmonary gangrene.’ mucus secretion, headache, trigeminal nerve pain, and
general debility (Kehrl 2004). Another Russian study
While most Eucalypt remedies employed the kino confirmed that the essential oils Rosemary, Basil, Fir
and Eucalyptus had substantial antioxidant properties,
which influenced their efficacy in chronic bronchitis
(Siurin 1997). German investigations of Gelomyrtol
forte, a compound formulation, showed that it helped
to improve respiratory function in chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease. It was particularly useful for the
relief of coughing. The remedy included α-pinene,
limonene and cineole. (Ulmer & Schott 1991; Dorow
1987). Cineole therapy for this condition was similarly
successful in reducing symptomatic distress, although
lung function studies were not altered (Worth 2009).
Eucalyptus leucoxylon. (Courtesy: Brian Walters, ANPS) German investigations have also found that menthol,
which is present in high concentrations in the oils
or leaves, it appears that the flowers (and possibly the of some Eucalypt species, was more effective as an
fruit) have similar antibacterial potential. In 1949, antitussive (cough-relieving compound) than either
research undertaken by Dr Nancy Atkinson and camphor or cineole (Laude 1994).
colleagues clearly demonstrated that a number of There has been a renewed interest by overseas
Eucalypt species had antimicrobial activity against investigators in the evaluation of Eucalypt-based
Staphylococcus aureus. They included Eucalyptus remedies. Insights have been gained into the diverse
fascicularis (flowers), E. leucoxylon (flowers and fruit), potential of the essential oil – although it is important
E. leucoxylon var. macrocarpa (flowers), E. lehmannii to realise that the antimicrobial effects of the genus
(leaves, flowers and fruit), E. megacarpa (flowers) can differ substantially according to the species utilised
and E. sepulcralis (flowers and leaves). It is intriguing (Harkenthal 1999; Rai 1999; Pattnaik 1995, 1996).
that these investigations included the flowers – the The popular use of the Blue Gum in Mexico led to
use of this part of the plant has rarely (if ever) been studies that showed Eucalyptus globulus extracts had
mentioned as a traditional medicine. potent antimicrobial properties with a broad spectrum
Eucalypt oil rates among the most popular of activity. Herbs with similar effects included the
common household remedies in the world. Much of Pomegranate (Punica granatum), Artemisia (Artemisia
its use relates to its antibacterial attributes, which have mexicana) and the Tree Celandine (Bocconia arborea)
been well confirmed by modern investigations. The (Taddei-Bringas 1999; Navarro 1996). Indian studies
studies have been diverse. An Indian study of forty- likewise supported the excellent broad-spectrum
five locally sourced medicinal plants confirmed the antimicrobial effect of Eucalyptus oil against diverse
significant antimicrobial activity of the Blue Gum. bacteria and fungi. However, variability in the efficacy
Garlic (Allium sativum) and Tamarind (Tamarindus of Eucalyptus oils was evident, with other authors
indica) were among the antiseptic herbs examined demonstrating poor activity against some common
that had similar benefits (Srinivasan 1995). In Russia bacteria – Klebsiella penumoniae, Pseudomonas
a Eucalyptus-based drug called ‘eucalymine’ has been aeruginosa, Protues vulgaris, Bacillus subtilis and
effectively used for the treatment of chronic infected Staphylococcus aureus. Blue Gum oil was also inactive
sinusitis or tonsillar abscesses in children. It has a good against Escherichia coli, which is responsible for urinary
anti-inflammatory effect and was recommended as the tract disorders and gastrointestinal infections. This
variation could be the result of harvest time, extraction

techniques or the type of test utilised in laboratory
studies. In addition, another important influence on
oil quality is the chemotype or variety of Eucalyptus
globulus used for oil extraction (Prabuseenivasan
2006; Pattnaik 1995, 1996).
Nigerian studies that focused on the antibacterial
activity of the oil from locally-grown Eucalypt species
Eucalyptus platyphylla (formerly E. alba).
identified five that were active against Escherichia coli.

They were: Eucalyptus alba (now E. platyphylla), E.
deglupta, E. saligna, E. camaldulensis var. catharine
and E. camaldulensis var. mysore. Four oils showed
activity against a range of gram-positive bacteria
(strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus) as
well as Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antifungal activity
Eucalyptus camaldulensis leaves. (Courtesy: Peter Brock-
lehurst, Northern Territory Herbarium) against Candida albicans was demonstrated by all the
oils except Eucalyptus alba. The authors concluded
that the spectrum of antimicrobial action supported
the traditional use of Eucalyptus oil in the treatment
of lung disease, as an expectorant, and as a stimulant
cough remedy (Oyedeji 1999). A recent investigation
of Eucalyptus polycarpa, E. largiforens,10a E. melliodora10b
and E. camaldulensis indicated that all these oils
had activity against Staphylococcus aureus – with the
cineole-rich oil (70.32%) of E. largiflorens showing
the most potent activity, and E. polycarpa (cineole
50.12%) the least (Sattari 2009). It would appear
that other components of the oil such as α-terpineol,
α-pinene, terpinolene, viridiflorol or aromadendrene
10 These names were incorrectly spelt E. largiflorence and E. malliodora in
this paper.
Eucalyptus platyphylla (formerly E. alba).
could influence its antibacterial attributes. Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas putida. A number
Previous reports have mentioned that anti- of flavonoids were identified as active components of
tubercular activity has been associated with Eucalyptus maculata extracts (Takahashi 2004).
Eucalyptus oil. Investigations established that Blue Bacterial infection is a serious complication in burn
Gum leaf extracts were active against Mycobacterium injuries. Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been identified
tuberculosis (the causative bacterium of tuberculosis) as the bacterium responsible for a majority of cases,
(Watt & Breyer-Brandjwijk 1962). While there does with Staphylococcus aureus the next most commonly
not appear to be any recent laboratory evaluations encountered. Leaf extracts of Eucalyptus and Myrtus
of the value of Eucalyptus oil against Mycobacterium communis had an excellent inhibitory antibacterial
tuberculosis, there is a case study of serious clinical effect – and rated a good level of antibiotic activity
interest that utilised inhalation therapy and showed (Al-Saimary 2002). Flower and leaf extracts of
negative sputum tests for the bacteria after 10 days. another species, Eucalyptus major, have shown good
Tea Tree oil has also shown good clinical results in this antibacterial activity against Bacillus cereus and B.
condition (Sherry 2004; Sherry & Warnke 2004). This subtilis, and against Pseudomonas fluorescens. In
would suggest that the traditional use of Eucalyptus particular, flower extracts showed a level of activity
oil as a remedy for tuberculosis could certainly have against the latter that was superior to the antibiotic
been effective. In addition, Blue Gum leaf extracts chloramphenicol. Leaf extracts of Eucalyptus baileyana
partially inhibited Staphylococcus aureus, a bacterium were also active against Pseudomonas and Bacillus
often implicated in suppurating skin infections. Leaf cereus (Cock 2008).
extracts of the Manna Gum (Eucalyptus viminalis)
also had significant activity against Staphylococcus The value of a chemical component in an essential
aureus (Watt & Breyer-Brandjwijk 1962). However, oil usually depends on the amount that is present.
subsequent studies indicated that the antibacterial This can have a significant effect on its antimicrobial
activity of Eucalyptus globulus against S. aureus was,
overall, not significant (Chung 2007; Prabuseenivasan
2006).
Recent studies of interest have evaluated the
antibacterial activity of Eucalyptus globulus leaf extracts
against a number of clinically sourced respiratory
tract bacteria. They included Staphylococcus aureus,
Streptococcus pyogenes and S. pneumoniae, Haemophilus
influenzae and H. parainfluenzae, and Stenotrophomonas
maltophila (Cermelli 2008; Salari 2006). Extracts
of Eucalyptus globulus, E. maculata and E. viminalis
had significant activity against various gram-positive
bacteria associated with gastrointestinal infections
(i.e. Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA,11 Bacillus cereus,
Enterococcus faecalis, Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris) and
acne (Propionibacterium acnes), and had antifungal
activity against a fungus causing ‘Athlete’s foot’
(Trichophyton mentagrophytes). However, extracts were
not effective against gram-negative bacteria such as
11 MRSA, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. This is a hospital-
acquired bacterium that is resistant to antibiotic therapy. It is associated with
cases of infection that are very difficult to treat and the development of chronic
skin lesions that are highly infectious. Treatments are often unsuccessful, with
a high incidence of chronic disability, particularly in the aged and those Sydney Blue Gum, Eucalyptus saligna, Sm. From JH
with immune system disorders. Investigations have shown that a number
of essential oils have excellent clinical potential in this condition – this is
Maiden, Forest Flora of New South Wales, Vol. 1, 1903, plate
discussed in greater detail under Tea Tree oil in Chapter 9. 13, illustrator Lilian Margaret Flockton.
Sydney Blue Gum, Eucalyptus saligna. (Courtesy: Peter

Woodard)
potential. Understandably, oil composition not only

varies between Eucalypt species, as the selection of the Democratic Republic of Congo, which found
the material used for extraction purposes (e.g. leaf, the oil contained high levels of 1,8-cineol (Cimanga
bark or flowers) has an important influence on the 2002). Australian analysis has shown Eucalyptus
product. However, oils can also vary substantially saligna contained high levels of α-pinene (73%), with
even when sourced from the same species grown in campholenic aldehyde and α-terpineol (Brophy &
different locations, or from material collected in Southwell 2002). Brazilian studies of the antibacterial
different seasons. An example of this is apparent activity of the oil report variations according to the
from Brazilian investigations of Eucalyptus saligna main chemical constituents: Eucalyptus robusta had the
and E. robusta. It was established that the oil of the highest activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus
latter contained large amounts of α-pinene (73%), aureus and Candida albicans, when compared to
with some β-pinene (6.8%) and limonene (8.3%). Eucalyptus saligna oil. It was comparable to around
However, the oil of Eucalyptus saligna differed 25–30% the activity of the antibiotic chloramphenicol
depending on its stage of growth. During blossoming – but it was of minor consequence as an antifungal
α-pinene (45.1%) was the major constituent, in agent in comparison to nystatin (Sartorelli 2007).
combination with p-cymene (22.5%), and lower levels A study from the Congo has examined the
of α-terpinene (8.6%), α-pinene oxide (11.2%) and antimicrobial potential of oils extracted from the locally
terpineol (9.9%). Prior to flowering, the character of grown Eucalypts. It was determined that Eucalyptus
the oil was substantially different, as the predominant camadulensis and E. tereticornis were the most active –
components were p-cymene (54.2%) and α-terpinene with a particularly potent effect against Pseudomonas
(43.6%) (Sartorelli 2007). This is quite different to aeruginosa. Eucalyptus robusta was only slightly less
previous studies of Eucalyptus saligna sourced from active. Oils from a range of other species showed good
antibacterial activity – Eucalyptus alba, Eucalyptus

(Corymbia) citriodora, E. deglupta, E. globulus and
E. saligna. Eucalyptus propinqua, E. urophylla and
Basil (Ocimum gratissimum) essential oils had less
activity.12 However, trees from the same Eucalypt
species, grown under different climatic conditions,
can have variations in their chemical constituents
that influence antimicrobial activity of the oil (see
discussions of Eucalyptus citriodora, E. maculata, and
E. camaldulensis). Intriguingly, no correlation was
found between the antibacterial activity of the oil and
the amount of the major constituents present – that is,
1,8-cineol, α-pinene, p-cymene, cryptone or thymol
(Cimanga 2002). This could suggest that a synergistic
effect was present in the activity of at least some of the
oils, rather than a single constituent being responsible.
12 Other medicinal leaf oils of interest with similar activity included

Aframomum stipulatum, Cymbopogon citratus, Ocimum americanum and the
seed oil of Monodora myristica.
A complex chemistry
Essential oils from the Bloodwoods

While the commercial form of Eucalyptus oil is
normally characterised by 1,8-cineole, there is
enormous variation in the essential oil components
of the genus (see Table 1.1). Various species may
be characterised by piperitone, cineole, pinene,
phellandrene, eudesmol or globulol. The oils of
‘Bloodwoods’ (genus Corymbia) are linked by
some fairly consistent characteristics. These oils are
usually cineole-poor, although a number of species
tend toward good levels of α-pinene: Corymbia
abergiana (57%), C. clarksoniana (50%), C.
calophylla (50%), C. erythrophloia (50%), C. ficifolia
(36–63%), C. grandiflora (70%), C. intermedia
(50%). Nevertheless, the low oil yield (0.2–0.5%)
does not make these species commercially viable
oil resources. There are a couple of exceptions.
Corymbia leichhardtii (88% α-pinene) has an oil
yield of around 1 per cent, while that of the Lemon-
scented Eucalypt (Corymbia citriodora) can be much
higher (2.5–4.2%). This means that the citronellal-
rich oil (over 80% citronellal) of the latter is present
in harvestable quantities, which has contributed
significantly to its commercial success. In addition, Corymbia (Eucalyptus) clarksoniana, tree and leaf detail.
limonene has been found in Corymbia paracolpica
(20%) and C. tessellaris (22%); globulol in C. setosa

(40%) and C. nesophila; farnesol in C. haematoxylon
(28%) and C. ficifolia (18%) – although they may
not be suited to commercial exploitation (Brophy
& Southwell 2002; Brophy 1998).
Eucalyptus macrocarpa. (Courtesy: Melburnian, Wikimedia

Commons Project)
menthol and citral. Substantial broad-spectrum
antifungal activity has been exhibited by citral and
geraniol, while linalool, cineole and menthol were
active to a lesser extent. Linalool, which is found
in the oil of numerous Eucalypt species, has shown
anticonvulsant and spasmolytic properties, as well
as substantial antibacterial activity and experimental
anticancer properties (Chiang 2003; Pattnaik 1997;
Winkelman 1986; see also Table 1.1).
The process employed to make the extracts
used in studies can have an influential impact on
the results. For instance, an examination of the
antioxidant properties of Eucalyptus globulus stem
Eucalyptus macrocarpa. Large-fruited Eucalyptus, or Gum- bark determined that the activity of methanol-based
Tree. A plate from Curtis’s Botanical Magazine, Vol. 73 (1847), extracts was higher than that of water-based extracts.
drawn by Walter Hood Fitch (1827–1892). (Wikimedia Overall, the activity of both extracts was higher than
Commons Project) the synthetic antioxidant butylated hydroxytoluene
or BHT (Vankar 2006). Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Diverse antimicrobial compounds have been identified var. brevirostris leaf extracts have shown antioxidant
in the Eucalyptus and Corymbia genera. They include properties linked to its phenolic constituents.14 Gallic
macrocarpals, which were isolated from the leaves acid and ellagic acid were the major active components
of the Blue Gum and the Mottlecah (Eucalyptus in ethanol extracts, while flavones predominated in
macrocarpa, Rose of the West) (Osawa 1996; extracts prepared by supercritical fluid extraction (El-
Yamakoshi 1992). The benzene-derivative catechol Ghorab 2003). Swedish investigations of Eucalyptus
(pyrocatechol), which has antiseptic properties, is camaldulensis leaf oils sourced from Mozambique
another component of pharmaceutical interest.13
14 Eucalyptus globulus leaf extracts have been registered for use in Japan as a
Antibacterial effects have been demonstrated by food additive due to their antioxidant properties. Ellagic acid and gallic acid
diverse aromatic oil components – cineole, geraniol, were characteristic of the extracts. Other phenolics that were present also had
antioxidant activity. They included oenotherin B, and derivatives of quercetin
and kaempferol (Amakura 2009; Sugimoto 2009; Shinobu 2005). Dye-
13 Catechol is mainly used for making pesticides. It can also be used in containing stem bark extracts have also been proposed for use as an antioxidant
perfumery. food dye (Vankar 2006).
likewise illustrated the importance of extraction providing support to the immune system – a benefit
techniques. Supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2) that would help the body deal with the side-effects of
extraction resulted in lower amounts of a number immuno-suppressive therapies such as chemotherapy
of components (i.e. 1,8-cineole, α-pinene, β-pinene or steroids (Serafino 2008; Vigo 2004; Grassmann
and terpinen-4-ol) than hydrodistillation. The latter 2000; Santos & Rao 2000; Yun 2000; Lassak &
process yielded 1,8-cineole 43 per cent, α-pinene 5.5 McCarthy 1992). Eucalyptus globulus leaf and fruit
per cent, β-pinene 3.4 per cent, p-cymene 5.2 per cent, extracts have also shown anti-histaminic activity,
terpinen-4-ol 3.1 per cent, globulol 4.1 per cent. The which helps to explain the anti-inflammatory and
yield of globulol and allo-aromadendrene was higher anti-allergic properties of the remedy (Ikawati 2001).
with supercritical CO2 extraction (de Cruz Francisco These investigations tend to support many of the
2001). old recommendations for the use of Eucalyptus-based
The antimicrobial and solvent properties of remedies. They even appear to be, once again, gaining
various Eucalypt preparations have also seen them official approval. The antibacterial, anti-inflammatory,
fulfil a useful role in dentistry. Eucalyptone from Blue antispasmodic and analgesic qualities of Eucalyptus
Gum leaves has good activity against dental bacteria. oil make it perfectly suited for respiratory conditions.
A chewing gum containing Eucalyptus extract can In addition, there are the benefits associated with the
significantly reduce plaque formation (Sato 1998; antioxidant and immune supportive properties of the
Osawa 1995). Additionally, Eucalyptus oil has been oil that can be gained by vapour inhalation (Sadlon
utilised in root-canal treatments, being recommended & Lamson 2010). Eucalyptol has been suggested as
as an alternative to chloroform as a solvent for gutta a useful clinical agent for the long-term treatment of
percha (the substance used to fill the cleaned root inflammation of the airways in bronchial asthma, and
canal). Despite the fact that chloroform performed for other steroid-sensitive disorders. In animal studies
better in some studies, Eucalyptus oil was found to Eucalyptus oil had significant anti-inflammatory
be safe and effective (Zakariasen 1990; Wennberg & benefits and reduced mucin hypersecretion in
Orstavik 1989). chronic bronchitis and bronchiolitis. Investigations
of the anti-inflammatory activity of 1,8-cineol in
Insights from modern research asthmatic individuals showed significant clinical
Eucalypt-based medicines often have a potent benefits from its use. In particular, the fact that it had
anti-inflammatory action that has generally been a glucocorticosteroid-sparing effect that permitted
attributed to 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) – which also reductions in the steroid dose by up to 36 per cent
has analgesic properties.15 The full explanation is (dose decreases between 2.5–10 mg/day) was of great
somewhat more complex, and appears to be linked interest (Lu 2004; Juergens 2003, 1998).
to a level of antioxidant activity. There are numerous While steroids have been a mainstay of treatments
compounds in the oil of the Blue Gum that have the for asthma as well as other respiratory and inflammatory
ability to inhibit lipid peroxidation. Eucalyptus oil has disorders, their long-term use is associated with
shown an immune-modulating (immunomodulatory) substantial side-effects. Over time the body’s own
activity that interferes with leucocyte activation. In natural production of steroidal substances from the
combination, these mechanisms reduced oxidation adrenal gland is affected. There can be an increased risk
processes and modified the cellular damage that results of infection and menstrual disorders, and problems
from environmental irritants or infectious disorders. with skin healing (the skin becomes thin, bruises easily
Eucalyptus extracts have shown excellent potential for and injuries heal slowly). Perhaps the most noticeable
side-effects are fluid retention (swollen feet), a typical
15 Cineole has exhibited experimental analgesic (antinociceptive) activity form of weight gain, and the development of ‘moon-
comparable to morphine in some studies. Synergistic activity between these
two compounds was also evident. α-pinene had a more limited antinociceptive
like’ facial features. Elevated blood pressure, glaucoma
action, and was found to be antagonistic to morphine and synergistic with (increased intraocular pressure), and the development
naloxone. It is of particular interest that the combination of Eucalyptus oil
with morphine could result in the same strength of analgesia, with a lower
of cataracts are additional problems associated with
dose requirement for morphine (Liapi 2007). In addition, there are numerous its use. Steroids can increase blood sugar levels, which
other constituents with pharmacological activity that can be present in small
amounts in essential oils (see Table1.1, pages 44–50).
is a particular hazard for diabetics. Over time there
can be loss of calcium from the bones, leading to

osteoporosis, which can increase the risk of fractures. The Forest Red Gum, Eucalyptus tereticornis,
Safe and effective alternative products would be a is a familiar tree along the entire east coast of
clinical blessing. Australia, from Cape York in Queensland to
A number of other studies have examined the Victoria, favouring riverine habitats. It is also
potential analgesic and relaxant properties of the found in Papua New Guinea. In summer the tree
Eucalypt. Oils such as Eucalyptus and Peppermint produces white flowers, and later small rounded
have shown a muscle-relaxant action, although their
analgesic activity was not found to be significant. In
addition, there was a calming effect that was associated
with increased mental alertness (Gobel 1994). Studies
of Eucalyptus tereticornis have shown that the oil, as
well as its terpenoid constituents (a complex that
included 1,8-cineole), had muscle-relaxant properties.
The effect was influenced by dosage and the type of
experimental muscle contractions utilised. In contrast,
there was also a potentiating effect on acetylcholine
induced contractions that was linked to the pinene
component of the oil (Lima 2010; Coelho-de-Souza
2005). It would also appear that chemical variation can
exert a substantial influence on the oil extracted and
the subsequent study results. Brazilian investigations
of essential oils extracted from Eucalyptus citriodora,
E. tereticornis and E. globulus showed they had central
and peripheral analgesic activity, and confirmed their
anti-inflammatory properties (Silva 2003). Another
study of the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects
of Jordanian medicinal plants noted that an extract
of the River Red Gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) had
anti-nociceptive properties – that is, it could help
prevent pain transmission (Atta & Alkofahi 1998).
The Forest Red Gum,

Eucalyptus tereticornis
Forest Red Gum, Eucalyptus tereticornis. (Courtesy: Ethel Aardvark, Wikimedia Commons Project)
fruits develop which appear similar to those of the The Yellow Box, Eucalyptus melliodora
River Red Gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis). In his
Botanical Notes on Queensland (No. IV, 1882), the
Reverend Tenison-Woods described its habitat:

This is called the red gum in Queensland, and is
similar in habit to E. rostrata … it grows near running
water or in the beds of streams. It is found on both
sides of the Dividing Range, and even on the very
borders of mangrove swamps. In well watered open
forests it may be said to be the prevailing gum tree.
In the tropics, where the soil is rich, the banks of the
streams are so thickly clothed with scrub, that one
begins to lose sight of it especially north of Cardwell.
I remember seeing it on the Herbert River and on the
Barron. But at Herberton and on the tableland it is
not uncommon.

Joseph Maiden commented on the practical value
of this tree as a honey and timber resource. He
considered it to be ‘a useful species, though one
of those which produces a rather dark honey’. It
yielded a serviceable timber:

of a deep red colour, hard and inlocked in the grain, The Yellow Box is common throughout the woodlands
heavy and durable. Apt to warp in seasoning, and, in of southeast Queensland, New South Wales, and
common with many of its congeners, it is very hard
to work up when dry. It has some tendency to shell Yellow Box, Eucalyptus melliodora A. Cunn. From JH
off, which limits its use for such purposes as flooring Maiden, Forest Flora of New South Wales, Vol. 1, 1904,
and decking. It is much esteemed for fence posts and plate 35, illustrator Lilian Margaret Flockton.
any underground work, its great durability for this
purpose having been long established. Used also for Victoria. It has a distinctive crumbly, orange-brown
naves and felloes of wheels, and for general building bark and has been prized for its displays of masses
purposes. Its merits, and defects are much the same of creamy white flowers. The Yellow Box is one of
as those of Murray Red Gum, and I draw attention the most highly valued Eucalypt honey resources:
to it as a meritorious timber for wood-blocks. It is a ‘This is a tree in regard to which petitions have been
valuable timber for railway sleepers (Maiden 1921b). made to preserve it from felling or ringbarking, on
the ground that it was more valuable to the country
The essential oil contains 1,8-cineole, limonene, as a honey-yielder. Everybody speaks well of it’
α-pinene and β-pinene (Boland 1991). The (Maiden 1920). Yellow Box has been used clinically
Essential Oil Research Centre (EORC) in as an anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial, as a
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia reported the following decongestant for treating bronchitis, pharyngitis,
oil components: α-pinene (29.9%); β-pinene asthma, sinusitis, rhinitis, influenza and common
(8.7%); p-cymene (17.3%); 1,8-cineole (31.1%); cold, and as an anodyne for arthritis, tendonitis
α-terpinene (0.9%); 4-terpineol (1.9%); terpineol and muscle soreness. The oil is also useful for mild
(1.7%); and geraniol (1.3%). bacterial and fungal infections. The leaf oil contains
a high percentage (71.2%) of cineole, a component
that contributes substantially to its effectiveness.
Other oil compounds include α-pinene (13.7%),
Eucalyptus melliodora. (Courtesy: P. Davies, Heathmont

Honey)
α-terpineol (2.4%), p-cymene (0.5%) and limonene Wild Herb Bulletin, herbalist Andrew Pengelly,
(4.0%). Wild populations of the Yellow Box have wrote: ‘Not only is Eucalyptus melliodora a significant
recently suffered a substantial decline in numbers medicinal herb and producer of a high quality
in New South Wales due to ‘dieback’ (premature essential oil, it is also the dominant tree over large
decline and death of the trees). In the Upper Hunter tracts of fertile country well beyond the confines of
region incidents of dieback have been attributed to the Upper Hunter Valley, supporting a host of animal
a number of factors – insect attack, loss of insect and plant species and a haven for wild herbs – both
predators, fungal disease, air pollution, climatic native and naturalised. Taking steps now to redress
change, alteration of soil nutrition, and mistletoe the local decline of this species should improve
parasitisation of stressed trees. Replanting schemes land management and biodiversity in general, while
were hampered by a psyllid insect (Cardiaspina providing insights into the prevention and reversal
tenuitella). This type of environmental disruption of future episodes of dieback to other species and in
can exert a substantial influence on the integrity of other regions’ (Pengelly 2000).
the whole ecosystem. The editor of the Australian A vast array of ointments, creams and ampoule
Future markets
The ability of essential oils to absorb through the skin is
integral to their use in some conditions. Modern drug
development has taken serious interest in the potential
of new transcutaneous drug delivery systems. Many
hormonal treatments now utilise ‘patch’ technology,
whereby the drug is impregnated into a slow-release
formulation that can be delivered by a patch applied
locally to the body and absorbed though the skin.
Adding essential oils to some formulations can greatly
enhance absorption. This synergistic action has
attracted substantial interest in examining different
drug–oil combinations. For instance, Eucalyptus oil
can enhance the skin absorption of a number of steroid
hormones (e.g. oestradiol, progesterone, finasteride)
as well as hydrocortisone (Biruss 2007; El Maghraby
The democid mite Demodex folliculorum. (Courtesy:
Emmanuel Maicas, flickr.com) 2007; see also Table 1.1). The addition of Eucalyptus
preparations has been formulated using Eucalyptus oil to the anti-cancer drug fluorouacil significantly
oils (Sinclair 1996; Gal-Fuzy 1984; Zanker 1980; boosted the absorption of the latter through the
Goldstein 1976; Kostyshin 1976). The oil was found skin – around a 60-fold increase (Abdullah 1996).
useful for treating parasitic infections such as scabies Preparations of Fennel, Eucalyptus, Citronella and
(Sarcoptes scabiei). An Egyptian study has shown Mint oils (in descending order of potency) were
that it was exceptionally effective in this condition. shown to facilitate the skin penetration of trazodone
Dilutions of up to 75 per cent and 50 per cent in hydrochloride (TZN), an antidepressant drug (Das
glycerol gave a complete cure within five to ten 2006). Studies on the skin-absorption profiles of two
days. It was equally effective in demodicidosis (facial neuroleptic drugs revealed that cineole and limonene
infection by a democid mite, Demodex folliculorum). promoted haloperidol absorption (Almirall 1996).17
Even much smaller dilutions (20–25% concentration) Another practical application of Eucalyptus oil with
showed positive, albeit incomplete, benefits (Morsy excellent commercial potential involves the prevention
2002, 2003). The treatment of onychomycosis of skin infection. Chlorhexidine digluconate (CHG)
(a fungal nail infection) is another condition in is a chemical antiseptic has a broad spectum of
which Eucalyptus citriodora oil demonstrated a wide antibacterial activity, although its skin penetration
spectrum of activity. Camphor, menthol, thymol, capacity is fairly poor. Studies have shown an interest
and the extracted oil, were active against a number of in the synergistic antibacterial potential of Eucalyptus
the fungal pathogens responsible for this condition oil and the fact that 1,8-cineole has recognised
(Ramsewak 2003; Ramezani 2002). The antifungal skin-penetration enhancement properties. The
attributes of the Eucalypt have even shown potential efficacy of chlorhexidine against the skin bacterium
uses in horticulture. Indian investigations of essential Staphylococcus epidermis was shown to be enhanced
oils for the control of a serious leaf-spot disease of the by the addition of Eucalyptus oil (Karpanen 2008).
Mango (Mangifera indica) concluded that Eucalyptus Further investigations established a synergistic activity
oil was among the most effective. Blue Gum between the combination of CHG and Eucalyptus oil
(Eucalyptus globulus) and Periwinkle (Catharanthus against a number of bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus,
roseus) oils showed the highest antifungal activity (i.e. methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), Escherichia
88 per cent inhibition of the fungus) (Rai 1996).16 coli, Candida albicans and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Although 1,8-cineole also demonstrated a synergistic
16 Effective antifungal activity was also shown by Holy Basil (Ocimum effect, the antimicrobial efficacy of Eucalyptus oil was
sanctum: 85.5% inhibitory effect), Neem (Azadirachta indica: 84.66% 17 Haloperidol is an anti-psychotic medication that has been used for the
inhibition), Castor Oil plant (Ricinus communis: 74.33% inhibition) and treatment of acute psychotic episodes, delirium and schizophrenia.
Henna (Lawsonia inermis: 74.33% inhibition) (Rai 1996).
considered to be superior, therefore making it a better scarlatina, for which by some it is administered internally.
choice for the development of combination products This should be done with great care, however, for the
(Hendry 2009). drug is liable to produce congestion of the kidneys, one
The manner of application can greatly influence of the dreaded complications which is easily provoked in
the acute exanthemata. If acute desquamative nephritis
transcutaneous absorption. The bioavailability of
is present it should not be employed; in the advanced
1,8-cineole was increased by 320 per cent when using
stage of chronic nephritis with very marked fetor in the
an applicator on the skin as compared to an occlusive urine, and scanty secretion of urine, very small doses of
dressing. This suggests that enhancing the practical eucalyptus may be cautiously tried. Eucalyptus and its
aspect of a treatment can result in a reduced dosage preparations are distinctly contraindicated when acute
or frequency of drug application (Weyers & Brodbeck inflammation of any part exists (Felter 1922).
1989). This type of facilitated drug efficacy has the
potential to substantially promote the rate of healing
and thereby reduce treatment costs. Oils may also As has often been the case, the action of the natural
be combined to achieve a specific drug effect. For product is not strictly the same as that of an extracted
instance, Peppermint oil and menthol have shown a and concentrated chemical component. Over the
synergistic effect with the antibiotic oxytetracycline years incidents of Eucalyptus oil poisoning have
(Schelz 2006). There is also the possibility that some been a recurrent hazard associated with its use (Day
oils may prevent the absorption process or act as a 1997). Over 100 children were admitted to the
barrier to drug penetration. This area of research is in Intensive Care Unit of the Royal Children’s Hospital
its infancy, and drug interactions therefore continue at Parkville, Victoria, in the period 1981–92. A
to be evaluated on an individual basis. dose of just 5–10 ml of oil caused vomiting, ataxia
The commercial production of Eucalyptus (muscular incoordination), respiratory problems, and
oil resulted in the development of a concentrated drowsiness or unconsciousness. Despite these effects,
product that differed significantly from traditional all the children recovered from their experience
leaf and bark infusions or decoctions. This has been (Tibballs 1995). Another investigation at the Mater
of particular concern because cineole toxicity can be Misericordiae Children’s Hospital, South Brisbane,
associated with overdose of the oil, highlighting the Queensland, noted that 42 cases of Eucalyptus oil
need for caution with its internal use.18 Eucalyptus poisoning were admitted between 1984 and 1991
oil has an irritant effect on the gastrointestinal tract, (Webb & Pitt 1993). Toxic reactions from external use
resulting in varying degrees of indigestion, nausea, appear to be rare, although they have been recorded in
vomiting or purging. In toxic doses it acts as a narcotic children (Darben 1998).
poison and paralysed the respiratory centre in the
medulla (Satyavati 1976).
These side-effects were very familiar to the old Ephedra essential oils
herbalists. Harvey Wicks Felter, in the Eclectic Materia
Medica, made the following observation: ‘Eucalyptus,
and its oil and derivative, are gentle stimulants
when given in small doses. Large doses are irritant
and may cause gastrointestinal inflammation and
renal congestion. Muscular prostration occurs from
overdoses. Blood pressure is lowered by full doses. All
the secretions are stimulated when these agents are
given in medicinal amounts.’ He advised great caution
with its use in acute inflammatory conditions:
Eucalyptus is a stimulating antiseptic for the angina of
18 Eucalyptol (1,8-cineole) is readily absorbed by the digestive tract, skin

tissue and rectal administration – and is eliminated by the lung or kidney. Ephedra equisetina with ripening fruit.
Cineole in medicinal oils
The essential oil of the Garland Flower, Hedychium

flavum, like that of many other aromatic herbs, contains
fairly good amounts of cineol.
Eucalyptol (cineol) is an important component of the

Ma Huang: dried stems of the herb Ephedra.
essential oil of numerous aromatic herbs, although the
majority contain levels substantially below the 70–80
Medicinal plants from different botanical
per cent found in oil from the Blue Gum (Eucalyptus
classifications can contain similar chemical
globulus). Culinary and medicinal herbs with a cineol
components. This is particularly true for essential
component include: Roma Mugwort (Artemisia
oil constituents. An analysis of the essential oil from
pontica) 12–23 per cent; Wormwood (Artemisia
a number of Ephedra species (dried herb) identified
abiritium) 3.7 per cent; Artemisia herbo-alba 0.5–15
constituents that are also found in fairly high
per cent; Sweet Basil (Ocimum basilicum) 8 per cent;
amounts in Eucalypt oils: α-terpineol (31.64%) in
Sage (Salvia officinalis) 8–23 per cent; Peppermint
E. sinica; 1,4-cineole (12.80%) in E. intermedia;
(Mentha piperita) 5–18 per cent; and Spearmint
and hexadecanoic acid (26.22%) in E. equisetina
(Mentha spicata) 6 per cent. Many other herbs contain
(Ji 1997). These are the main species utilised as the
fairly good amounts of cineol. They include Rosemary
source of the Chinese herb Ma Huang, a remedy that
(Rosmarinus officinalis) 12–47 per cent; Spanish
has long been recommended as an anti-asthmatic,
Sage (Salvia lavandulaefolia) 11.8–41.2 per cent; the
diaphoretic and diuretic. The pharmaceutical drugs
Garland Flower (Hedychium flavum) 42.2 per cent;
ephedrine and pseudoephedrine have been sourced
and Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) 13.1–51.3
from this genus.
per cent (De Vincenzi 2002).
A unique diet Eucalypt leaves all day without any problems with
Interesting survival strategies can be developed by their monotonous, and potentially toxic, diet. They
animals that live in challenging environments. For munch through rather large amounts of forage daily
instance, koalas can hang around in the trees eating (up to about 10 kg) and do so without harm due
to the deployment of unique metabolic strategies to
remove the leaf terpenes. Their absorption of the leaf
oil from the digestive tract is high (95–98%), which is
then detoxified in the liver and excreted in the urine or
bile. This detoxification strategy is truly remarkable.
They can effectively cope with essential oil levels more
than ten times the amount that would cause human
fatalities – and do it for prolonged periods. However,
they can be quite selective about the type of foliage
they eat, preferring to avoid some other specific toxic
components in their diet. Koalas tend to have distinct
preferences for the species of Eucalypt that they dine
on. Among those they find most palatable are the
Blue Gum (Eucalyptus globulus), the Manna Gum (E.
viminalis), the Swamp Gum (E. ovata), the Yellow
Box (E. melliodora) Forest Red Gum (E. tereticornis),
Tallowwood (E. microcorys), the Small-fruited Grey
Gum (E. propinqua), and the Red Stringybark (E.
resinifera).19
The Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) spends about the same

proportion of the day sleeping as it does eating, due to the
low energy content of its gum-leaf diet.
Small-fruited Grey Gum (Eucalyptus propinqua) is one of

the preferred species in the Koala's diet. The essential oil
of this species is cineole based (1,8-cineole 32–46%), in
combination with α-pinene (Boland 1991).
19 Other species of Eucalypt that koalas find palatable include Corymbia
maculata, Eucalyptus botryoides, E. camaldulensis, E. drepanophylla, E.
goniocalyx, E. grandis, E. haemastoma, E. microcorys, E. moluccana, E. nicholii,
E. obliqua, E. paniculata, E. pilularis, E. polyanthemos, E. pryoriana, E.
punctata, E. racemosa, E. resinifera, E. regnans, E .robusta, E. rubida, E .saligna.
Relatively recently, formylated phloroglucinol

compounds (FPCs) such as sideroxylonal and populations survived only by a slender margin. Their
macrocarpals have been identified in the foliage of numbers were reduced to around 200 in New South
various Eucalypt species. These components appear to Wales and 1000 in Victoria. Only in Queensland did
act as a deterrent to the palatability and desirability any reasonable populations manage to survive in the wild,
of the foliage selected for the Koala’s diet (Moore although their tenure here was equally insecure. In 1927
& Foley 2005). The level of FPCs in Eucalypts was over 600,000 skins were exported from Queensland. This
found not only to vary between species – the leaves of was a wildlife tragedy on a massive scale. As a result there
individual trees can also contain substantially different were only 10,000 koalas were left on the entire continent
amounts. This would explain why animals sometimes – where only a century before millions of these peaceful
dine preferentially on a specific tree and leave others of animals amiably crunched their way through tonnes of
the same species that contain FPCs completely alone. eucalypt leaves. The hunt was hallmarked by an appalling
inhumanity. Many animals were left maimed and injured
through the inaccurate marksmanship of hunters or were
mauled by dogs. It was not until after World War II that
this state of affairs was effectively addressed when state
wildlife departments finally afforded the koala protection
from its greatest predator, man. Only then was extinction
averted.
Roadside Eucalypts in outback Australia are testimony to

the trees’ excellent survival strategies in a dry and intolerant
environment. Not only do koalas face problems with habitat loss due
to urban expansion. The challenges presented by forest
fires have led to the extinction of local populations of
Extinction averted these lovely animals. While the Eucalypt has remarkably
Although few Australians today would contemplate resilient strategies that allow trees to re-grow following fire,
killing koalas for their fur, in the early 1900s they the native wildlife can suffer more permanent losses. Of
were brutally hunted throughout the country. The course, today the problem with forest fires is that many
of them are deliberately lit. They have become far more
carnage was devastating. By 1939 the koala was
frequent than would be expected if they were due to
extinct in South Australia. In other states, local natural causes. (Image courtesy: Kim & Forest Starr)
 market for medicinal products tried to convince

Europe that a substitute for traditional kino had
While Eucalyptus oil came in many different forms, been found. The resin was truly as effective as that in
with valuable antibacterial and disinfectant properties, medicinal use, although, unfortunately, its claim to
there was another Eucalyptus product of medicinal fame was not to last. Many natural products gradually
importance. This was the ‘resin’ that the early mariners fell into obscurity with the discovery of antibiotics,
William Dampier and James Cook had compared to although that oversight is slowly being redressed today
the famous ‘dragon’s blood’ – a characteristic that was with the advent of antibiotic-resistant microbes. Kino
responsible for the enduring description ‘Gum Tree’. was one of the early remedies that gained widespread
More properly regarded as a kino, this exudate had acceptance in the colony and became an invaluable
extremely valuable astringent and antibacterial actions part of the household medicine chest. It certainly
that quickly gained it a measure of therapeutic fame. deserves more serious medicinal evaluation that it has
In the mid-1800s, those with a familiarity with the hitherto been accorded.
Table 1.1 Summary of the main chemical constituents found in Eucalypt species
It should be noted that numerous species have specific chemotypes that contain high levels of selected compounds.
Compound Activity of chemical constituent Species containing fairly high

NS = nervous system levels of the compound
CNS = central nervous system (only species containing more than the %
noted in column 1 are listed)
Aromadendrene Antimicrobial Eucalyptus caesia subsp. caesia (27%)

(over 20%) Antifungal Eucalyptus cyanophylla (31%)
Anticancer Eucalyptus leucoxylon subsp. leucoxylon (36%)
Eucalyptus loxophleba subsp. loxophleba (32%)
Eucalyptus macrantha subsp. olivacea (20%)
Eucalyptus macrocarpa subsp. macrocarpa (21%)
Eucalyptus nova-anglica (22%)
Eucalyptus nova-anglica (chemotype: 40%)
Eucalyptus papuana vel aff. (60%)
Eucalyptus patellis (33%)
Eucalyptus pterocarpa (27%)
Eucalyptus striaticalyx subsp. canescens (30%)
Benzaldehyde Antibacterial and antiseptic Eucalyptus yarraensis (84%)

Anticandidal
Anticancer
Anaesthetic
Immune stimulant
Antispasmodic
NS: Motor depressant
Sedative and narcotic
Flavouring and fragrance
Insecticidal and pesticidal
Carvone Anticancer and cancer preventive Eucalyptus suggrandis (19% carvone)

(antiproliferative)
Antifungal, antiseptic and anti-candidal
CNS: Stimulant
Anti-acetylcholinesterasea
Sedative
Pesticidal and insecticidal
Vermicidal (worm removal)
Perfumery and flavouring
Caryophyllene Caryophyllene oxide: Caryophyllene:

widely used preservative for food and drugs Eucalyptus gillii (21%); Eucalyptus kessellii
antifungal: has potential for the treatment of (11%)
onychomycosis (persistent nail infections)
α-caryophyllene:
α-caryophyllene: Eucalyptus astringens (15%); Eucalyptus
Anti-inflammatory conglobata (10%); Eucalyptus subangusta
Local anaesthetic subsp. cerina (11%)
Anticancer and antimutagenic – can potentiate
the anticancer properties of other drugs, e.g. Caryophyllene oxide:
paclitaxel Eucalyptus cladocalyx (14%)
Antiseptic
Antiparasitic: anti-Leishmania and anti-malarial
1,8-cineole Antiseptic and antibacterial Eucalyptus angustissima (76%)

(eucalyptol, over 75%) Antifungal and anticandidal Eucalyptus bakeri (90%)
Anti-allergic Eucalyptus bancroftii (80-90%)
Anti-inflammatory Eucalyptus brownii (80–90%)
Anaesthetic Eucalyptus camaldulensis (84%)
Antispasmodic Eucalyptus camphora subsp. relicta (84%)
Anticancer (cancer-preventive) Eucalyptus cephalocarpa (85%)
Cholinesterase activity: anticholinesterase, anti- Eucalyptus chlorophylla (80%)
acetylcholinesterasea Eucalyptus cinerea (78%)
Antifatigue Eucalyptus dealbata (81%)
Muscular relaxant and hypotensive Eucalyptus desquammata (79%)
Antirheumatic Eucalyptus dives (70–80%)
Anthelmintic (against helminthic worms) Eucalyptus ewartiana (75%)
Hepatotonic and choleretic Eucalyptus famelica (86%)
Gastroprotective and anti-ulcer Eucalyptus goniocalyx (78%)
Decongestant: antitussive, expectorant, Eucalyptus granitica (82%)
anticatarrhal Eucalyptus horistes (88%)
Dental: anti-caries, anti-plaque and modifies Eucalyptus kochii subsp. kochii (82%)
halitosis (bad breath) Eucalyptus leptopoda subsp. elevata (77%)
NS: Stimulant, potential convulsant and Eucalyptus mannensis (86%)
neurotoxin Eucalyptus moluccana (80%)
Sedative Eucalyptus nicholii (84%)
Flavouring and fragrance Eucalyptus odorata (83%)
Pesticidal, insecticidal and herbicidal Eucalyptus parvifolia (72–81%)
Transdermal: skin absorption promotes dermal Eucalyptus perriniana (86%)
uptake of drugsc Eucalyptus polybractea (92%)
Eucalyptus smithii (81%)
Note: Cineole has long been considered to Eucalyptus sturgissiana (90%)
be irritant to mucous membranes and skin Eucalyptus viridis (91%)
although this has not been confirmed by recent
studies (Carson 2006).
Citronellal and Citronellal: Eucalyptus citriodora:

citronellol Analgesic citronellal (29–90%)
Antimicrobial (antiseptic, antibacterial, citronellol (2–52%)
antifungal, anti-candidal)
Antiviral
Expectorant
Hypertensive
Sedative
Pesticidal, insecticidal
Citronellol:
Antimicrobial (antibacterial, anticandida)
Sedative
Insecticidal, pesticidal and insect repellent
Flavour and fragrance
Note:
These two components tend to have actions
that are highly complimentary, with synergistic
activity
Eudesmol β-eudesmol: Eucalyptus balladoniensis subsp. sedens

(α-eudesmol, Anticancer (anti-tumour promoter) (42%)
β-eudesmol and Antibacterial Eucalyptus camphora subsp. camphora
γ-eudesmol Anti-anoxic (75%)
= galbanol: over 40%) Antimutagenic Eucalyptus dawsonii (61%)
Anti-ulcer Eucalyptus fastigata (70%)
Hepatoprotective Eucalyptus gregsoniana (50%)
CNS: Inhibitory effect, sedative Eucalyptus kybeanensis (53%)
Hepatoprotective Eucalyptus laevopinea (40%)
Eucalyptus ligustrina (50%)
Eucalyptus mitchelliana (43%)
Eucalyptus moorei (40%)
Eucalyptus moorei var. latiuscula (70%)
Eucalyptus multicaulis (46%)
Eucalyptus oblonga (60%)
Eucalyptus pauciflora (40–71%)
Eucalyptus pauciflora subsp. debuzevillei
(60%)
Eucalyptus pauciflora subsp. niphophila
(55%)
Eucalyptus pauciflora subsp. pauciflora
(42%)
Eucalyptus quadrangulata (40%)
Eucalyptus regnans (43%)
Eucalyptus remota (50%)
Eucalyptus stannicola (60%)
Eucalyptus williamsiana (70%)
Farnesol Anticancer Eucalyptus calophylla (E,E-farnesol 11–

(over 10%) Antileukaemic and anti-melanoma 21%)
Antispasmodic and sedative Eucalyptus ficifolia (farnesol 17%)
Pheromonal Eucalyptus halophila (E,E-farnesol 28%)
Pesticidal
Perfumery
Germacrene Preservative High levels of bicyclogermacreneb are

Antimicrobial present in:
Insecticidal and insect pheromone Eucalyptus coolabah subsp. microtheca
Notes: (53%)
Germacrene is a widespread essential oil Eucalyptus ficifolia (43%)
constituent. Eucalyptus gamophylla (47%)
Germacrenes A and D have been utilised in Eucalyptus incerata (66%)
research studies. Eucalyptus rudis (67%)
Eucalyptus sparsa (64%)
Eucalyptus varia subsp. varia (76%)
Eucalyptus watsoniana subsp. capillata
(52%)
Humulene Humulene is a flavour component of Vietnamese Humulene (α-caryophyllene):

(α-caryophyllene) Coriander, Hops (Humulus lupulus) and Cannabis Eucalyptus brevistylis (10%)
sativa.
α-humulene:
Anticancer
Limonene Anticancer, chemopreventive, detoxicant and Eucalyptus andrewsii (13%)

(over 10%) antimutagenic Eucalyptus apodophylla (16–31%)
Antimicrobial: antibacterial, antiseptic Eucalyptus diversifolia (22%)
Antifungal and anti-candidal Eucalyptus exilipes (16%)
Antiviral and anti-influenzal Eucalyptus mannifera subsp. maculosa
Anti-acetylcholinesterasea (12%)
Anti-inflammatory Eucalyptus marginata (11%)
Anti-asthmatic and antispasmodic Eucalyptus paracolpica (19%)
Expectorant Eucalyptus patens (31%)
Sedative Eucalyptus platyphylla (11%)
Muscle relaxant
Immunomodulatory
Transdermal absorption
Pesticidal and herbicidal
Note: Limonene is not a carcinogenic risk factor
for kidney or breast cancer
Linalool Antimicrobial: antiseptic, antibacterial, Eucalyptus acies (16%)

antifungal, anti-candidal Eucalyptus ovata (13%)
Anti-allergic and anti-anaphylactic
Anti-inflammatory
Anaesthetic
Antiviral
Anticancer and antileukaemic
Antispasmodic
Narcotic: sedative
Anticonvulsant
Expectorant and bronchorelaxant
Fragrance (perfumery)
Insecticidal
Menthol Analgesic and anaesthetic Menth-2-en-1-ol (over 10%):

Anti-acetylcholinesterasea Eucalyptus andrewsii subsp. campanulata
Antiallergic and anti-histaminic (13%)
Anti-asthmatic, respiratory decongestant and Eucalyptus coccifera (10%)
expectorant Euclyptus delegatensis subsp. tasmanniensis
Antibacterial, antiseptic, anticandidal (20%)
Antispasmodic and anti-neuralgic (nerve pain) Eucalyptus nitida (12%)
Bradycardic (slows the heart beat) Eucalyptus olsenii (17%)
Antipyretic, cooling, refrigerant and diaphoretic Eucalyptus paliformis (12%)
Carminative and gastric sedative Eucalyptus pauciflora subsp. niphophila
Muscular relaxant (30%)
Anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic Eucalyptus radiata (12%)
CNS: Depressant and stimulant Eucalyptus tenuiramis (10%)
Dermal: antipruritic (anti-itching), anti-dandruff, Eucalyptus triflora (12%)
rubefacient
Dental: anti-tartar, anti-halitosis, modify dental
pain
Perfumery and flavouring
Pesticidal
Nerolidol Anticancer Eucalyptus deglupta (66%)

(over 50%) Antibacterial and anti-cariogenic Eucalyptus nova-anglica (78%)
Antiprotozoal (inhibit growth of malaria parasite) Eucalyptus whitei (55%)
Transdermal: enhances absorption of drugs
through skin
Para-cymene Antifungal (potent) Eucalyptus botryoides (42%)
(p-cymene, over 30%) Antimicrobial: antibacterial (potent) Eucalyptus cullenii (38%)
Antiviral & anti-influenzal Eucalyptus denticulata (30%)
*Anti-acetylcholinesterase Eucalyptus pilularis (30%)
Analgesic Eucalyptus georgei (39%)
Antirheumatic Eucalyptus paliformis (30%)
Sedative Eucalyptus pilularis (30%)
Laxative Eucalyptus quadrangularis (33%)
Pesticidal & herbicidal Eucalyptus urophylla (75%)
Fragrance Eucalyptus wandoo (65%)
Caution: mild irritant potential
Phellandrene α-phellandrene: α-phellandrene (over 10%):

Hyperthermic (increases temperature) Eucalyptus amygdalina (16%)
Antimicrobial (strong activity): antibacterial, Eucalyptus dives (chemotypes: 20–30% or
antifungal 60–80%)
Laxative Eucalyptus delegatensis subsp. tasmaniensis
Transdermal: readily absorbed via skin (16%)
Flavouring and perfumery Eucalyptus nitida (11–16%)
Pesticidal Eucalyptus piperita subsp. urceolaris (18%)
Cautions: Eucalyptus radiata (26%)
Skin irritant potential Eucalyptus subangusta subsp. cerina (16%)
Ingestion: emetic (vomiting) and diarrhoeal effects Eucalyptus rodwayi (43%)
(depending on dose) Eucalyptus wetarensis (14%)
Cancer: co-carcinogenic potential (but not a carcinogen itself)
β-phellandrene: β-phellandrene (over 10%):
Antifungal Eucalyptus delegatensis subsp. tasmaniensis
Expectorant (11%)
Perfumery: fragrance Eucalyptus dura (16%)
Eucalyptus siberi (28%)
Eucalyptus signata (26%)
Eucalyptus stellulata (12%)
Pinene Anti-inflammatory Eucayptus abergiana (61%: α 57%, β 4%)

(α-pinene and Anti-spasmodic and spasmogenic Eucalyptus acroleuca (α 57%)
β-pinene; total = Antiseptic Eucalyptus argophloia (α 65%)
Eucalyptus aureola (α 71%)
over 50%) Pesticidal Eucalyptus benthamii var. benthamii (α 53%)
Herbicidal Eucalyptus bunites (82%: α 75%, β 7%)
Transdermal absorption Eucalyptus calophylla (α 10–51%)
Flavour, fragrance and perfumery Eucalyptus catenaria (α 80%)
Eucalyptus crebra (56%: α 26%, β 30%)
Caution: Skin irritant and allergenic potential Eucalyptus dielsii (50%)
Eucalyptus dimorpha (52%)
α-pinene: Eucalyptus erythrophloia (61%: α 50%, β
Anticancer 11%)
Eucalyptus ficifolia (α 36–66%, β 8%)
Antibacterial Eucalyptus grandifolia (α 74%)
Antiviral and anti-influenzal Eucalyptus intermedia (67%: α 41%, β 26%)
Expectorant Eucalyptus laevopinea (α 60%)
Tranquilliser and sedative Eucalyptus leichhardtii (α 84%)
Insecticidal Eucalyptus leptoloma (88%)
Eucalyptus longifolia (75%: α 59%, β 16%)
β-pinene: Eucalyptus miniata (α 26–85%)
Anti-candidal Eucalyptus pellita (α 77%)
Eucalyptus platyphylla (α 75%)
Eucalyptus radiata subsp. radiata (80%)
Cautions: Eucalyptus raveretiana (α 84%)
Large doses of α-pinene can cause CNS depression, Eucalyptus rubiginosa (70%: α 47%, β 23%)
bronchitis, kidney damage Eucalyptus saligna (α 73%)
May be responsible for appearance of benign Eucalyptus siderophloia (α 66%)
growths (tumours) Eucalyptus suffulgens (58%: α 20%, β 38%)
Skin sensitising potential Eucalyptus tetrodonta (α 55%)
Eucalyptus tintinnans (α 64%)
Eucalyptus torelliana (α 54%)
Eucalyptus virens (α 80%)
Piperitone (menth- Anti-asthmatic Eucalyptus amygdalina (63%)

1-en-3-one, over Herbicidal and pesticidal Eucalyptus dives (40–56%)
20%) Flavouring: used for the synthesis of menthol for Eucalyptus elata (var. A: 40–55%)
flavouring purposes Eucalyptus elata (var. B: 20–30%)
Eucalyptus paliformis (30%)
Eucalyptus piperita (40–50%)
Eucalyptus salmonophloia (42%)
Eucalyptus stenostoma (38%)
Eucalyptus triflora (29%)
Terpinen-4-ol Antibacterial and antiseptic Eucalyptus ovata (28%)

Antifungal Eucalyptus radiata subsp. radiata (25%)
Antispasmodic and anti-asthmatic Eucalyptus yarraensis (17%)
Antitussive Eucalyptus ovata (28%)
Anti-ulcer
Antioxidant and anti-allergic
Diuretic
Pesticidal, insecticidal and herbicidal
Vulnerary (healing)
Terpineol Anti-allergenic α-terpineol (over 15%):

Anti-asthmatic, antispasmodic and antitussive Eucalyptus acies (15%)
Antiseptic and antibacterial Eucalyptus calcicola (20%)
Anticancer Eucalyptus croajingolensis (30%)
Anti-cariogenic Eucalyptus erythrocorys (24%)
Anaesthetic and analgesic Eucalyptus robertsonii (13–15%)
Sedative
NS: Motor depressant δ-terpineol:
Expectorant Eucalyptus canaliculata (19%)
Cholagogue Eucalyptus staigeriana (12%)
Vulnerary (healing)
Transdermal (skin absorption)c
Perfumery
Caution: α-terpineol has shown cytotoxic and anti-

oestrogenic propertiesc
Verbenone Antimicrobial Eucalyptus patellaris (10%)

Insecticidal Euclyptus thozetiana (7%)
Perfumery
L-verbenone (levoverbenone):
Cough suppressant
Viridiflorol Potentially oestrogenic Eucalyptus macrorhynchia subsp. cannonii

Venous tonic (14%)
Anti-acetylcholinesterase activitya
Fragrance
.
Sources: Brophy & Southwell 2002; Fulton 2000; Webb 2000; Dr Duke’s Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases (www.ars-grin.gov/duke)
Notes:
a Compounds that inhibit acetylcholinesterase activity have attracted research interest due to their potential for treating Alzheimer’s disease (Miyazawa
1998).
b Isobicyclogermacral has been found in: Eucalyptus dawsonii (44%); E. gardneri subsp. gardeneri (41%); E. gardneri subsp. ravensthorpensis (33%).
c Some essential oil components have demonstrated oestrogenic (citral, geraniol) and anti-oestrogenic (eugenol, high concentrations) activity in vivo that
has not been confirmed by in vitro studies. In addition, one study has shown that terpinen-4-ol, α-terpineol and eucalyptol (1,8-cineole) did not exhibit skin
penetration properties. Therefore, an oestrogenic effect in topically applied Tea Tree oil or Eucalyptus oil has not been confirmed (Nielsen 2008).
Chapter 2
KINO: THE NATURAL PANACEA
The medicinal use of naturally occurring astringent

substances originated in antiquity. Their properties
would have been discovered following extensive trial
and error. The ancients found that putting a resinous
substance on skin injuries often caused them to heal,
and the wound-healing and antibacterial activities so
discovered entered into medicinal traditions around
the world. In addition, some resins could be used
to make ink, colouring products (dye), and had
preservative attributes that were particularly useful
for animal skins, producing leather. Indeed, it was
the distinctive rich red colouring of many kinos that Dragon’s blood resin from Daemonorops draco. Recently,
initially attracted attention to them. there have been instances where Dragon’s blood was used
Kino was a substance of importance in as an opium alternative, mixed with marijuana for smoking
purposes. Doubtless, the participants parted with their money
international trade. The legendary ‘Dragon’s blood’ and gained very little – as far as an enhanced hallucinogenic
resin (Sanguis Draconis) was among the first to gain effect was concerned (Ford 2001). (Image courtesy: Andy
an illustrious reputation, being known to healers in the Dingley, Wikimedia Commons Project)
ancient Greek and Roman worlds. The most expensive 1997; Lin 1994). The remedy has a good reputation
form, which achieved mystical fame, was sourced as an analgesic and healing agent that was useful for
from rare species of Dracaena from the Canary Islands treating contusions, injuries, fractures, bruising and
(Dracaena draco) and the island of Socotra (Dracaena sprains. Its styptic properties contribute to its efficacy
cinnabari). Their aromatic properties also led to the in situations where bleeding is a consideration. The
resins’ use as incense – a product that has been traded herb also has useful broad-spectrum antifungal
since ancient times. Substitutes from other parts of activity and has been used to treat slow-healing or
the world had equally practical usefulness. The most chronic ulcers (Bensky & Gamble 1986; Yeung 1985).
notable were resins from the fruits of the Raffia Palms, In South America a number of species of Croton were
Daemonorops draco (from Indonesia) and Calamus employed as Sangre de Grado (‘Blood of the Dragon’).
rotang (syn. C. roxburghii, tropical Asia). These were These resins continue to be utilised medicinally today
used in Indian and Chinese medicinal traditions. and have attracted a substantial amount of research
Other medicinal kinos from India and Southeast interest. The species utilised are quite diverse –
Asia included the Malabar Kino from Pterocarpus primarily Croton lechleri, although other resources
marsupium and the Bengal Kino from Butea frondosa included C. draconoides (syn. C. palanostigma) and
(syn. B. monosperma).
1 Burfield (Cropwatch 2005) mentions a number of other species:
Chinese investigations of Xue Jie (Sanguis Daemonorops didymophylla, D. micranthus, D. motleyi, D. rubra and D.
Draconis) from Daemonorops draco have shown propinqua. Calamus draco was an old term for Daemonorops draco.
2 Duke (2008) gives the following additional species as sources: Croton
similar effects to that of the original resin1 – including charaguensis, C. draco, C. gossypifolium, C. hibiscifolius, C. salutaris, C.
an effective haemostatic activity (Zhou 2001; Nong sordidus, C. urucurana and C. xalapensis.
51
C. erythrochilus (Pieters 1992).2 (These species require The Eucalypt: A versatile medicine
differentiation from the ‘true Croton’, Croton tiglium, Aboriginal people were well versed in the use of
which possesses potent purgative properties). Similar native medicinal resources. The extensive deployment
to Dracaena, the wounded Croton tree exudes a dark of remedies derived from the native ‘gum trees’ was
red sap-like substance that gives the appearance of characterised by great variety and inventiveness.
seeping blood. In South America, Croton resin was Throughout the continent the range of conditions
traditionally used to stop bleeding (i.e. as a styptic), that were treated was comprehensive. They included
as an antiseptic female douche, to promote wound the popular use of remedies for respiratory disorders,
healing, and to heal ulcers of the mouth, throat and colds and chills, as well as for pain relief in conditions
stomach. It was also popular as a healing agent for ranging from rheumatism to toothache. A typical
skin disorders such as eczema (Taylor 1988). These preparation employed the leaves of the Stringybark
recommendations are remarkably similar to the (Eucalyptus tetrodonta) kneaded in water to make a
traditional Aboriginal uses of Eucalyptus kino. It is thick green liquid. This was taken for headaches and
therefore no wonder that Australia’s early European fevers, including febrile conditions that resembled
explorers and colonists quickly adopted such a useful malaria. In Queensland, the heated leaves of the
remedy into the medicine chest. Coolabah (Eucalyptus microtheca)3 were mixed with
native honey to make a popular drink that was
regarded as a virtual ‘cure-all’ – used as a remedy to
treat influenza, toothache, internal pain, aching joints
or sores. The astringent bark of this species was also
said to be useful for snakebite, while bark poultices
(the bark pounded and soaked in hot water) were
applied locally to ease severe headaches (Barr 1993;
MacPherson 1939; Roth 1903). A more unusual
example of an antirheumatic remedy utilised the
bark of the Silver-leaf Box (Eucalyptus pruinosa). The
procedure involved would appear somewhat odd (to
some of us, at least) with strips of bark being tightly
wound around the chest and body (Bailey 1909).
The bark bandages were kept damp and the patient
was immersed, waist-deep, in water. Certainly, these
multipurpose trees were an exceptionally valuable
environmental asset for Aboriginal people and the
early settlers.
3 Coolabah has also been spelt Coolibah. The term ‘Coolabah’ refers to
both Eucalyptus microtheca and E. coolabah, which was previously classified
as the former species.
The Coolabah tree

The Coolabah, Eucalyptus microtheca, is the
famous gum tree mentioned in the iconic poem
‘Waltzing Matilda’ by Banjo Paterson. Coolabah
leaves were applied to itching skin problems and
have demonstrated potent antifungal properties –
which is probably due to their essential oil content
(Bhat 1994). The oil of this species has a rather
Sanguis Draconis, from British Pharmaceutical Codex (BPC), unusual chemical makeup. Eucalyptus microtheca
1934 (some technical details omitted).
Chapter 2 KINO: THE NATURAL PANACEA 53
The Darwin Woollybutt, Eucalyptus miniata
Coolabah leaves. (Courtesy: Ethel Aardvark, Wikimedia

Commons Project)
subsp. coolabah oil is composed of p-cymene

(6%), aromadendrene (14%) palustrol (14%) and
globulol (9%) – whereas subsp. microtheca is high
in bicyclogermacrene (53%), with some delta-
cadinene (4%) (Brophy & Southwell 2002).
In addition the Coolabah provided edible seeds.
In 1948 Johnston and Cleland recorded details of
their harvest in South Australia:
The branches are broken off and taken to a claypan,

where the seed becomes liberated from the capsules in
about 5 days’ time. The seeds and debris are collected
and placed in a coolamon, winnowed in a strong wind,
soaked all night in water in the coolamon, and then
rubbed with the hands to clean and dry the seed. The
latter is then treated in the same way as that obtained
from grasses … about 2 handfuls are placed on a large The Darwin Woollybutt is a tropical Eucalypt
lower millstone with a groove along one side, and ground distinguished by a dark reddish ‘woolly’ bark with a rough,
with a smaller stone till very fine. The moist mass is then brittle character. When this peels off, the timber beneath
collected into a dish … held below the edge of the lower has a smooth white texture. The tree is an extremely useful
stone. This paste … may be eaten dry, but the main bush resource.The discarded fibrous bark strips are useful
portion is usually cooked in hot ashes. Ash from burnt fire-lighting materials. The distinctive orange flowers yield
twigs is sometimes used for mixing with pituri. plentiful nectar and the seeds are edible. The tree had a
The kino cure
Kino can be present in some trees in such quantity that it

seeps readily from the smallest injuries. Dr George Bennett
(1860) provided the following eloquent description of
Kino: ‘the red gum trickles down the trunk in considerable
multitude of other practical uses for Aboriginal people, quantity, of a bright crimson hue, like blood. When dry
among them being a convenient source of termite- upon the trunk, this gum has so little tenacity as to crumble
damaged hollow logs that were naturally suited to making into fragments when handled. It changes from a bright
didgeridoos. Medicines prepared from the inner bark were crimson hue to a dark shining red, and is very astringent.
used for the treatment of diarrhoea and ‘swellings’, and as This red gum is found in almost all the Eucalypti family.’
an expectorant remedy. In addition, it was prepared as a This is a good description of the tree pictured here, which
wash to treat skin conditions such as scabies or sores, and seems to be ‘bleeding’ profusely – almost as if it had been cut
to facilitate the healing of small wounds. by wire crisscrossing the trunk.
Kino, the dried resin of the Eucalypt, was a remedy

that played a vital role in Aboriginal medicinal
practice. This common resinous exudation (also called
'gum') can be found on numerous Eucalypt species,
exuding as a sticky, viscous substance that hardens as it
dries and eventually forms a brittle reddish resin. Kino
was primarily valued as an astringent agent – although
it also had analgesic and antiseptic properties that
contributed to its efficacy in many conditions.4 Kino
was a popular styptic that could be applied locally to
staunch the blood flow from bleeding wounds and
injuries. It was also applied locally to treat diverse
skin disorders and was an effective ringworm cure. In
Victoria, a pain-killing remedy from a White Gum
(probably Eucalyptus viminalis) was used to treat
toothache – the kino plug being inserted directly into
the cavity. The early records of Dr Walter Roth, the
Northern Protector of Aboriginals (in Queensland)
mentioned the native use of kino ‘pills’ as an astringent
to relieve diarrhoea. The Red Bloodwood (Eucalyptus
gummifera, syn. E. corymbosa, which is now Corymbia
gummifera) was one species used in this manner.
Initial evaluations of Eucalypt resources by the
medical men of the new colony quickly led to the
conclusion that kino would be a useful remedy. It
was primarily utilised as an astringent antibacterial
agent. In 1790, Surgeon-General John White wrote
The Sydney Peppermint gum (Eucalyptus piperita) was
of its discovery in his Journal of a Voyage to New South among the first species used as a medicinal kino resource
Wales: ‘On making incisions in the trunk of this tree, that was highly valued for treating colic, dysentery and
large quantities of red resinous juice are obtained, diarrhoea. The resin was also useful as a black leather dye
sometimes even more than sixty gallons from a single or for making ink. The kino was simply boiled in an iron
saucepan to obtain the dyeing substance. (Image courtesy:
tree. When this juice is dried, it becomes a very
Peter Woodard)
powerfully astringent gum-resin, of a red colour,
much resembling that known in the shops by the
name of Kino, and, for all medical purposes, fully violent altercation with his gin [woman] and endeavoured
as efficacious. Mr. White administered it to a greater to kill her. Unfortunately another black woman, named
number of patients for the dysentery, which prevailed Lizzie, was in close proximity. A spear thrown at Romeo’s
much soon after the landing of the convicts, and in no wife struck the tree behind which the wife was sheltering,
one instance found it to fail.’ glanced off and struck Lizzie in the abdomen. She pulled
out the spear and then fell down. Some bloodwood
In 1939, John MacPherson described an incident
exudation was heated until it was very hot. It was then
that illustrated the common use of kino as a first aid placed in the wound and covered with leaves and mud.
remedy by Aboriginal people: The patient, however, did not survive. The astringent
exudation from this tree owes its therapeutic properties
It was either taken internally, in the form of a decoction, to tannin, and it was in frequent use by the aborigines of
or dusted on locally, in powder form, for venereal sores. New South Wales.
Some years ago a Queensland black, named Romeo, had a
4 Studies of 1,8-cineole from Eucalyptus camaldulensis oil has shown analgesic Despite the fact that the ill-fated Lizzie had been
(antinociceptive) properties that resemble morphine. Cineole is also present
in the kino (Liapi 2007). too severely injured to save her life, there were other
accounts that mentioned the treatment worked Returning that evening, the good doctor was
exceptionally well – even in serious wounds. amazed to find that ‘what I had previously considered
In 1864, Dr Andrew Ross of Molong in western a useless application, had not only lessened the size of
New South Wales had a rather amazing encounter the wound, but positively seemed to have likewise had
with Aboriginal healers. He recounted the experience the wonderful effect of slightly subduing the swelling.
in an article on ‘The Eucalypts’, published in the Seeing such promising results, of course I made no
New South Wales Medical Gazette of 26 December further objection to the use of this strange application,
1871. At the time, the therapeutic potential of the and simply then continued the medicine …’ Six days
native flora remained a subject of some conjecture later the healing had progressed exceptionally well. His
in the community. This would have been an eye- praise of the treatment was fulsome, and refreshingly
opening account, particularly because it was verified honest:
by a medical witness. An Aboriginal man presented
to Dr Ross with a near fatal injury – a spear had torn
In submitting so remarkable a case to the notice of the
through the abdomen, penetrating into his back. Dr medical profession, I do so more to stimulate research in
Ross duly treated the wound and left him in the care the matter, and to attract special attention to the effects
of his companions. Later, when he went to check on of so novel and simple a remedy, than with the view of
the patient, he was extremely dismayed to find that pluming myself with any degree of credit for the recovery
‘the plaster and the whole of the stitches had been of the patient, a circumstance more indebted, I fully
removed, the anterior (or abdominal) wound wide believe, to the efficacy possessed by the Eucalypti, than
open and gaping, accompanied by a quantity of any services which I may have rendered the unfortunate
ichorous serum oozing from the orifice …’ The injury sufferer. As a topical agent in cases of severe punctured
was being bathed with a wreath made from shoots and wounds, it certainly appears to possess some useful and
valuable qualities, which I think are worthy of being
leaves of Yellow Box and Red Gum dipped into hot
further investigated.
water. ‘In consequence of this unexpected interference,
and the untoward appearance of the wound (now
greatly enlarged owing to the swelling) the slight Subsequent investigations found that many Eucalypt
chance of recovery seemed now to be completely
taken out of my hands … the swelling had so rapidly
increased that the case altogether now seemed quite
hopeless, and pulse sinking. I was somewhat, then,
reluctantly forced to abide the issue of what seemed
not only a clumsy but an unnatural and cruel sort of
application.’ Nonetheless, he was determined to do
whatever he could.
Yellow Box (Eucalyptus melliodora) tree bark and blossoms. (Courtesy: P. Davies, Heathmont Honey)
resins had significant antibacterial properties.
The Ghost Gum
Ghost Gum (Eucalyptus papuana) showing kino seeping

down the white trunk
They were commonly employed for their strong

disinfectant action, and had an excellent reputation
for healing wounds. The kino of the Ghost Gum
(Eucalyptus papuana) illustrated the versatility of
these bush remedies. This remedy was highly regarded
by Aboriginal people for its rapid wound-healing
properties. It was made into a liniment to ease cramps
or pains, into a lotion for sore eyes, or the bark
infusion could be drunk to ease colds. In the bush
the Ghost Gum is an extremely useful resource. The
wood burnt well (even in wet weather), while the bark
ash provided an alkaline admixture for tobacco. In
addition, the gum was reputed to repel leeches.
While the antimicrobial properties of the Eucalypt
were readily apparent, there were other uses that
have not yet been accorded serious investigation.
For instance, there is an interesting report from
the Northern Territory that mentions a resin
infusion sourced from the Bloodwood, Eucalyptus
dichromophloia, which was taken to treat heart
weakness (Wightman 1994). Eucalyptus papuana – brilliant white trunk and kino
exudate.
This illustration of Eucalyptus robusta appeared as Tab. XIII

The Ghost Gum (Eucalyptus papuana) is a tropical in James Edward Smith’s A Specimen of the Botany of New
species that ranges from the Northern Territory to Holland (1793). It is a hand-coloured engraving by James
Queensland, and to the Kimberley region of Western Sowerby (1757–1822) based on a drawing nominally done
Australia. It is also found in Papua New Guinea. by John White (which in reality was the work of the convict
artist Thomas Watling).
This is the tree that achieved fame in the paintings of
Albert Namatjira during the 1940s. It is a distinctive
tree that can grow to an impressive height (15–20 in harvestable trees it has long been regarded as a
metres). The bark of the brilliant white smooth trunk defect that seriously compromised the strength of the
has an unusual powdery character. These Eucalypts timber. The general unpopularity of this product in
can be a spectacular sight in real life and were vividly the commercial world has probably hampered medical
portrayed in Namatjira’s artwork. The individuals appreciation of its value. Little research has been done
that were his source of inspiration, located around with regard to Australian kino. Indeed, over the last
50 kilometres west of Alice Springs, were destined five or six decades kino would appear to have become
to become a major tourist attraction. They have a forgotten medicinal product.
even rated official attention when incidents of insect The term ‘gum’ is not technically correct with
attack have been cause for concern – the authorities reference to kino because this Eucalypt exudate is actually
were called in to deal with the pestilential problem. a form of resin – of which there are many different types.
Aboriginal people valued this species as it harbours Resins or resinous gums can be produced from various
edible grubs, yields a delicious honey, the bark can be parts of a tree – bark, leaves, wood and, sometimes, the
used for making dishes and platters, and numerous fruit. The kino type of resinous gum that is often found
types of implements can been fashioned from the naturally exuding from injuries to tree bark is usually
wood. created at the sapwood-heartwood boundary. Resin can
also collect within injuries (hollows) inside a tree or in
the forks in branches – and resin production can differ
What is kino? substantially between species. There are also trees such
Timber with kino or ‘gum veins’ has never been a as the Kauri Pines (genus: Agathis) that yield resin from
popular with woodworkers or timber yards. Indeed, their roots.
Eucalypt (Bloodwood) – kino solidified Eucalypt (Bloodwood) – kino-encrusted Eucalypt (Bloodwood) – liquid kino
on tree. bark. splattered on the ground.
by insects (in particular those that bore into the

In a review of the natural plant products industry timber), fungal invasion, fire damage, and as a repair
of Australia, H.H. McKern (1960) provided a good strategy following natural anomalies (knot formation,
overview of the kino resin story: shedding branches) or other forms of injury. Kino
will only form, however, if the injury results in air
The familiar red exudation from the trunks of Eucalyptus exposure that reveals a specific level of damaged tissue
species which caused the early colonists of this country to – that is, the xylem region below the cambium layer.
call members of this genus ‘gum-trees’ is not a gum but The kino is then formed from sugars translocating
a kino, which belongs to the tannin group and possesses from the heartwood to the phloem, and not from
strong astringent properties. Kinos are exuded by a large cell wall disintegration as was formerly thought. It is
number of species all over the world – in Australia for
not a rapid process. Kino can take up to six weeks
example, they are exuded by genera other than Eucalyptus,
such as the closely related Angophora. However, only the
after an injury to form, and the exudation can
Eucalypt kinos have been of any commercial significance. continue for a variable period (several days to several
These are usually observed as brown or reddish lumps on weeks). Ethylene may be involved in the process as
the bark, or as jelly-like or glass-like masses. They are also it is liberated following damage to the tree or stress
found in the so-called ‘gum-veins’ and cavities in sawn from drought – although the mechanisms involved
timber, and, in addition, occur in the fluid state in sealed remain a mystery. It is possible that kino veins protect
reservoirs inside the tree. When these are drained, as much the deeper tissues of the tree by denying insects or
as 45 litres has been known to flow from a single reservoir. pathogens access to tissue sites where they could inflict
Early chemical studies on Eucalyptus kinos were carried further injury. It should be noted that the chemical
out by several investigators during the closing years of the composition of kino is markedly different to that of
19th Century.
other exudations (dark extractives) that can result
from wounds to timber. These extractives are not
There are studies that have shown that kino formation produced in the specialised kino veins that form in the
is not a normal process, and it only occurs when a tree damaged vascular cambium (Locher & Currie 2010;
is damaged. The process is thought to be a form of Eyles & Mohammed 2002).
defence by the tree that results from damage
structure often made them ill-suited to the categories

in which they were rather expediently placed. Rating
a natural exudate as a ‘resin’ or ‘gum’ was done in a
somewhat arbitrary manner – for many substances
had characteristics that defied a strict classification.
Additionally, there are resins with a highly variable
oil content that can dramatically alter their physical
properties.
Officially, Botany Bay Kino contained kinotannic

acid at levels of around 47 per cent – although
studies have indicated higher levels could be found
The xylem and phloem form the cellular transport system
in the tree. The xylem is composed of cells that transport
water and dissolved nutrients to the leaves. This system
contains vertical lines of dead cells that have thick, lignified
walls. These are not found in the phloem – which can also
transport of water and other substances over long distances
within the tree but is differentiated by cells that resemble a
sieve. The cambium, which lies between these two systems,
is responsible for the tree’s growth (increasing the girth of
the stem or tree trunk) and provides new cells for the xylem
and phloem.
Strategies have been deliberately utilised to promote

the flow of a resin in some commercial ventures. The
Pines (genus: Pinus) provide a good example as these
trees have been subjected to mechanical wounding to
encourage the flow of the oleoresin turpentine. The
oleoresin is located in ducts in the sapwood and its
flow can be promoted by the application of sulphuric
acid to fresh cuts in the bark. Carefully carried out,
the process does not harm the tree, nor does it increase
the natural resin production. Rather, it facilitates the
flow because the acid collapses the thin-walled cells Kino Eucalypti, from The British Pharmacopoeia, 1914.
that line the resin ducts. This physically enlarges the
channels and reduces the opportunities the resin has
to harden and block the ducts. However, although in other species. For instance, the Marri (Eucalyptus
Ethrel (an ethylene releasing substance) has been used calophylla) could yield around 68 per cent tannin.
in attempts to encourage the flow of kino in Eucalypt In a 1926 review of the chemical exploitation of
trees, these efforts were not very successful (Locher & Australian plants, Professor Rennie mentioned that
Currie 2010). an examination of twenty other species of Eucalypt
It is the high tannin content of kino that imparts showed that they contained tannin at levels between
its astringent character. Tannins are extremely complex 20–50 per cent. Until 1950 kino was a fairly popular
substances that have attracted serious chemical remedy that was harvested commercially. After this
evaluation only over the last few decades. A few its use gradually died out with the introduction of
fundamental problems have plagued the classification antibiotics. Certainly today, kino remedies deserve a
of gums and resins, which can differ widely in their renewed measure of interest – particularly with the
properties. Chemically, they are classed as naturally- development of antibiotic-resistant forms of bacteria,
occurring polymers. However, their extremely complex fungi and yeasts.
The Swamp Mahogany, Eucalyptus robusta
Eucalyptus robusta.
The Swamp Mahogany, Eucalyptus robusta, was named ‘it is much used for round and square posts, joists,
for its preference for a swampy habitat and its timber’s and sleepers, and is remarkable for its freedom from
resemblance to the true Central American Mahogany destructive insects, ascribable to the presence of kino-
– although the ‘Red Mahogany’ (Eucalyptus resinifera) red’. He classified the kino from this tree (a reddish
may have been more suited to this comparison. In brown gum) among the true ‘gummy’ forms of kino
1793, the first description of the tree was published – which he considered to be inferior to the ruby or
by Sir James Smith in A Specimen of the Botany of New turbid kino. Professor E.H. Rennie (1926) mentioned
Holland, who commented: ‘The size and strength of that this species was among the more well known
the tree, like that of the European Quercus Robur [the of the kino resources: ‘The kinos of many species of
Oak], seem particularly to justify the name robusta’ Eucalyptus in the dried form are familiar enough as
(quoted in Maiden 1921). The thick soft bark has a regards external appearance to anybody accustomed to
distinctive furrowed, flaky appearance. The reddish wander in the Australian bush. They are conspicuous
timber was valued for shipbuilding, general building usually by the red colour. Most of them are astringent
projects, wheelwrights’ work, and making shingles. owing to the presence of tannins. One of them from
Its extremely durable, water-resistant character made Eucalyptus robusta was introduced many years ago by
it eminently suitable for making posts – although [Joseph] Bosisto as a reliable remedy for dysentery and
the quality of the wood was not as good as that of diarrhoea.’ Overseas, where it has been widely planted
the Red Mahogany. Even in the early 1900s, the as an ornamental, this Eucalypt can be found from
Swamp Mahogany was being planted in Chile, South the Pacific islands and Hawaii, to Southeast Asia,
America, where it was appreciated as a valuable India, northern Africa, the southern United States and
timber. Joseph Maiden (1921) commented that Central America.
Resin and oleoresin classifications a higher oil content. Resins that are naturally mixed
Resins are a complex mixture of resin acids, resin with gum are identified as ‘gum resins,’ such as Myrrh
alcohols (resinols), resin phenols (resinotannols), esters and Frankincense (see Table 2.1 below).
and resenens (the latter being chemically inert). They Chemically, tree resins tend to be of two
have a hard, solid nature and melt when exposed to types, those that contain diterpenoid compounds
heat. They are insoluble in water and petroleum spirit, and those that are triterpenoid based. These two
although they will dissolve in alcohol, chloroform components have not been found in combination in
and ether. In addition there can be a volatile oil or a resin – therefore resins can differ in their character
gum component, which leads to their classification as according to their chemical type. For instance pine-
oleoresins or gum-resins respectively. Gums differ as based diterpenoid resins are not as durable as the
they have a polysaccharide character and usually swell triterpenoid resin from Pistacia, which has been
in water.5 This gives them a gummy or mucilaginous used as varnishes. The aromatic resins Frankincense
texture (Evans 2002).
Gummi Resinae, from Phillips’ Translation of the

Tree stump oleoresin, showing exudation at heartwood-
Pharmacopoeia Londonensis, 1841.
sapwood boundary.
and Myrrh are triterpenoid-based and can be used

for making fragrant incense or for the extraction of
essential oils (Brody 2002).
Resins can usually be distinguished by being Balsam is another resinous classification of
insoluble in water and soluble in alcohol. However, medicinal value that has been used as antiseptic
there is always an exception, and kino is a water- and expectorant agents. Balsamic mixtures are
soluble resin. Another important characteristic of a characterised by cinnamic acid and/or benzoic acid
resin is that the essential oil content can significantly (or esters of these acids). The major types are Benzoin
alter its physical properties. Resins that are hard and (Styrax species), Balsam of Peru (Myroxylon pereirae),
brittle are devoid of essential oils, while those with Tolu Balsam (Myroxylon balsamum) and Storax
a more ‘plastic’ character (e.g. pine oleoresins) have (Liquidambar species).6 Traditionally, balsams were
5 The use of mucilaginous types of gum is discussed in detail in chapter 7, 6 An exception is the Balsam of Copaiba from the South American Copaiba
Wattle Tales. genus. Although the name is suggestive of the balsam category, it is actually
an oleoresin.
found useful for treating chronic mucous membrane were controversial. Tolu Balsam was another popular
inflammation (e.g. bronchitis), skin inflammation expectorant with a pleasant vanilla-like flavour. It
(e.g. eczema) and to promote wound healing. Balsam was used extensively in pharmaceutical products as
of Peru had effective astringent, antiseptic and a flavouring agent. These Balsams have been used
vulnerary (wound healing) properties. It does have effectively for the treatment of scabies (from the itch
an effective expectorant action and was once used in mite Sarcoptes scabies) as they can destroy both the
the treatment of tuberculosis – although its benefits insect and its eggs.
Table 2.1 Resin classification summary

Resin type Characteristics Solubility
Resins: Complex mixtures (resin acids, resin alcohols, Insoluble in water

rosin, guaiac, mastic resinotannols, esters, resenes)
Oleoresins: Contain volatile oils Occur in mixtures with gums, i.e.

Turpentine and Elemi oleo-gum-resins.
The gum component is water
soluble, e.g. Myrrh
Balsams: Resinous mixtures containing cinnamic acid Insoluble in water; dissolve in

Benzion, Balsam of Peru, Tolu Balsam, and/or benzoic acid (or esters of these acids) alcohol or other organic solvents
Storax
Table 2.2 Summary of the major plant-derived kino, resin and oleoresin resources
referred to in the medicinal literature
Name Plant species (origins) and allied products with Classification and general and
similar characteristics (unless noted otherwise) medicinal uses
Australian kino Eucalyptus genus (Australia) Kino resin
Use: antiseptic astringent
West Indian or Jamaican Coccoloba uveifera (Seagrape, tropical Americas) Kino: astringent
kino Use: gastrointestinal disorders
Malabar or East Indian Pterocarpus marsupium (Southern India, Ceylon) Kino: powerful astringent
kino Allied product: Use: gastrointestinal tract: diarrhoea,
Pterocarpus indicus (Southeast Asia, IndoChina, Philippines, dysentery
Papua New Guinea, Pacific Islands)
Butea gum Butea frondosa (syn. Butea monosperma) (India, Southeast Asia) Kino: astringent rich in gallic and
Bengal kino tannic acids
Uses:
gastrointestinal disorders, particularly
diarrhoea and dysentery
styptic for gastrointestinal problems
styptic for wounds
Rhatany Krameria triandra (Peru and Bolivia) Kino

Peruvian or South Allied product: Use: astringent effect similar to kino
American Rhatany Brazilian Para Rhatany (Krameria argentea) resin
Myrrh Commiphora species: C. molmol, C. myrrha (northeast Oleo-gum resin (contains volatile
Arabian or Somali Africa, Arabia) oil): aromatic incense
Myrrh Other species from Arabia and Abyssinia utilised as Use: stimulant antiseptic.
substitutes
Allied product:
Bdellium (Commiphora erythraea var. glabrescens)
Frankincense Boswellia carteri, B. frereana etc. (Northern Africa) Oleo gum-resin: fragrant incense
(Olibanum) Use: antiseptic and anti-
inflammatory
Allied drug: Uses:
Indian Frankincense, Indian Olibanum, Salai Guggal anti-arthritic, anti-inflammatory
(Boswellia serrata, India) chronic lung disease
gastrointestinal (diarrhoea,
dysentery)
menstrual disorders (pain and
bleeding)
genitourinary disorders
(gonorrhoea, syphilis)
haemorrhoids and liver problems
external: resin-based paste
for ulcers, indolent swellings,
carbuncles, boils and ringworm
Turpentine Numerous Pinus species: Oleoresin (transparent fluid

P. palustris, P. elliotii var. elliottii (America) gum, aromatic pungent aroma)
P. pinaster syn. P. maritima (France, Italy, Portugal and Use:
Spain) strong antibacterial.
P. halepensis (Greece and Spain) respiratory disorders e.g. terpin-
P. roxburghii syn. P. longifolia (India and Pakistan) hydrate as an expectorant in
P. massoniana and P. tabuliformis (China) cough mixtures
Pi. caribbaea var. hondurensis and P. oocarpa (Central external use as antiseptic and
America) counter-irritant (rubefacient)
P. radiata (New Zealand) Note: Use discontinued.
Turpentine can be highly
allergenic and has had serious
toxic side effects
Asafoetida Ferula foetida, F. asafoetida, F. alliacea and F. narthex Oleo gum-resin (‘stinking-gum’)
(Iran, Afghanistan, northern India) Use: unusual aromatic
condiment (ingredient in
Worcestershire sauce and Indian
curries)
Allied drug: Resin (aromatic):
Galbanum (Ferula galbaniflua) perfumery and incense
(chelbenah)
gum resin differed from that of
asafoetida and had a fresh leafy
‘green pepper’ aroma
Uses:
medicinal: stimulant and
expectorant used for chronic
bronchitis
applied locally to facilitate
healing of ulcers
Mastic Pistacia lentiscus var. china (Greek islands, specifically Oleoresin (pungent, complex
Chios) resin mixture with small amount
Allied drug: of oil)
Turpentine Tree or Terebinth (Pistacia terebinthus) Uses:
stomachic, antiulcer agent
antitussive, expectorant,
astringent, antimicrobial
analgesic for painful conditions
external use: as antiseptic and for
treating skin disorders
Sandarac Tetraclinis articulata (North and northwest Africa, Spain) Resin: powders easily but does
Allied drugs: not dissolve in water
Callitris quadrivalvis (northern Africa), Australian Uses:
Sandarac (Callitris columellaris, C. endlicheri) coating on pills, for making
plasters and ointments
incense and varnish
Ayurvedic medicine: astringent
for haemorrhoids and diarrhoea
Jalap Ipomoea purga (syn. Exogonium purga, Mexico) Resin

Allied drugs: Uses:
Mexican Scammony, Orizaba Jalap, Ipomoea orizabensis powerful cathartic-purgative effects
(Mexico) formerly official in a number of
Mexican Jalap substitute (Ipomoea operculata) pharmacopoeias
Scammony (Convolvulus scammonia)
Oleo gum-resin
Ammoniacum Dorema ammoniacum
Uses:
Gum ammoniac Allied product:
African Ammonicum (Ferula tingitara) stimulant, carminative,
antispasmodic, expectorant
applied locally to swellings and
tumours
purgative in large doses
Guaiacum resin Guaiacum officinale, G. sanctum (tropical America) Resin (aromatic, acrid)
Use: anti-rheumatic (particularly
for chronic rheumatism)
Copaiba and Copaifera species, particularly C. officinalis, C. reticulata Oleoresin (thick, colourless,
Copal (South America) aromatic)
There are numerous other resources (Jost 1989): Uses:
Mexican Copal (Bursera jorullensis) urinary antiseptic
West African Copal (Copaifera guibourtiana, formerly C. respiratory disorders, e.g.
copallina) bronchitis (largely replaced by
American Copal (Hymenaea courbaril) antibiotics)
East African and Madagascan Copal (Trachylobium
verrucosum)
Agathis Resin Agathis species: Resin

Agathis Copal Manila Copal (A. dammara syn. A. alba, Philippines) Uses:
New Zealand Kauri Copal (A. australis) rarely used medicinally
Australian Kauri Copal (A. robusta) making plasters, ointments and
New Caledonian Kauri (A. lanceolata) varnish
Elemi Canarium species: Resin

Australian Elemi (C. muelleri Uses:
African Elemi (C. schweinfurthii making plasters, ointments and
Java Almond Tree (C. commune) varnish
Manila Elemi (C. luzonicum, Philippines) resin contains an oil similar to
Black Dammar (C. strictum, India, Moluccan Islands) almond oil
Dammara Balanocarpus heimii Oleoresin

East Indian Dammar Also various species of Shorea (particularly S. robusta) Uses:
and Hopea (family: Dipterocarpaceae) varnishing properties
Other genera that yield fresh resins with a similar sometimes employed in making
character include (Jost 1989): Anisoptera, Vatica, ointments and plasters for
Balanocarpus, Dipterocarpus, Pachycarpus, Synaptera treating skin sores, including
(India, Indo-China, Malaysia, Indonesia) skin ulceration associated with
leprosy
Note:
a The term ‘Dammar’ has been widely used in the literature to describe many types of resins. Here it is used according to the descriptions found in the British
Pharmaceutical Codex (BPC) and similar medical texts. The topic is discussed in detail under the section on Native Pines in chapter 4.
Above: Butea gum, from The British Pharmaceutical Codex

of 1934
Right: Olibanum, from The British PharmaceuticalCodex of
1934
10%). While some kinos were found to selectively contain

aromadendrin, eudesmin was always found in combination
with this substance. Later evolutionary developments
saw both compounds gradually disappear to the point
where some kinos contain neither component. Kinos that
developed later tend to belong to the ‘ruby group’, while
the ‘turbid group’ (which included the Bloodwoods) were
classed as being more primitive in character (ABS 2002;
Penfold 1961).
Eucalyptus species and kino classification
according to Joseph Lauterer (1895):8
• Ruby group kino: Eucalyptus haemastoma, E.

acmenioides, E. eugenioides, E. pilularis and E.
tereticornis.
• Gummy group kino: Eucalyptus siderophloia, E.
crebra, E. resinifera and E. saligna.
Olibanum resin. (Courtesy: Peter Presslein, Wikimedia • Turbid group kino: Eucalyptus corymbosa, E.
Commons Project)
maculata (Corymbia maculata), E. tessellaris
(Corymbia tessellaris), E. microcorys; Angophora
The classification of Angophora and Eucalypt kino gums – Angophora lanceolata, A. woodsiana, A.
has altered little from that used more than a century subvelutina.
ago – with the terms ruby, gummy or turbid making .
a reasonably sensible differentiation of the various
types. Myrtaceous kinos are primarily composed of a
polysaccharide gum (metarabin), a tannin component A medicinal astringent
(often called kinotannic acid) and benzoid compounds Australian Kino arrived in Europe as early as 1810.
(e.g. eudesmin, aromadendrin, ellagic acid).7 The By the late 1800s a popular demand for Eucalypti
classification of the three main kino products was ‘gum’ had developed – although some orthodox
accompanied by a difference in their use. The sections of the scientific community of the time would
medicinal ruby kino, which had a rich deep red hue, not accept its use. According to Dr Joseph Lauterer
contained condensed tannins that gave it substantial (1895), the Australian product had a ‘superiority over
astringent properties. Gummy kino was a better the other vegetable astringents [which] was pointed
choice in acidic stomach conditions because it had out by German investigation to be due to their power
a more stable character. Lastly, there was the turbid to adhere firmly and kindly to the mucilaginous
kino – the least popular for medicinal purposes. While membranes of the body’. Despite this, the reputation
the latter could dissolve completely in boiling water to of the Australian kinos suffered from adverse opinions
make a clear solution, this became turbid on cooling expressed by various European authorities. Dr Lauterer
when traces of other compounds (aromadendrin and/ was a staunch advocate of their benefits – although his
or eudesmin) were precipitated (Lassak & McCarthy recommendations did not alter the view of the critics.
1992). The explanation for this attitude lay in the comparison
It is interesting to find an evolutionary aspect that of the Australian kino with that extracted from other
exerted an influence on the compounds present in sources:
kino. Eucalypt resins characterised by aromadendrin
and eudesmin were those that developed at an earlier 7 In Australia, kino from the Myrtle family is mainly sourced from, but
evolutionary stage. Aromadendrin persisted in the kino not limited to, the Eucalypts, that is, the genera Angophora, Eucalyptus and
Corymbia.
of species that came later and, over time, the eudesmin
8 Opinions regarding the qualities of the different kino types
content actually increased (up to a maximum of could differ according to the quality of the product examined
Kino exudate on the trunk and branches of unnamed

Eucalypts.
Dr Lauterer’s 1891 review of the Spotted Gum serves

to illustrate the different opinions that surrounded
From a medical point of view the true kinos (as well as the evaluation of Eucalypt resins. The solubility of
rhatany and catechu) are very bad drugs. The astringent the product directly affected its usefulness for the
contained in them [the kinos] consists mostly of kino- commercial market:
tannic acid, which sticks only slightly to the mucous
Eucalyptus maculata, the ‘spotted gum’ of the timber-
membranes, and is not even borne well by a weak
getters, yields a gum-resin, exuding from cracks and
stomach. If administered in an alcoholic solution the
wounds through the inner bark. Baron Mueller says that
catechin and kinoin fall out in the organs of digestion as
it dissolves entirely in hot water. All other writers state the
a strange body having no affinity to albumen or gelatine,
contrary, maintaining that it is only partly soluble in it.
and only irritating the diseased inside of the bowels.
Under certain restrictions Von Mueller might be said to
The true kinos have nearly vanished from the medical
be right, because all the gum-resin of Eucalyptus maculata
practice on account of this, and in styling our Eucalypti
dissolves in water if boiled for a sufficient time, but, if
and Angophora gums as kinos a blemish was attached
you examine the ‘solution’ under the microscope, you
to them from the first moment. ‘Have we not too many
will see that it is only an emulsion, exhibiting undissolved
kinos already! Must we have another one from Botany
resin as minute globules suspended in watery solution in
Bay?’ This was the outcry of the European pharmacists;
manner reminding you much of the milk of animals. If
and still how little did our Myrtaceae gums deserve such a
the milk gets cold the globules crowd together and unite
slander! Containing a noble tannate derived mostly from
in a bottom sediment, sticky and ductile at first, like
gallic acid, and being stained by ferric acetate, they unite
cobbler’s wax, and finally brittle … like shellac. Still there
easily and quickly with albumen and gelatine, and have
is not the least relation between shellac and this sticky
the virtue to stick firmly to the mucilaginous membranes.
residue, for the latter gets quite soft if only warmed to the
Mouth, digestive organs, bronchial tubes, larynx and nose
temperature of the human body, and besides, if boiled
are as kindly affected by the Eucalyptus gums as the whole
with water, again goes in emulsion, quite as it did before.
skin of the body.
Spotted Gum: A valued timber resource
The smooth-barked Spotted Gum, Eucalyptus maculata Spotted Gum, Eucalyptus maculata.
(now Corymbia maculata), has a distinctive appearance. The
outer bark layer peels off in roundish patches that acquire
different colours as the bark ages: cream, blue-grey, pink or The Spotted Gum, Eucalyptus maculata (now
red. This causes a ‘spotted’ appearance – hence the common Corymbia maculata) has been a valued timber
name of the tree. The pale yellow-brown timber sports a
pretty grain that polishes well. It has particularly tough and resource from the early days of the colony. It
durable qualities, with excellent ‘bending’ properties that was used for railway fencing, hammer and axe
were highly valued in colonial times. handles, waylevers, shipbuilding, paving-blocks,
sleepers, bridge and wharf building (decking,
deck guards, girders), building works (house and
With methylated spirits, it apparently makes a varnish railway carpentry, door-frames, sills and joists),
and a pretty good polish for wood, but keeps soluble in carriages (buggy and dray shafts, vehicle bodies),
hot water, and is therefore utterly useless. The peculiar
wheelwrighting, farm implements, and tip wagons.
smell of gum reminded Mr. Staiger of benzoic acid …
These diverse uses indicate how important the
still the said gum does not contain benzoic acid, as I have
proved by my test experiments. The smell itself does not timber was for community works programs. Joseph
resemble benzoic acid at all, but it reminds one of liquid Maiden’s review of its multitudinous uses was
styrax used lately in Europe for the cure of itch. The accompanied by effusive praise: ‘For wheelwrights’
smell sticks to the insoluble part of the gum and does not and coach-builders’ work, it is … unequalled
go into the watery solution proper. The latter contains amongst colonial timbers. Its power of bending
tannic acid [kinotannic acid] in a subordinate quantity, into various shapes is very useful. It is used for cross-
and besides this a very bitter extract which I could prepare pieces, shafts, and poles for drays, buggies, naves,
by inspissation of larger quantities of the gum solution. and spokes, handles, agricultural implements …
anthocyanidins, catechins, flavanols, flavanones and

framing and house-building generally, tram-rails, leucocyanidins (for a detailed current review see
for the conveyance of logs from the forest to the Locher & Currie 2010). While Eucalypt resins have
mill, bridge-decking and ship-making’ (Maiden not attracted major research interest, a few recent
1895). His sentiments were echoed in a review by studies have indicated there could be some intriguing
J.W. Fawcett of Some Timber Trees of Queensland, new aspects to the subject. The resinous exudate from
in the Queensland Agricultural Journal of 1899. He Eucalyptus maculata has shown interesting antioxidant
mentioned its use for bridge building ‘for members and liver protective properties. The resin was a good
under tension, and has been found to have the source of ellagic acid (and its derivatives) – a phenolic
highest constant strength of any of the Queensland with hepatoprotective effects against toxin damage
timbers. It is also employed in shipbuilding and in the liver. Diverse other constituents were isolated
the manufacture of staves for casks. The sapwood that could be of value – including cinnamic acid,
decays quickly, but the heartwood is said to be as aromadendrin and sakuranetin (Mohamed 2005;
strong as British Oak’. Although several other trees Abdel-Sattar 2000; Thresiamma & Kultan 1994).
have been called ‘Spotted Gum’, their timbers were Sakuranetin has shown antiseptic, antibacterial,
not comparable to that of Eucalyptus maculata as fungicidal and pesticidal activity (Duke 2010).
they lacked its strength and elasticity. Investigations of the polyphenolic constituents in
other species with pharmaceutical potential have
included Eucalyptus ovata, E. consideniana and E.
viminalis. Numerous chemical components were
Old records mention the successful use of Spotted
isolated. It was of particular interest to find that the
Gum as an anti-inflammatory and antibacterial cure
leaves of the latter two species contained oenothein
for urinary tract problems. Joseph Lauterer (1894)
B – an ellagitannin with antiviral and anti-tumour
recorded that ‘the spotted gum (Eucalyptus maculata)
properties (Santos & Waterman 2001a, 2001b). In
exudes a great abundance of a yellow-brownish gum,
addition, ellagic acid rhamnosides with antioxidant
containing a resin soluble in spirits, and swelling up
activity have been isolated from Eucalyptus globulus
a softening in hot water so as to give a nice emulsion’. This
bark extracts (Kim 2001).
was suitable for external use: ‘For external application
in the wet state, a solution of the gum in borax and
water is a powerful antiseptic and healing agent; but
it has the drawback, like all tannates, to stain linen Eucalyptus maculata leaf oil
and so to destroy the bedclothes, &c., in a bad way.’
The substantial antiseptic properties of Spotted Gum Joseph Lauterer observed that ‘the spotted gum is a
water-based solutions meant that even if the solution tall tree with deciduous bark and plenty of oil-cells
was stored for a year it did not experience microbial in the leaves, which yield an essential fragrant oil,
contamination. However, it was not a popular especially in the variety E. citriodora [now Corymbia
oral remedy: ‘For internal purposes the maculata citriodora]’. The essential oil of Eucalyptus maculata
gum is not to be adhibited. Its smell is disliked by is of interest for its great variability. One analysis
nearly everybody. Still I know a case where chronic found α-pinene (30%), eudesmol (18%) and some
inflammation of the bladder [cystitis] was cured by globulol (8%), while another determined a cineole-
its use’ (Lauterer 1895). It would therefore appear to based oil (1,8-cineole 55%), with smaller amounts
have maintained its antiseptic activity when excreted of limonene (5%) and delta-cadinene (4%). A New
via the urinary tract. South Wales oil form was identified with a mixture
The antimicrobial attributes of tannin can help of these components – pinene, limonene, dipentene,
explain these actions. Tannin is composed of diverse cineole, candinene, cadinol and sesquiterpenes.
phenolic constituents that are common within A Queensland form contained pinene, guaiol and
the Eucalyptus genus. Phenolics are present in just sesquiterpenes (Brophy & Southwell 2002).
about any part of the tree. The main classes include
simple phenols (catechol, pyrogallol, gallic acid),
Eucalyptus maculata by Edward Minchen (1862–1913),

from JH Maiden, The Flowering Plants and Ferns of New
South Wales, 1897. (Wikimedia Commons Project)
Details of kino preparation, from Squires’ Companion to the

British Pharmacopoeia, 17th edition, 1899.
Official Tincture of Kino, from Phillips’ Translation of the

Pharmacopoeia Londonensis, 1841. Pterocarpus marsupium packaged herb. (Courtesy: Mother
Herbs, India)
The official medicinal source of kino, Pterocarpus
or Cochin Kino.9 The 1934 British Pharmaceutical
marsupium from southern India and Sri Lanka,
Codex provided the following details of its use:
yielded a juice (obtained by making incisions in
9 The Pterocarpus genus contains a number of species that yield a valuable
the tree) that was boiled and dried for use. This was timber. Subsequently, they have suffered from the depredations of extensive
ultimately marketed as East Indian, Malabar, Madras wild harvesting.
Medicinal kino from Pterocarpus
Pterocarpus indicus.
Peterocarpus marsupium, reproduced from Köhler’s Medicinal
Plants, 1887.
Kino is a powerful astringent used either externally or

internally. It has the general properties of substances
containing a large proportion of tannic acid … and has
the advantage over the pure substance of not being so
readily absorbed, and of exerting its astringent action in
the intestine without upsetting the stomach, since the
tannin is liberated only slowly in the alimentary canal.
For inflamed throat, kino lozenges are employed. The
tincture is added to gargles (1 to 16) [dilution], and,
mixed with tincture of myrrh and diluted with water, it
is used as an astringent wash for spongy gums. Internally,
kino is administered as Pulvis Kino Compositus in
obstinate diarrhoea and dysentery, the powder being
given enclosed in a cachet or glutoid capsule. The tincture
may be prescribed with bismuth salts or chalk mixture in
the treatment of diarrhoea.
In Ayurvedic medicine the bark decoction has been

highly valued as an anti-diabetic remedy (Kapoor 1990).
and ‘relaxed conditions’ of the throat (the larynx and

A number of Pterocarpus species yield a kino resin trachea). The British Pharmaceutical Codex of 1949
of practical value. In addition to the official form of stated: ‘Eucalyptus kino is an astringent with an
kino from Pterocarpus marsupium, the kino from P. action similar to that of kino but weaker and more
indicus was regarded as having equivalent activity. prolonged. It is administered in the form of lozenges
The latter species ranges from Southeast Asia and and pastilles. A liquid extract and a tincture … have
Indo-China to the Philippines, Papua New Guinea been employed as styptics and as astringent gargles.
and some Pacific island countries. Many of the The powdered drug, the tincture and the extract
traditional recommendations for its medicinal use have also been given internally in the treatment of
suggest that the tree has substantial antibacterial diarrhoea.’ It is interesting to observe how closely these
properties. The wood, which yields a red dye, was recommendations follow the traditional Aboriginal
made into a decoction that was taken to treat dropsy uses of the remedy.
and for bladder stones. The root juice was applied to The preparation of kino for medicinal purposes
syphilitic sores. In Papua New Guinea it was highly was a simple process. It involved dissolving the resin
valued as a medicine and was used for the treatment in water, and straining the mixture to remove any
of dysentery and stomach ache (leaf decoction), unwelcome additives such as leftover bark flakes. The
pneumonia (bark), coughing (leaves chewed), solution was then poured onto a glass or porcelain
diarrhoea (bark sap drunk), malaria (leaf decoction) plate, left to evaporate, and collected. However, there
and headaches (flowers, leaves). The bark juice was was a warning with regard to the use of metal-based
applied locally to sores and the leaves used for wound- utensils. The phenolic component of tannin can
healing purposes. In Indonesia the young leaves were dissolve various metals – metal-based utensils were
applied to ripen boils, treat ulcers, alleviate prickly- therefore avoided during the extraction process, for
heat rashes, and provided a wash for promoting hair otherwise toxic complexes could be formed, with the
growth. The sap could be used as a mouthwash, and unhappy repercussions of metal poisoning. Joseph
the bast decoction (prepared from the fibrous tissue Lauterer (1895) made the following observations with
of young leaves) was similarly utilised for treating regard to the preparation of Eucalyptus siderophloia
stomatitis and thrush. The plant was also reported and the ‘gummy group’ kinos:
to induce abortion, and in New Britain the bark was
chewed as a remedy for irregular menstruation to
induce blood flow. Unsurprisingly, the red-coloured The gums of the whole group are of high medicinal value
bark resin was also taken as a remedy for anaemia especially for the organs of digestion and for the skin.
They must never be administered in alcohol, though they
(Woodley 1991; Hirschhorn 1983).
are dissolved in it very easily if they are soaked in water
first. They must be administered for internal purposes, as
a fresh 10 per cent. solution of selected gum, of which 6oz
In some ways it was fortuitous that the Australian can be taken in twenty-four hours. Scale preparations,
gum trees provided a ‘kino’ with very similar activities as Dr. Joseph Bancroft recommended for purification
of the gums, must never be made on tin. The tannate
to that of Pterocarpus because there was a ready-
dissolves some of the metal, and makes insoluble and even
made market for the product. There were a few other
poisonous precipitates when dissolved again. For external
alternatives, although most were regarded as being use a still stronger watery solution of treacle consistence is
inferior substitutes, and eventually the Australian wanted. It will be found to be a splendid remedy for many
product gained official sanction. The 1941 Martindale’s things if used properly.
Extra Pharmacopoeia notes that Kino Eucalypti was
usually procured from Eucalyptus rostrata (the River The standard kino recipe widely disseminated in
Red Gum, now E. camaldulensis) – although other medical journals and pharmacopoeial texts was for
species such as E. marginata and E. amygdalina were Decoction Eucalyptus Gummii: Eucalyptus kino 1
suitable. Kino was officially recommended for use as part; distilled water 40 parts; boil until dissolved and
an astringent in dentistry and to treat wounds – as well strain. Use as a gargle and given for diarrhoea in two
as being taken internally for diarrhoea, haemorrhage to four drachm doses.
In the British Pharmaceutical Codex of 1911, under

Eucalypti Gummi, B.P. Eucalyptus Gum: Action and A diverse range of preparations was listed:
Uses, the following entry details the official uses of • Extractum Eucalypti Gummi Liquidum,
Eucalyptus rostrata (E. camaldulensis) resin: B.P.C.—Liquid Extract of Eucalyptus Gum. Syn.—
Extractum Gummi Rubri Liquidum; Liquid Extract
of Red Gum. 1 in 4. Used as a styptic, applied
Eucalyptus gum is a valuable astringent to the throat, and
to wounds on lint, or injected into the nose for
is administered in the form of lozenges and pastilles. Its
epistaxis. Dose.—2 to 4 mils (30 to 60 minims).
action is similar to that of kino, but weaker and more
• Gargarisma Eucalypti Gummi, B.P.C.—
prolonged. Trochiscus Eucalypti Gummi is the official
Eucalyptus Gum Gargle. 1 (liquid extract) in 16.
lozenge; other combinations are with potassium chlorate
Used as an astringent gargle.
and cubebs, or with cocaine and menthol. Extractum
• Injectio Eucalypti Gummi, B.P.C.—Injection of
Eucalypti Gummi Liquidum is an astringent and styptic
Eucalyptus Gum. 1 (liquid extract) in 40. Used as
solution; injected into the nose or applied to wounds
an astringent injection.
on lint, it stops haemorrhage. Diluted with 16 parts of
• Pessus Eucalypti Gummi, B.P.C.—Eucalyptus
water it is used as an astringent gargle, or with 40 parts
Gum Pessary. 10 grains.
of water as an astringent injection. The tincture is used
• Suppositoria Eucalypti Gummi, B.P.C.—
similarly. The powdered gum, the tincture, and the liquid
Eucalyptus Gum Suppositories. 5 grains.
extract are used internally as astringents in diarrhoea and
• Syrupus Eucalypti Compositus, B.P.C.—
dysentery. An astringent syrup prepared from the gum
Compound Syrup of Eucalyptus. Syn.—Syrupus
is added to gargles, or given internally. Dose.—1 to 3
Eucalypti Rostratae. Eucalyptus gum, from
decigrams (2 to 5 grains).
Eucalyptus rostrata, 7.5; oil of eucalyptus, 0.26; with
Eucalyptus intermedia
Eucalyptus intermedia (now Corymbia intermedia). This kino-yielding Eucalypt is a tropical species that can withstand
difficult environmental conditions
Eucalyptus intermedia is a coastal Eucalypt with a which is just as well because the sawdust can be
typically tesselated Bloodwood bark and prominent highly irritant. The tree occurs from New South
kino gum-veins. It has been used for revegetation Wales north to Mackay in Queensland – with a
projects as it can deal with poor soils and exposed disjunct population further north from Townsville
conditions. It is known as the Pink Bloodwood to Cooktown. The habitat of this Bloodwood,
due to the colour of the heartwood. The timber, along with Corymbia clarksoniana and C. tessellaris,
although of a coarse texture, is hard, strong and is rated of conservation concern because of the
termite resistant. It can be used for fencing, poles extensive clearing that has occurred along the
and as a construction timber for bridgeworks Queensland coastline. These trees favour beach
and mines. It is not suitable for timber milling, ridges, local woodlands and forested sites.
refined sugar, mucilage of gum acacia, and distilled gum plentifully exudes in long tears, pale and yellow
water, to 100. Used for its astringency, being given at first, but soon darkening into bright, red, brown,
internally in diarrhoea and dysentery, and diluted and black, and then becoming less and less soluble.’
with seven times its volume of water for application The water-soluble gum contained 28.5 per cent tannic
as a gargle. Dose.—2 to 4 mils (1/2 to 1 fluid
acid. However, he found that the old gums, naturally
drachm).
hardened within their bark covering over many
• Syrupus Eucalypti Gummi, B.P.C.—Syrup of
Eucalyptus Gum. Syn.—Syrupus Gummi Rubri; years, could only be dissolved in an alkaline solution.
Syrup of Red Gum. This chemical change resulted from the repeated
• Liquid extract of Eucalyptus gum, 62.5; refined dissolution and concentration of the kino, leading to
sugar, 37.5. This preparation resembles Syrupus a progressive decrease in solubility (Lauterer 1895).
Eucalypti Compositus in its properties. It is given
internally as an astringent, and is used diluted with
7 parts of water as a gargle for inflamed throats.
Dose.—2 to 4 mils (1/2 to 1 fluid drachm).
• Tinctura Eucalypti Gummi, B.P.C.—Tincture of
Eucalyptus Gum. Syn.—Tinctura Gummi Rubri;
Tincture of Red Gum. 1 in 4. Given as an astringent
in diarrhoea, and added to gargles for inflamed
throats. Dose.—1 to 2 1/2 mils (15 to 40 minims).
• Trochiscus Eucalypti Gummi, B.P.—Eucalyptus
Gum Lozenge. Each lozenge contains eucalyptus
gum, 65 milligrams (1 grain); with fruit basis.
Eucalyptus gum lozenges are used as an astringent
for sore mouth and throat. Dose.—1 to 6 lozenges.
Red Mahogany, Eucalyptus resinifera, from JH Maiden, Forest

Flora of New South Wales, Vol. 1, Part 3, 1903, illustration
by Lilian Margaret Flockton.
Despite the gummy character of the residue, analysis

established that it was a tannin-based substance (a
Eucalyptus siderophloia. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native
Plants of Queensland, Vol. 2)
tannin diglycoside that was named emphloin) (Smith
1904).
Many texts mistakenly gave the source of Botany
Not all Eucalyptus kino was of equal quality. The Bay Kino as the Red Mahogany (Eucalyptus resinifera).
original ‘Botany Bay Kino’ was collected from that Joseph Maiden commented:
site by convicts, sourced from the Ironbark Eucalyptus The name Eucalyptus resinifera is often given in old books
siderophloia. Joseph Lauterer placed this kino in the (and regularly copied into later ones) as ‘Botany Bay Gum-
‘gummy group’, and described it thus: ‘From wounds tree’, because it was imagined that the product of this tree
in the deeply-furrowed, black, tough, heavy bark, a first brought Australian kino into notice. Hence the name
resinifera … As a matter of fact the present species is by The collector of kino had to be rather discerning
no means a free yielder of ‘resin’. In the early days of New with regard to his harvest, for while there were many
South Wales particulars of the properties of many of our kinos that were suitable for medicinal use, others were
trees could be obtained with difficulty. Particularly was decidedly unacceptable. Joseph Lauterer investigated
this the case with a genus like Eucalyptus, which even now
kinos harvested from Brisbane Eucalypts and concluded
affords abundant difficulty. My view is that the reference
that ‘Ironbark’ was among the most suitable:
to it ‘from this tree large quantities of resinous juice are
obtained, sometimes even more than 60 gallons from There are some gums which are quite useless for internal
a single tree’ refers not to a Eucalyptus at all, but to an use, owing to the admixture of sour or nauseous principles.
Angophora (A. lanceolata), which was abundant around The forest mahogany (Eucalyptus microcorys), for instance,
the first settlement of Port Jackson (Maiden 1903). yields a dark gum … of a nasty taste and quite unfit for
The use of name ‘resinifera’ was thus something of a medicinal purposes … According to the notions prevalent
misnomer. in Europe about the kinos, those must be considered of
the highest value which contain about 50 per cent of
tannic acid, and which are entirely or nearly entirely free
Kino of the Carbeen or Moreton Bay Ash from any acid, bitter, oily, or resinous additions. In this
The Carbeen, Eucalyptus tessellaris (now Corymbia respect the kino of the ironbark deserves the foremost
tessellaris), is a tall white-flowering Eucalypt common place. In a fresh state it dissolves easily in water … For
medicinal purposes (diarrhoea, throat diseases, bleeding)
along the coastal regions of eastern Queensland.
it is the very best astringent. Next to this in value ranges
This resilient species will in Queensland the red gum of the bloodwood (Eucalyptus
tolerate salty sea-spray, corymbosa) … Its action is less beneficial to the system
drought and heat, and is than that of the ironbark gum. Still, it is an excellent bush
able to withstand fairly medicine for all diseases where profuse discharges have to
windy conditions. It is be checked. Nearly all other Eucalypts near Brisbane yield
a kino-yielding tree, the a small quantity of gum, mostly of a bitter taste, and not
bark of which could be fit for a profitable gathering or export (Lauterer 1894).
made into an infusion for
use as a dysentery remedy. Essential oil of the Bloodwood,
Joseph Maiden (1892– Eucalyptus corymbosa
96) considered the kino Essential oil studies have indicated there can be
to belong to the turbid different forms of oil for Bloodwood, Eucalyptus
classification. He described corymbosa (syn. Corymbia gummifera). In 1920
it as having ‘a sweetish investigations by Baker and Smith established a low
odour … of a burnt-sienna- oil yield (0.1%) which was characterised by α-pinene
brown colour in bulk, and and sesquiterpenes. Later analysis of different oil
owing to its friable nature samples (low yield) identified β-pinene (32%) and
is in very small pieces. The globulol (14%). A third analysis identified a higher
powder is of mahogany yield oil (0.4%) with a completely different character
colour. It dissolves in – bicyclogermacrene (34%), torquatone (6%) and
boiling water, but deposits β-caryophyllene (6%) (Brophy & Southwell 2002).
catechin on cooling. The
Solution … is turbid, and
of a very pale orange-brown
colour’. The kino was said
to be very similar to that
obtained from the Desert
Bloodwood (Eucalyptus
terminalis, syn. Corymbia Eucalyptus corymbosa (syn. Corymbia gummifera). (Courtesy:
Jacqui Hickson, Friends of Lane Cove National Park)
terminalis).
of carpenters’ (Maiden 1903). Joseph Maiden valued

the timber highly: ‘This is one of the most valuable
hardwoods of the State. It is a grand furniture wood
where its weight is not against it. Visiting furniture
experts have been more taken with this timber, as a
rule, than with any other Australian hardwood. There
is a future before Red Mahogany. It is one of the most
durable timbers we have, being greatly resistant to
damp and the attacks of white ants.’
An outlandish tale involving Eucalyptus resinifera
saw it gain a measure of notoriety during the early
1800s. Joseph Maiden recorded the story:
In the very early days of settlement – that is to say, during the
first decade of the nineteenth century – some red mahogany
was cut from the bush, perhaps in the neighbourhood of
Sydney itself, and along with three other logs, each some 15
feet or 18 feet in length, was shipped as a sample of New
South Wales hardwood to England. The wood was put on
board a vessel known as the ‘Boyd’, which is believed to have
been a brig of some 500 tons register. The ‘Boyd’ sailed for
New Zealand, where she purposed loading kauri gum for
the Cape in the year 1809, having on board seventy white
people and a number of Maoris, also a very valuable cargo.
In Whangaroa harbour, however, a terrible fate awaited the
ship and her crew. The ‘Boyd’ fell into the hands of the
Maoris, and the unfortunate white people on board, with
Red Mahogany, Eucalyptus resinifera, Chatswood West, New the exception of four – two women and two children – were
South Wales. (Courtesy: Peter Woodard) killed, cooked, and eaten. The vessel herself appears to have
been run aground and burnt to the water’s edge. The history
Kino-yielding timber resources of the unhappy voyage has since been embalmed amongst
Many kino-containing Eucalypts were valuable timber the most stirring events of seafaring life in Australian waters,
trees. They included the Red Mahogany Eucalyptus and the charred remains of the ship have been traced with
resinifera, whose rich red-coloured timber reminded recurring interest as they have drifted from time to time
the early settlers of the mahogany from the Central about the harbour of Whangaroa, sometimes projecting
above the surface, sometimes seen a few feet below, and
American tree Swietenia macrophylla. The extremely
occasionally completely lost for months together in the mud
durable qualities of the Red Mahogany made it an
(Maiden 1903).
excellent candidate for building, fencing and paving
projects, as well as for use by shipwrights and cabinet
makers. Its durability was even considered to be In 1960 Professor H.H.G. McKern mentioned that,
comparable to that of the Ironbarks. Over time, it at the time, the Murray River Gum or River Red
achieved a rather remarkable level of hardness – which Gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) was used exclusively
increased to the point where a nail could not be as the commercial source of kino: ‘Collectors work
driven into well-seasoned timber without splitting the in southern New South Wales along the Murray
wood. A renovation incident that occurred in Sydney River, and in the Koondrook-Mathours district of
is illustrative of its fame: ‘Rafters of this wood were Victoria, making incisions in the trunks to tap cavities
removed in 1852 from St. John’s Church, Parramatta containing the liquid kino. After dilution with a little
(erected in 1798), and were found to be in perfect water to permit filtration, the liquid is dehydrated to
condition. It is an even grained timber, which works a friable solid by evaporation. The product is exported
easily, and hence is one of the favourite hardwoods for use in pharmacy in the treatment of diarrhoea and
where it gets hard and may be broken out in quantity.

It varies from being soluble in water to complete
insolubility in water and alcohol.’
In a review of commercial timbers of New South
Wales, Joseph Maiden’s evaluation was complimentary:
‘One of the most durable of all Australian timbers.
[The Murray Red Gum] does not split at the ends
when exposed to the sun, as many of our timbers do.’
He recommended its use for wharves and wooden
paving, and commented that it was especially valuable
because ‘when in the ground, and for use in culverts,
it is all but imperishable. The drawback to this timber
is its liability to gum-veins, but in spite of this I
include it in the present list, as I look upon much
of the prejudice against bloodwood as unreasonable.
It would be unacceptable for export, as we have
abundance of better timbers, but I certainly think it
ought to be used more than it is where readily available’
(Maiden 1895). Despite the general opposition to
using resin-veined timber, Maiden tended to see this
as a characteristic of the wood that could help preserve
it: ‘I have seen the timber rejected for wood-blocks
because of gum-scabs and gum-veins, which would, of
Kino seeping from the trunk of Eucalyptus camaldulensis course, be inadmissible in furniture wood, but which
(formerly E. rostrata) in Egypt.
would in no way be detrimental to a wood-pavement.
dysentery, and for throat gargles. Small amounts are The scrupulous care which is insisted upon in some
used in the French wine industry.’ contracts to reject wood-blocks because of the veins,
The Murray Red Gum was another valued timber sometimes degenerates into mere faddism, and it is
tree due to its strength and durability; it had a good only possible to select so severely, because at present
resistance to fungal rot and could avoid the attention we have an enormous timber supply.’ Sadly, our native
of troublesome insects such as white ants. It was timber selections appear to have dwindled drastically
‘the red gum par excellence of the Colonies of New since then.
South Wales, Victoria and South Australia’. However, Although the River Red Gum generally prefers
the resin-laden timber could have a variable value, a riverine site, permanent water is not a prerequisite
depending on the amount of gum-veins that the tree for its survival and its range can extend into arid and
contained. semi-arid regions. This Eucalypt is a survival expert
The Reverend Tenison-Woods (1882) commented that can deploy a number of rugged coping strategies.
on the distinctive character of this resin: ‘The brilliant It is tolerant of substantial rainfall variations (5.7–71
red colour of the gum which is like fresh blood is cm annually) and a wide range of seasonal conditions
perhaps the origin of the local name. The gum occupies (drought, frost, etc.), as well as diverse soil conditions
the interstices of the wood to such an extent that the (including salinity). It has become one of the most
timber can always be distinguished by this peculiarity.’ widely planted of the Eucalypts throughout the world
Joseph Lauterer (1895) provided additional details: due this remarkable versatility – and is popularly
‘This tree, called bloodwood, whose foliage does not used along highways, as windbreaks, or as an urban
contain any essential oil, has a persistent bark, and ornamental. The trees can grow to an impressive
yields a gum in great plenty, exuding at times as a height (around 30–35 metres).
bright-red fluid of the consistence of treacle. It often In addition to its use as a kino resource, the
becomes imprisoned between the layers of the wood, River Red Gum had a good medicinal reputation
women with changes in the normal pH balance. This

is a sexually transmitted condition (Mahdi 2006).
The oil of Eucalyptus camaldulensis10 can be of
two types: cineole-rich (80–90% 1,8-cineole, plus
pinene) and cineol-poor (containing significantly
less cineol). Variable levels of other constituents
(β-phellandrene, p-cymene and cryptone) are present,
sometimes in substantial amounts (Dagne 2000;
Brophy & Southwell 2002). Evaluations from the
Essential Oil Research Centre (EORC), Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, identified the following: β-phellandrene
(10.6%), p-cymene (18.5%), 1,8-cineole (26.2%),
cryptone (12.4%). Other compounds were present in
smaller quantities: α-pinene, 4-terpineol, pulegone,
cinnamaldehyde, citronellyl acetate and caryophyllene
oxide. The essential oils of two subspecies have also
been examined (Brophy & Southwell 2002):
• Eucalyptus camaldulensis var. camaldulensis:
p-cymene (22%), cryptone (14%), spathulenol
(17%).
• Eucalyptus camaldulensis var. obtusa: 1,8-cineole
The River Red Gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) is one of (52%), α-pinene (15%), aromadendrene (3%).
the most widespread of the Eucalypts. It is a large white-
grey smooth-barked tree that is often found decorated
with red kino streaks. Images of the tree have usually been
linked to picturesque scenes of trees bordering waterholes
A new pharmacology: lessons from
or riverbanks. Dragon’s blood resins
Australian kinos have largely been ignored by
investigative chemistry over recent decades, providing
little new information with regard to Eucalyptus kino.
However, there have been a number of investigations
of other traditional kino resources. In particular,
evaluations of resins from the various forms of
‘Dragon’s blood’ indicate that resinous products may
have far greater medicinal potential than has hiterto
as a decongestant – the leaves were simply crushed been generally appreciated.
and the aroma inhaled, or prepared as a decoction Daemonorops draco was found to contain interesting
or body wash. In some regions, Aboriginal people compounds with anti-inflammatory, antiviral and
deemed that the remedy was too ‘strong’ and it was cytotoxic activity (dammaradienol and dracorhodin).
not recommended for internal use. The young leaves Other components also had pharmacological value: anti-
have also been used as a smoking medicine for fevers, platelet, anti-inflammatory and anticoagulant activities
colds, influenza or general illness – with the afflicted (Gupta 2008). In addition, dracorhodin has shown
person sitting enveloped in the smoke from the fire antimicrobial and antitumour activity (Shi 2009).
(Lindsay 2001; Smith 1993; Wightman 1991, 1992, Recent studies of the resin have focused on its substantial
1994). Investigations have suggested that the oil may antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, with
also have a valuable antiparasitic activity that could be interesting potential for the treatment of arteriosclerosis
suitable for clinical use. An Iranian study has shown and fibrosis of the lung (Heo 2010; Nie 2007).
good activity against Trichomonas vaginalis, a protozoal 10 Synonyms for this species in the literature include Eucalyptus rostrata and
parasite that commonly causes vaginal infections in Eucalyptus rostrata var. borealis.
Daemonorops draco, from Köhler’s Medicinal Plants, 1887. The resin from Dracaena cinnabari has been used as a
Dragon’s blood from Daemonorops draco has long been colouring matter for materials, varnish, tinctures, toothpaste,
utilised as a dye and colouring substance in Southeast Asia plaster, pottery decorations, paint and as a dye for horn to
and India. Its uses were myriad: massage oils, incense, paints, make it resemble tortoiseshell.
and as an important red colouring for paper, banners and
posters in China. It could be used to stain precious stones, Various Dracaena species have been subjected to
glass or marble, and was an important varnish for violins. similar investigations for anti-inflammatory, analgesic,
In some instances its influence extended into the realms of antifungal, and anticancer (cytotoxic, anti-tumour,
magical, being employed to inscribe sacred talismans, as well
as a valued red ink for ancient manuscripts. The powdered apoptosis-inducing, and chemopreventive) potential.
resin has even been employed for photoengraving purposes The resin of Dracaena draco has also shown excellent
(Gupta 2008). antibacterial properties (Gupta 2008). Extracts of
Dragon’s blood from Dracaena cochinchinensis have
recently shown useful anti-diabetic actiivity linked
to intestinal carbohydrate absorption, which reduced
the increase in blood glucose following meals (Gu
2009). In addition, studies have identified analgesic
compounds (notably cochinchinenin B) with
potential for drug development – suggesting that
there could be a practical clinical future for some of
these products (Wang 2008; Guo 2008). Attention
should also be drawn to the South American Croton
species known to yield Sangre de grado (or Sangre de
drago, 'dragon’s blood' in Spanish). Investigations into
the chemistry of the resin have begun to confirm its
traditional use for treating a myriad of conditions. The
resin contains tannin-derived compounds (catechin,
Dracaena draco. (Courtesy: Kim & Forest Starr) epicatechin, gallocatechin and epigallocatechin),
similar to those found in Eucalypts resins. While the

effects of the remedy on gastrointestinal function
(anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrhoeal, antibacterial,
gastroprotective, anti-ulcerative activity) are a
familiar part of traditional medicine, investigations
have suggested that Sangre de grado has additional
therapeutic value. A high level (up to 90%) of
proanthocyanins can be present in Croton-derived
resin, as well as small amounts of diverse other
compounds (clerodane diterpenoids, sitosterol, etc.).
Extracts have demonstrated antioxidant, antiviral,
analgesic, anticancer, and substantial antimicrobial
activities. The fact that antioxidant activity is an
influential factor in the medicinal attributes of many Croton lechleri. (Courtesy: inkanatural.com)
plants can help in the evaluation of their potential.
Importantly, antioxidant components appear to have C. urucurana) has acquired a widespread reputation
a role in maintaining normal cellular functions that as an anticancer remedy. A number of components
could help in the prevention of chronic degenerative (including taspine) have shown cytotoxic, antioxidant
disorders and cancer (Gupta 2008; Desmarchelier and immunomodulatory properties that could
1997; Cai 1991). influence its anticancer efficacy (Risco 2003; Chen
The anti-inflammatory and anti-irritant properties 1994; Itokawa 1991).
of the balm Zangrado, made from Sangre de grado, While there is nothing disadvantageous about
gained it a good clinical reputation for providing using the herbal remedy, this market is not going
quick relief from the irritation of insect bites (wasps, to fund research into its mode of action. Therefore
fire ants, mosquitoes, bees). It eases the itching, pain, pharmaceutical companies need to find an active
oedema, and redness (ie. symptoms of neurogenic principle, or method of extraction, that can be
inflammation) and can be used to treat other patented. The desire for commercial success must
conditions such as wounds and eczema (Miller 2001, also be accompanied by approved clinical trials that
Jones 2003). In particular Croton lechleri resin possesses will, hopefully, avoid some of the mistakes with
wound healing, analgesic, immune supportive and drug development that have occurred in the past.
anti-inflammatory activities, as well as a potent The significant antiviral activity of Sangre de grado
antibacterial action. A range of active constituents have extracts led to the development of a couple of drugs
been isolated (notably polyphenols and diterpenes).11 by the American company, Shaman Pharmaceuticals.
One component showed a remarkably potent In particular a drug called Provir was trialled for the
antibacterial activity – 30-times that of penicillin and treatment of persistent diarrhoeal disorders, such as
chloramphenicol against Bacillus subtilis, as well as those that occur with AIDS infection. There has also
being highly inhibitory against Escherichia coli. Other been potential for the development of anti-diabetic
compounds, notably taspine and dimethylcedrusine, drugs (Williams 2001). It is, however, a long, involved
were shown to promote wound healing – facilitating and extremely expensive road to achieve successful drug
skin regeneration, stimulating wound contraction, development. Objections by the US drug regulatory
promoting collagen formation and the development body, the FDA, saw this venture shelved. Economic
of a crust at the wound site (Chen 2004; Jones 2003; considerations then closed down the pharmaceutical
Risco 2003; Pieters 1993 & 1992; Porras-Reyes research undertaken by the company. Since then,
1993; Vaisberg 1989). In addition, the resin (notably the botanical library of Shaman Pharmaceuticals was
that of Croton lechleri, C. draco, C. erythrochilus and sold and the anti-diarrhoeal drug Crofelemer, derived
11 Gupta 2008 provides an excellent overview of the chemical components from Croton lechleri, has been developed by another
and pharmacological studies for Dragon’s blood resins: Croton spp., company into a marketable product (Gupta 2008).
Daemonorops draco and Dracaena draco.

These studies indicate that the search for resinous products
of pharmacological interest from Australian floral
sources would be worthwhile. Sometimes investigations
have discovered interesting new chemical aspects that
support the traditional uses of herbal medicines. The
discovery of a flavonol named ‘citriodorol’ from the
Lemon-scented Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus citriodora) kino
in 1956, by Satwalekar and colleagues, is one example
that tends to validate the healing properties of kino.
Although citriodorol was found to have substantial The Marri or Port Gregory Gum, Eucalyptus calophylla
antibiotic properties it was never fully investigated. (now Corymbia calophylla) is a West Australian Bloodwood.
Other components of interest include flavanones, which It is a prolific kino-yielding species that has been utilised
can be unique to specific species, and may influence the for treating chronic bowel complaints and dysentery
(Maiden 1891). In addition to the common phenolic
medicinal properties of an individual kino (Locher & constituents found in kino, it contains the unusual flavan
Currie 2010). afzelechin, as well as sakuranetin (Locher & Currie 2010).
In early studies the Eucalypts were not the only flora Although it contains ‘red-gum’ vein faults in its structure,
subjected to evaluation; kino was also discovered from Marri yields an attractive timber that has been utilised for
the closely related Angophora genus, as well as resins cabinetmaking. It has large cream-white flowers and urn-
shaped fruit (known as honkey nuts), and is related to the
from less familiar genera including Ceratopetalum and ornamental Red-Flowering Gum, Eucalyptus ficifolia. While
native Turpentine trees (Syncarpia spp.). Few achieved Marri essential oil can be pinene-rich (α-pinene 10–51%)
commercial importance, and some (such as Grevillea) with a fair amount of terpinene (γ-terpinene 10–12%), it is
were simply of interest to the medical profession due unusual in that it contains farnesol (E,E-farnesol 11–21%)
to their irritant properties. However, the fragrant (Brophy & Southwell 2002). (Image courtesy: Cas Liber,
Elemi resins (genus Canarium) and those of the
Native Pines (genera: Agathis, Araucaria and Callitris)
did gain a measure of acceptance, for various reasons,
on the local market.
Corymbia calophylla, located near Bridgetown, Western Postcard c. 1907 portraying the flowers of
Australia, showing resin. (Courtesy: Hesperian, Wikimedia Corymbia calophylla (cream) and E. ficifolia
Commons Project) (red). (Courtesy: State Library of Victoria)
Chapter 3
RESINOUS RESOURCES
their characteristics. The first kino harvest, which

was among the earliest remedies employed in the new
settlement, was originally thought to have been from
Eucalyptus resinifera but it was later established that
a species of Angophora was the source. Early records
describe the procurement of a substantial harvest:
On making incisions in the trunk of this tree, large

quantities of resinous juice are obtained, sometimes even
more than 60 gallons from a single tree. When this juice is
dried it becomes a very powerfully astringent gum-resin of
a red colour, much resembling that in the shops known as
‘Kino’, and, for all medical purposes, fully as efficacious.
Mr. White administered it to a great number of patients
in the dysentery which prevailed soon after the landing
of the convicts, and in no one instance found it to fail.
This gum-resin dissolves almost entirely in spirits of wine,
to which it gives a blood-red tincture. Water dissolves
about one-fifth part only, and the watery solution is of a
bright red. Both these solutions are powerfully astringent
(Maiden 1903).
Joseph Maiden made the following distinguishing

A stand of Ceratopetalum apetalum, or Coachwood (also points with regard to the botanical origins of the resin:
known as Scented Satinwood or Tarwood) in Nymboi-
Binderay National Park, near Dorrigo, New South Wales, The extreme brittleness of the wood, and the large
444 kilometres north of Sydney. (Courtesy: Peter Woodard) quantity of ‘resinous gum’, at once show that the tree
now understood as Eucalyptus resinifera is quite a different
The search for resinous products was to lead to the species. The original figure of the bark, and the description
of the wood and resinous exudation, apply exactly to
evaluation of a number of unfamiliar native genera.
Angophora lanceolata. The figures of the buds apply fairly
Although kino was the first resin to be discovered well to the Red Mahogany, and doubtless assisted in
from the Eucalypts, resin substitutes for elemi (a causing Bentham to describe that tree under the name
sticky ointment base) and turpentine were discovered Eucalyptus resinifera, Smith. Eucalyptus stuartiana, F.v.M.,1
from the genera Canarium and Syncarpia. Later
investigations were to show that the Coachwood 1 Eucalyptus stuartiana refers to E. ovata, which is a swamp gum – although
the botanical name has been misapplied in the past to a few other Eucalypt
(Ceratopetalum apetalum), the Christmas Tree of species, i.e. E. bridgesiana and E. dalrympleana. The term ‘Apple tree’ could
New South Wales (Ceratopetalum gummiferum) and also refer to a couple of Eucalyptus species that were classified as E. sturtiana
in the older literature. The names Moonbi Apple Box (formerly E. stuartiana
the Beefwood (Grevillea striata) contained a similar var. grossa) and the Argyle Apple (formerly E. stuartiana) now refer to E.
substance, although there could be differences in malacoxylon and E. cinerea.
83
one of the Apple-trees, is another of our Eucalypts which astringent properties. However, in some instances
were originally described from different material from gummy kinos could be more useful medicinally due
that now understood as the species (Maiden 1903). to their polysaccharide content – a characteristic that
made them more stable in the acidic environment of
the stomach (Lassak & McCarthy 1992).
Angophora kino There are ten species of Angophora in Australia,
Bush remedies, which were often subject to the
the majority of which are referred to as ‘Apple trees’.
problem of availability, listed kino among the most
They include the Narrow-leaved or Small-leaved
widespread and easily accessible. Angophora kino was
Apple (Angophora bakeri), the Coolibah Apple (A.
considered to be comparable to that of the Eucalypt –
melanoxylon), the Apple or Broad-leaved Apple (A.
although it never gained any commercial recognition.
subvelutina) and the Rough-barked or Smudgy Apple
Joseph Maiden provided some useful background
(A. woodsiana). The common names of a couple of
information on the subject:
other species are fairly similar: Angophora costata
(formerly A. lanceolata) has been known as the Red-
The importance of the genus Eucalyptus and the almost barked Apple, Brown Apple Tree, the Apple Gum
universal occurrence of kino in these trees has thrown and the Smooth-barked Apple. There is another
the subject of kino in the closely related genus Angophora Rough-barked Apple, Angophora floribunda (formerly
almost entirely into the shade. Although some species are A. intermedia), that was also called the Apple Box.
very common and yield it abundantly, a prejudice might
Although these trees were largely restricted to New
arise against Angophora kinos being officially recognised
South Wales and southern Queensland, a couple of
as a substitute for that of Pterocarpus, partly because an
odour is inadmissible in this substance. If a use should be species range further afield. Angophora floribunda is
found for them, I believe the kinos of any of the species the most widespread, as it is distributed from northern
may be mixed without detriment, as they appear to have Victoria to Central Queensland (Rockhampton). This
practically the same composition when gathered under
similar circumstances (Maiden 1891).
Angophora kino gained wide acceptance as a useful

household and bush medicine. Indeed, Dr Joseph
Lauterer rated the Angophora gums as ‘better
remedies for diarrhoea, especially for chronic forms of
diarrhoea, than the gums of the ruby group’, which
he favoured for external use.2 He considered that ‘the
gums of this group are of the highest interest to the
scientific chemist’. Their practical medicinal effects
were likely to be equivalent to, or even superior to,
those of Eucalypt kino: ‘The medicinal value of the
Angophora gums must not be underrated. Of a 10%
solution 6–8 oz may be given for diarrhoea in 24 hours.
In the stomach the ellago-tannic acid is precipitated
first and causes vomiting sometimes, but, if the
stomach bears it, it is dissolved as well as the ellagic
acid by the pancreatic juice and by the secretions of
the intestinal tract. In this way it reaches sick parts of
the lower bowels better than stronger gums’ (Lauterer
1895). Kino from the ruby group, which was so
named for its deep rich-red colour, possessed excellent
2 Ruby group kino is discussed in detail in the section on Eucalypt kino, Angophora floribunda. (Courtesy: Melburnian, Wikimedia
chapter 2. Commons Project)
Chapter 3 RESINOUS RESOURCES 85
species has an intriguing addition to its range with a British Pharmacopoeia as regards kino; nevertheless it is
small population that is found in North Queensland a valuable astringent remedy, frequently available in the
(Ravenshoe). bush when more elegant preparations are not obtainable.
The kino harvest from the Angophora genus could It usually contains between 50 and 60 per cent. of tannic
acid (Maiden 1904).4
vary substantially. For instance the liquid red gum
that was found in the hollows of Angophora woodsiana
timber was similar to that of the Bloodwood
(Eucalyptus corymbosa). However, the kino from
Angophora intermedia was naturally tangled within the
fibrous bark, which meant a greater degree of difficulty
with the harvest, and it could be easily wasted.3
Some species also yielded a useful timber, despite
the detrimental effects of their kino content. Timber
was a vital commodity in the colony, and its quality
could be seriously compromised by the presence
of resin. Joseph Maiden pointed out: ‘The timber
yielded by various species of Angophora is often
much deteriorated by the “gum-veins” consisting of
kino, which is usually disposed in thin concentric
circles, but also in pockets. It is, nevertheless, useful
Angophora woodsiana. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native
for wheelwrights’ purposes and for fuel.’ Angophora
lanceolata was among those that he found useful: ‘As
might have been expected with such a free yielder of
kino, the timber of this tree is liable to gum-veins; in
fact, it is difficult to get a piece of any size from them.
Nevertheless it is a useful timber, strong and heavy,
and used for naves of wheels, flooring-boards, slabs,
rough ‘buildings, and fuel’ (Maiden 1904).
The kino regarded as being the most useful
was sourced from Angophora intermedia (now A.
floribunda), A. subvelutina, A. woodsiana and A.
lanceolata (now A. costata). All these species produced
a similarly useful product. The kino of the last-named
was found in fairly abundant amounts within the tree. Bark of Angophora subvelutina. (Courtesy: Robert Whyte)
It dried quickly on exposure to air:
so that the aperture is soon blocked up with the indurated

substance. If this be picked off, the wound begins to flow
afresh, and thus a considerable quantity may be collected.
This kino bears a strong resemblance to that of a few
gum-tree kinos. It is of a reddish-brown colour, and
when quite dry is very friable, readily powdering between
the fingers. It possesses a sourish, unpleasant smell, not
easily described, which is strongest when the kino is
quite new, and the proximity of an Apple-tree can thus
be frequently determined by the smell alone … Apple- Leaves of Angophora subvelutina. (Courtesy: Robert Whyte)
tree kino does not precisely fill the requirements of the
4 Joseph Lauterer mentioned that Angophora lanceolata could be suitable for
3 Later, some interesting experiments demonstrated that leaf and flower use as a tanning agent because it was rich in tannic acid: ‘the same can be said
extracts of Angophora intermedia had antibacterial properties against of the fresh bark, which certainly would be much better for tanning purposes
Staphylococcus aureus (Atkinson 1949). than the bark of acacias’ (Lauterer 1890–91).
The Smooth-barked Apple
Smooth-barked Apple, Angophora costata. (Courtesy:

Eug, Wikimedia Commons Project)
Flowers of Angophora subvelutina. (Courtesy: KAW True to its name, the Smooth-barked Apple could
Williams, Native Plants of Queensland, Vol. 1) be readily distinguished from other Angophora
species by the character of the bark – although it
Although they had different physical was sometimes confused with the Spotted Gum:
characteristics, the gum from these species appeared ‘In collecting kino from this tree it may be well
to be fairly comparable as far as their activity was to remind people that the smooth trunk might
concerned. Among the most popular was Angophora perhaps be mistaken by a careless observer for that
subvelutina, which yielded a brittle reddish gum that of Eucalyptus maculata, but the two kinos cannot
was ‘much used by settlers as a medicine for diarrhoea’ be confused even by a tyro … This kino is abundant,
(Lauterer 1895). The kino of the Orange, Red or and readily gathered on account of the smoothness
Rusty Gum (Angophora lanceolata) was equally useful. of the bark’ (Maiden 1891).
Joseph Lauterer considered it to be: ‘[a] very good Joseph Maiden provided an intriguing
gum, nearly free from bitter and sour ingredients’. description of this attractive tree:
Maiden provided additional details of its character:
The plant tissue of [the Smooth-barked Apple, Angophora
‘Between the wood and bark a gum is exuded, being
costata] possesses a wonderful power of accommodating
lignified by rains and run into red brittle streaks; its shape, or rather the direction of its growth, to the
when dissolved in water it behaves much like that rocky ground on which it is usually found. Thus we find
of Angophora subvelutina, leaving a whitish insoluble the base of the tree often flattened out, and following the
powdery deposit; dissolves to great extent in hot water, course of obstacles, reminding one of a gigantic candle
but solution always looks turgid.’ This type of gum placed on a surface sufficiently warm to soften the wax or
did not rate highly as an astringent agent and only fat, which then, by the weight of the candle, moulds itself
dissolved in boiling water. It produced a clear solution into shapes determined by the obstacles it encounters.
that acquired a turbid quality on cooling – therefore The comparison is a homely one, and it is only intended
Maiden considered it to be comparable to those of the to refer to the plastic appearance, not, of course, the result
‘turbid group’ of Eucalypt kino (Maiden 1891). of heat in any way in the case of the tree’ (Maiden 1904).
Baloghia: Bloodwood kino
The Jointed Baloghia (Baloghia marmorata). The survival

of this tree rates as a serious conservation concern. There
are now only a few small populations left in northern New
South Wales and southern Queensland. It has been listed
as a threatened (vulnerable) species in Queensland and
endangered in New South Wales. This is mainly due to
habitat clearance and weedy invasions. (Image courtesy:
Peter Woodard) Brush Bloodwood, Baloghia lucida (now B. inophylla), from
JH Maiden, Forest Flora of New South Wales, Vol. 1, 1904,
Baloghia is a genus of rainforest trees that range plate 28, illustration by Lilian Margaret Flockton.
along most of the Australian east coast.5 The Brush
Bloodwood (Baloghia inophylla, formerly B. lucida)
is the most widespread, with its range extending
to Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Island. Keith
Williams, author of Native Plants of Queensland (Vol.
3, 1987), made the following observations with regard
to Baloghia lucida growing in scrubland ‘Millable trees
must be very few today and I have not observed any
that could be used for this purpose. Good specimens
of this species can often be seen along the scrub
margins where clearing has been done. These plants
are of reasonably good shape. The plants that are
growing within the scrubs tend to be tall and rather
spindly.’ There is one other Australian species – the
Fruit capsule of Baloghia inophylla showing mottled seeds
Jointed Baloghia (B. marmorata). within.
The resins from Baloghia had medicinal value,
although, like those from the Angophora genus, they
were of little commercial interest. These included the indelible pigment without any admixture’ (Bailey
Brush Bloodwood, Baloghia inophylla (formerly B. 1880). Initially, the sap was clear, although it quickly
lucida), which was utilised as an astringent andtonic. turned a blood-red colour on exposure to the air. This
Frederick M. Bailey observed: ‘On the trunk of this was probably due to oxidation of the tannin content.
tree being wounded a large quantity of sap flows Studies by Dr Joseph Lauterer in 1896 found the
out, which Baron Mueller says forms a beautiful red dried red gum had a high tannin content (76.8%).
5 Baloghia inophylla also extends its range to New Caledonia – where twelve
Baloghia species are found, ten of which are endemic.
Ceratopetalum: Christmas Trees

and Coachwoods
The Australian genus Ceratopetalum contains nine
species. The New South Wales (NSW) Christmas Tree
(C. gummiferum) and the Coachwood (C. apetalum)
are the most familiar, although there are a number
of rare species (some of which remain botanically
unnamed) that have been discovered in tropical
north Queensland. They include Ceratopetalum
macrophyllum, found only in a restricted area of
the Daintree World Heritage rainforest, and C.
corymbosum, which has a similarly limited distribution
in the mountain rainforest of Thornton Peak, north
of the Daintree River. Two other distinctive tropical
rainforest species are found at high altitudes: C.
Baloghia inophylla showingfruit on tree.
virchowii and the North Queensland Coachwood (C.
Under the name Baloghia lucida the following succirubrum). The latter species name also appears to
description of the harvest of the sap on Norfolk Island have been mistakenly used to describe C. tetrapterum
was published in 1904: – the only species that extends its range outside
Australia to New Guinea and New Britain.7
A knife, similar to a farrier’s, is used, but stronger,

fixed upon a handle 4 to 5 feet long, which enables
the workman to reach high up the trunk of the tree. A
perpendicular incision is made through the bark, an inch
wide at the surface, but tapering to a point near the wood,
and from 8 to 10 feet long, forming the main channel
through which the sap flows to the base of the tree, where
a vessel is placed for its reception; branch channels are cut
on each side of the main one, leading obliquely into it, 6
or 8 inches apart, and extending nearly two-thirds round
the trunk. The sap generally flows from the channels for
about twelve hours, when it is collected. The quantity
produced by each tree varies; sometimes about a pint,
but on an average about half that quantity. The sap forms
an indelible paint, and was formerly used in the island
for marking bags, blankets, and other articles (Shepherd,
cited in Maiden 1904). Ceratopetalum apetalum. (Courtesy: Melburnian, Wikimedia
Commons Project)
The sap had dyeing properties that led to its use as a
furniture stain and cloth dye that was used as a marker The Coachwood (Ceratopetalum apetalum) and
for convict clothing.6 A distinguishing feature of the the NSW Christmas Tree (C. gummiferum) were
tree is that the resin, which is flammable, is produced recognised as gum resources in the early days of the
so prolifically within the tree that the wood will colony. The first reference to the genus was by Dr J.E.
burn even when green. Although the sapwood was Smith in 1793, in a report entitled A Specimen of the
susceptible to attack by borers, the timber was suitable Botany of New Holland. Ceratopetalum gummiferum
for use as flooring and for small turnery. was described as the ‘three-leaved red-gum tree’. The
7 The name Ceratopetalum succirubrum (a species endemic to Queensland)
6 It is interesting to note that the Euphorbiaceae family, to which this genus
may have been mistakenly used for this species in the past.
belongs, has been the source of a medicinal Dragon’s Blood resin – mainly
from South American Croton species.
genus name was selected in reference to the anther- is exuded from the cut ends of the wood and forms
petalled flowers: ‘the name applies to the very unusual tears of a fine ruby-red colour, or cakes which have little
horn-like divisions of the petals, like those in the colour, but which impart a rich orange-brown colour
leaves of the Ceratopetalum of Linnaeus. One species to water. The gum of Ceropetalum apetalum is similar,
but has a marked odour of coumarin, which is present
only is already known’. The species name gummiferum
in considerable quantities in the bark of the tree. Both
was descriptive of the exudate from the tree: ‘This, Mr.
these gums contain tannic acid, but also considerable
White informs us, is one of the trees … which produce quantities of actual gum. They are therefore intermediate
the red gum. He further remarks, that it is the only in character between the true gums and the kinos, which
wood of the country that will swim in water’. Almost are very often referred to as ‘gum kinos,’ although they are
a century later, Joseph Maiden commented: ‘This is essentially tannin compounds …
the first, and as far as I know, the only reference to the
gum-yielding propensity of this plant; but it impressed
Smith sufficiently for him to give the specific name he However, the tannic acid levels were not particularly
did’ (Maiden 1890). high: Ceratopetalum gummiferum (16.76%) and C.
Dr Smith’s writings show his appreciation of the apetalum (6.35%). The coumarin-containing gum
unique character of the Australian flora: was described as having ‘a powerful odour’ and was
of interest as a potential source of this compound:
‘Observations are going forward to see if the Coumarin
When a botanist first enters on the investigation of so
contained in the tree is sufficiently abundant to make
remote a country as New Holland, he finds himself as
it were in a new world. He can scarcely meet with any
it valuable to the manufacturer of fine chemicals’.
certain fixed points from whence to draw his analogies; Coumarin was formerly used as a flavouring additive
and even those that appear most promising, are frequently in products such as tobacco and vanilla, although
in danger of misleading, instead of informing him. Whole this use has been discontinued. It can be extracted
tribes of plants, which at first sight seem familiar to his from numerous sources and has a distinctive aroma
acquaintance, as occupying links in Nature’s chain, resembling Tonka beans or new-mown hay. Coumarin
on which he has been accustomed to depend, prove, also has toxic potential. In particular, individuals
on a nearer examination, total strangers, with other sensitive to coumarin can develop a reversible form of
configurations, other economy, and other qualities; not liver damage – although small amounts (2mg per kg)
only all the species that present themselves are new, are not deemed problematic.
but most of the genera and even natural orders. The
Coumarin can be found in diverse plants of
plant before us justifies the above remarks. Its botanical
characters are so new, we can scarcely tell to what tribes
culinary interest – among them are cinnamon,
it is allied; and although, from the peculiar felicity of the liquorice, strawberries, apricots and cherries. While
Linnean sexual system, founded on parts which every there is rarely a problem with the normal levels in
plant must have, we are at no loss to find its class and foods, some concerns have been raised with regard
order in that which is an artificial system, we still scarcely to the use of Cinnamon cassia as a spice, but not C.
know what genera are its natural allies. zeylanicum. For instance, an analysis of some types
of cinnamon-containing biscuits has shown they
The resins from this genus had some unique contained levels of coumarin that were considered
characteristics, about which Maiden remarked: to be too high for safe consumption (Abraham
‘Ceratopetalum gums form a remarkable group, 2010). While the source of powdered cinnamon is
and at present I do not know of any other precisely indistinguishable, Cinnamon sticks do have different
similar gums’. In a review entitled Pitman’s Common characteristics. Ceylon Cinnamon (C. zeylanicum) is
Commodities and Industries. Gums and Resins, their composed of thin layers of rolled bark, while Cassia
occurrence, properties and uses, Ernest J. Parry provided Cinnamon (C. cassia) bark is characteristically thicker.
an in-depth analysis of the product: The latter has been utilised extensively in Chinese
medicine, albeit not in large doses.
These gums resemble cherry gum, and to a small The kinoid character of the Ceratopetalum
extent gum tragacanth. The gums of Ceropetalum8 [sic]
gummiferum, the ‘Christmas Bush’ of New South Wales 8 The genus name Ceratopetalum was misspelled in this text.
The first parcel of C. gummiferum gum I received was in

small tears of a beautiful ruby colour, perfectly transparent
and having a bright fracture. It is powerfully astringent to
the taste, sticks to the teeth, and obviously contains a large
proportion of gummy matter. This sample was removed
from the cut ends of a log, from which it exuded in small
drops and in thin pieces which dried very quickly. The
tree was 6 to 9 inches in diameter. It seems, as far as our
experience goes at present, that ring-barking or wounding
the tree, or even cutting it down merely, is of little avail to
obtain the gum; the tree must be cut into logs or pieces,
Cinnamon bark sticks for culinary use. so that the timber is open at both ends, before the gum will
exude in any quantity. It remains to be seen whether the
gums imparted an
gum exudes most freely in the summer … I have received
astringent quality to a cake of the substance obtained by draining the ends
them – which Maiden of a severed log on to a plate. When first received it was
compared to the exceedingly tough; but on exposure to the air for two or
Eucalypt kino: three months, it fractured without difficulty between the
fingers. The fractures are quite bright. It has no odour. To
They are much of the cold water it imparts a dark, rich orange-brown colour;
colour and texture of at the same time, the insoluble portion forms a bulky
ruby kinos, but unlike
gelatinous mass.
those substances, swell
up and only partially
dissolve. They may The residue, boiled with water, converted it into an
be described either as
equal weight of tannic acid – a process that yielded
kinos or as kinoid gums.
40–50 per cent tannic acid.
All the definitions of
Cinnamon Cassia bark kino with which I am The finding of coumarin (benzopyrone) in
acquainted allude to the Ceratopetalum apetalum resin was of interest, because
tannic acid contained in them, and make no allusion to any this aromatic com-pound had popular commercial uses
gummy constituents. All the gum of kinos of Eucalyptus as a flavouring and fragrance. Some years ago a review of
known to me is readily soluble in water and in arabin;10 coumarins as natural products by T.R. Seshadri, President
but in the case of Ceratopetalum, the gum is present in the of the National Institute of Science of India, provided
form of metarabin. Whether that circumstance is sufficient comprehensive details of its value:
to remove them from the kinos is a matter of opinion; in
Coumarin is one of the most important aromatic
any case they form a connecting link between the kinos and
compounds, and its annual production is very large. It is used
metarabic gums. If they be looked upon as kinos, I believe
extensively in perfumery because of its characteristic pleasant
the present is the first instance in which such substances have
odour and to a greater extent for flavouring purposes, e.g.
been recorded from the Saxifrageae [now Cunoniaceae].
artificial vanilla compositions. Large quantities of coumarin
Maiden considered that the presence of coumarin are consumed by the bakery industry to impart a pleasant
in Ceratopetalum apetalum sharply separated the two and palatable vanilla-butter note to cakes and biscuits. The
gums. There were a couple of additional distinguishing beverage industry is another user of coumarin and many soap
characteristics: ‘The following difference also appears perfume formulae contain a small percentage of coumarin;
to be constant. The ash of C. gummiferum is quite it is also added to smoking tobacco in order to impart a
white, while that of C. apetalum is dark brown, very pleasing aroma. More recently, coumarin is being used in
bulky, and difficult to ignite. It contains but a small ever-increasing quantities as a neutralizer of disagreeable
percentage of iron, but manganese is abundant.’ odours of many industrial products such as rubber and
An eloquent and meticulous description of the plastic materials, as well as household articles such as curtains
and aprons and even in paints and sprays. Coumarin also
gum followed:
possesses several useful physiological properties; it has
10 Arabin is found in gum arabic, which is made up of the potassium and
calcium salts of arabin. antifungal action and controls seed germination and root
growth (Seshadri 1968).
Coumarin concerns used. Experiments designed to find toxic side-effects

During the 1960s concerns developed regarding usually employ isolated principles that are given in
potential liver and kidney damage, as well as quite large doses, far in excess of those naturally
carcinogenic properties, led to severe restrictions encountered. The results cannot be directly applied
on coumarin’s dietary use. In addition, reservations to the total chemical complex found in a plant.
were expressed about its involvement in abnormal The picture became even more complicated by the
bleeding problems due to its anticoagulant spectre of the perceived haemorrhagic tendency
properties. There were also potential disadvantages of coumarin. However, this only resulted from
that could be associated with coumarin–drug the chemical changes that occurred during the
interactions. These reservations were based on fermentation process. Later studies determined
experimental evidence in animals and the discovery that coumarin had a very low bioavailability in
of a related anticoagulant compound, dicoumarol, humans. It was rapidly absorbed, metabolised and
which was originally isolated as a constituent of excreted from the body – there was, therefore, little
fermenting hay. It was formed by the microbial chance of hepatotoxic effects in individuals with
action of coumarin in the fermentation process. normal liver function, with some people being
Dicoumarol made the hay a serious danger to able to tolerate quite high levels. The explanation
animals that fed on it due to its haemorrhagic of its toxic potential lay in the fact that there is a
potential. Pioneering work was undertaken by Karl small percentage of the population that can have
Paul Link and colleagues in the 1930s (see Link increased sensitivity due to an inherent difference in
1959) as Dr Seshadri explained: the metabolism of coumarin, and this could result
in reversible liver dysfunction (Abraham 2010;
They studied the cause of the haemorrhagic disease Felter 2006; Evans 2002; Robbers 1996; Weiss
of cows that had been fed on spoilt clover. The toxic 1988; Marles 1987).
substance was isolated and named dicoumarol. It was Ultimately, these discoveries opened up an
extraordinary that clover hay which normally contains entirely new era in anticoagulant therapy. Synthetic
coumarin had developed the new compound under coumarin derivatives (e.g. cloricromene) have
improper conditions of storage when the clover got
shown anti-thrombotic, anti-platelet, vasodilatory,
spoiled … The interesting result is that this toxic
compound has turned out to be a very useful drug; it
antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
functions as anticoagulant and is thus used. A large Coumarin was found clinically useful in the
amount of research has been done to prepare derivative treatment of lymphoedema (oedematous swelling
with better properties … By a deviation in the synthesis of lymphatic tissues) such as that which occurs
can be prepared a useful rodenticide which goes by the with elephantiasis, or arm-swelling following
name warfarin (Seshadri 1986). mastectomy. It is a slow, long-term treatment with
established efficacy in these conditions.
From these origins dicoumarol derivatives with a
There are a number of other coumarin-
delayed anticoagulant effect have been developed.
containing herbs that have provided useful
They were valuable for treating conditions such as
clinical drugs. In particular, investigations of the
venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism.
furanocoumarins found in many of the Apiaceae
The story of these discoveries provides an
have inspired products for fungal infections and
interesting example of how experimental results
skin disorders – notably, the development of a
may not provide the entire picture with regard to
drug from xanthotoxin (methoxsalen) from the
the pharmacological effects of a plant. Certainly, the
Egyptian herb Ammi majus led to treatments for
results of in vitro (‘test tube’) and in vivo (animal)
severe psoriasis, and for skin repigmentation in the
studies should always be properly balanced with
disease vitiligo (Hoult & Paya 1996; Robbers 1996;
practical information regarding the clinical effects
Seshadri 1968). Later investigations were to discover
of a herb. The effect of coumarin in animal studies
that coumarin could have other pharmacological
was found to vary, depending on the animal species
attributes of value that included cancer-preventative,
immunostimulant and anti-inflammatory activity.

For instance, a study of the potential anticancer Melilot
attributes of Tonka beans (Dipteryx odorata) Since the discovery of the original coumarin, around
isolated number of active compounds, of which 1800 different types of coumarin have been isolated.
isoliquiritigenin had inhibitory effects against Coumarin-containing plants include Sweet Venal
breast cancer cells (Jang 2003). In addition, recent Grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), Sweet Clover
attention has focused on the development of drugs (Melilotus albus), Sweet-scented Bedstraw (Galium
with antibacterial, anticoagulant and antileukaemic triflorum) and Red Clover (Trifolium pratense). In
activity (Subramanian 2010). particular, Melilot (Melilotus officinalis) can yield the
anticoagulant bishydroxycoumarin (dicoumarol).
However, unless the fermented product is produced,
the plant does not have anticoagulant actions –
and it was not utilised in this manner as a herbal
remedy. This confusion, somewhat unfairly, saw
Melilot fall from favour in herbal medicine while,
at the same time, the medical profession was
actively experimenting with the use of coumarin
as a drug. Melilot was traditionally used to treat
venous circulatory disorders (varicose veins,
haemorrhoids, leg cramping) and as a carminative
for digestive problems from the time of Galen. It was
applied locally to ease swollen joints (arthritis) and
inflammatory tumours and skin ulcers. John Gerard
Tonka beans (Courtesy: Fred Benenson, Wikimedia mentioned that the juice was recommended to ‘clear
Commons Project)
the eyesight’ (for eye inflammation), treat ‘paine of
the ears’ (probably ear infections) and ‘paine of the
Tonka or Tonkin beans originate from the South head’ – which suggests potential antibacterial, anti-
American Dipteryx genus: normally D. odorata (syn. inflammatory and analgesic properties. Once sourced
Coumarouna odorata), although D. oppositifolia is from the partly-cured leaves and flowering tops of
also utilised (Evans 2002). Tonka beans were reputed Melilot, dicoumarol is now produced synthetically
to have anticoagulant, cardiotonic, carminative, (Wren 1988; Grieve 1931).
stomachic, diaphoretic, febrifugal, narcotic and
stimulant properties. Tonka beans, which have been
sometimes used as an adulterant for vanilla extracts,
are the most concentrated source of coumarin (35,000
ppm) – which is extraordinarily high, considering that
a dietary level of 2,500 ppm was formerly suspected
of having potential hepatotoxic activity. Lower
levels of coumarin have been found in many herbs,
some of which are used medicinally: Peru Balsam
seed (Myroxylon balsamum, 4,000ppm), Jujube leaf
(Zizyphus jujuba, 3,000ppm), Corn leaf (Zea mays
2,000ppm), English Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia
1,500ppm), Spike Lavender (Lavandula latifolia
22ppm) (Duke 2010).
Melilot (Melilot officinalis).
Unfortunately the tree quickly suffered from its

popularity with the public. Bennett witnessed the
early development of a local conservation crisis:
It formerly grew in the vicinity of Sydney in abundance;

but owing to persons, at Christmas, cutting down entire
trees, the owners of the land stopped the destruction by
enclosing and carefully tending those remaining; they
thus succeeded in preserving this handsome tree, and it
is growing plentifully at the present time in the grounds
about Darling Point and the Lower South-Head roads.
I have never seen it in any other part of the vicinity of
Sydney. In every instance in which an attempt has been
made to remove it, the tree has perished; nor have seeds
succeeded, except such as have been self-sown. It is, in my
opinion, some peculiarity of soil which confines it to a
Ceratopetalum gummiferum, New South Wales Christmas particular locality’ (Bennett 1860).
Bush. Joseph Maiden’s description of the small, dainty white
flowers is as appropriate today as when it was penned. ‘[They
are] not particularly conspicuous. What are usually known Fortunately the native Christmas Tree was actually
as the “flowers” are the enlarged calyces which heighten in more widespread along the New South Wales coast
colour to a more or less deep scarlet.’ The name ‘officer-
plant’ was used for the tree because the red was said to than he had observed. Since then the tree has spread
resemble the colour of their jackets – but, said Maiden, ‘an widely in cultivation, being propagated from seed
officer’s tunic is of a very different colour’ (Maiden 1890). (with the calyx intact) and from cuttings.
(Courtesy: Brian Walters, ANPS) The Coachwood (Ceratopetalum apetalum) was
equally valued, albeit for entirely different reasons. The
From the first days of the Australian colony the timber was named for its cabinet-making qualities,
native Christmas Tree was a sought after ornamental. and Maiden noted: ‘Its value as a coach-builder’s
Dr George Bennett mentioned: timber is sufficiently great to be insisted upon’. Some
considered it to be ‘the grandest Australian timber
That elegant tree [Ceratopetalum gummiferum], named for coach-building’. The only drawback was that it
Christmas tree, Officer-tree and Lightwood by the could only be used in clean, dry situations because
colonists is preserved on all the grounds where it is found it had a liability to rot when exposed to damp, and
growing wild. It is used, like the Holly in England, as therefore was not suitable for exposed situations such
a decoration at Christmas – although the red colour
as the undercarriage of a coach. Maiden produced a
imparts a warm tint in the sultry climate of Australia
at that season of year. In November it is covered with
rather interesting list of the many uses to which the
minute white blossoms, which in the following month Coachwood was suited: ‘it would be far more used
(about Christmas-day) assume a red colour, as if the than it is were it not for the frequently inaccessible
flowers had changed suddenly from white to red: most gullies in which much of the best timber is found. It
persons consider this appropriate to the time of year, and is tough and is used for tool handles and for boat and
as ushering in the festive season. The change of colour is coach building. It possesses a faint but pleasant odour.
caused by the disappearance of the white flowers, while It is said to be peculiarly well adapted for sounding
the persistent calyces remain, thus imparting to the tree boards, for musical instruments, for stethoscopes, and
the beautiful red colour, which lasts until February. This such purposes. Its uses in that direction have, however,
pretty tree has not yet been introduced into England. It is been little more than tentative.’
of elegant growth, generally straight, with a profusion of
delicate branches, attaining the height of 15 to 30 [feet],
and a circumference of 2 feet (Bennett 1860).
Beefwood and Grevillea resins
The Silver Beefwood or Silver Oak (Grevillea parallela) is

a small tree with a very similar distribution in northern
Australia to that of the Beefwood. It would be easy to
confuse these trees, although the foliage of G. parallela has a
Beefwood (Grevillea striata). Flowers of Grevillea striata. more slender, silvery character and the flowers are somewhat
larger and more showy. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native
Beefwood (Grevillea striata), coastal Queensland, Aust- Plants of Queensland, Vol. 1)
ralia. Beefwood is found in all Australian states apart
mixed with kangaroo dung, although it was regarded
from Victoria and Tasmania. There are a number
as an inferior quality substitute for ‘spinifex resin’.10 In
of common names for this species, such as Western
the arid regions of Australia the latter was primarily
Beefwood, Beef Oak, Beef Silky Oak and Silvery
sourced from species of Triodia, although some species
Honeysuckle.
of Acacia could be used as an alternative (Latz 1996).
The Beefwood (Grevillea striata) was the source of
In the North Queensland Ethnography Bulletin, No.
another kino-like exudation with medicinal attributes.
5, 1903, Walter Roth wrote of the use of Grevillea
This is a very widespread species that ranges from
striata resin:
the Queensland coast throughout the interior of the
continent (New South Wales and central Australia) to The cement is obtained from the roots of young trees only,
outback Western Australia. The dark reddish water- that from the older ones not being removable. Convenient
soluble resin was used for making ointments and lengths, from 10 to 12 inches, having been cut away from
plasters. It could also be utilised as a wash, or the the underground saplings, they are heated over a fire, and
powder applied locally to facilitate the healing of sores their outer sticky bark scraped off with a sharp-edged
and burns. The leaf decoction was likewise employed stone. These little scraped-off chips are now tied up in
as a medicinal wash. A charcoal prepared from the a sheet of tea-tree bark, the bundle being next baked for
burnt wood was a useful styptic that was applied some ten minutes or so, when it is opened and the sticky
locally to stop the bleeding from spear wounds (Latz bits removed and pressed together with the fingers and
hands to render them sufficiently intercoherent. The
1996; Roth 1903; Maiden 1889). An ash made from
mass so formed is then ready to be pounded between
the bark of the Honey Grevillea (Grevillea juncifolia) two stones, which, as in the case of the Erythrophloeum
has been similarly used to promote the healing of [sic],11 are at Cape Bedford, Cooktown, &c., greased with
wounds, skin sores and various other skin problems the Calophyllum nut. After the hammering, the mass is
(Latz 1996). One study has shown that extracts of
Honey Grevillea leaves and flowers, as well as an 10 This term does not refer to the genus Spinifex, which is a grass (family
Poaceae).
extract of Grevillea robusta flowers, have antibacterial 11 Erythrophleum (as the genus is now spelled) chlorostachys is the Cooktown
activity against Bacillus cereus (Cock 2008). Ironwood. The tree has toxic properties, probably due to alkaloids, and has
Grevillea striata yields a water-soluble resin that been responsible for incidents of poisoning in man and animals (native
wildlife and livestock). A black tarry gum has been extracted from the roots,
could even be made into a form of cement when which has been used as a type of glue.
stuck on to any convenient stick, whereby it is held over

a fire; it is again hammered and heated, and so on for
some considerable time until the required consistency is
obtained. The consensus of opinion among the natives
is that it is the strongest and most durable of all their
cements. I have seen it employed along the same areas
as the Erythrophloeum [sic] at Cooktown, however, it is
getting very scarce now, all the trees in the close vicinity
having been destroyed.
A number of Grevillea species have antibacterial

attributes that tend to support any of the Aboriginal
uses of the genus. An early study of Grevillea dallaceana
(flowers) and G. bipinnatifida (leaves) showed these
species had antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus
aureus (Atkinson 1949). However, there appears to
be a paucity of further research information on the
subject.
The traditional use of these Grevilleas indicates
that other species could have similar potential. On
Cape York a bitter infusion prepared from the leaves
of Grevillea coriacae has been utilised as a gargle for Scabies mite (Sarcoptes scabei). Scabies, which is a highly
a sore throat (Kyriazis nd). An infusion prepared infectious parasitic skin condition, is also known by the
wonderful term ‘sarcoptic mange’. It may be simply referred
from the chopped inner bark of the Rock Grevillea, to as ‘the itch’, due to the intense itching (pruritis) this
Grevillea heliosperma (sometimes a few leaves were parasite causes as it burrows into the skin. Individuals with
added) was applied locally as an antiseptic wash for compromised immune function are more susceptible to the
skin problems – for example scabies, infected cuts or infection. (Image courtesy: Dr Karsten Riedel, Wikimedia
boils, and ulcerating sores. A leaf and bark infusion Commons Project)
was similarly utilised as a wash for sores, or as a bath (Isaacs 1994). In Papua New Guinea, the young
for general problems. This species, which yields edible leaves of Grevillea papuana were likewise employed
seeds, also provided useful firewood (Barr 1993). In – fire-heated and placed over wounds. The leaves of
addition, the fruit was used as a toothache remedy an unidentified PNG Highland species have been
used similarly to treat tropical ulcers (Holdsworth &
Giheno 1975). A more unusual recommendation was
associated with the use of the Caustic Tree, Grevillea
pyramidalis, by Aboriginal tribes in Western Australia.
In Broome a paste was prepared from the green inner
bark ground with some water.12 This was rubbed on a
woman’s breasts to act as a lactagogue (to induce milk
production). It could also be applied to sores (Lindsay
2001; Brock 1993; Webb 1969). The bark, mashed
and soaked in water ‘to produce a thick white liquid
like condensed milk’, was also used specifically as a
remedy for ear disorders: ‘It was poured into the ears
to clean them out, restore hearing and cure ear ache’
The Fuchsia Grevillea (Grevillea bipinnatifida) is a shrub that (Webb 1969).
is endemic to Western Australia. (Courtesy: Melburnian,
12 The species utilised appears to have been Grevillea pyramidalis subsp.
Wikimedia Commons Project) leucadendron (syn. G. leucadendron).
Grevillea hazards showing clearly its properties. The discoloration of the

skin was like the effects of nitrate of silver.
There are a few Grevillea shrubs that can be responsible
for decidedly uncomfortable physical reactions. Some
species simply caused discomfort when bushwalking The silver nitrate referred to above has potent
such as encounters with the prickly-leaved Grevillea disinfectant, antimicrobial and corrosive properties
angulata. Other species contain an irritant exudative – depending on the concentration of the compound
sap that could have serious detrimental effects. Ludwig utilised.
Leichhardt recorded one of the first encounters with Grevillea’s caustic properties have been deliberately
this problem: used by Aboriginal people for scarification purposes.
The employment of the sap (a shiny, sticky substance)
By a mere accident, we discovered a remarkable medicinal to induce scarring of the skin was observed by Dr
property of the glutinous secretion of the seed-vessels of E. Mjoberg, the leader of the Swedish Scientific
a drooping Grevillea [probably G. mimosoides13]. John Expedition of 1910–11 to north-west Australia. He
Murphy, having no pockets in his trowsers, put the
informed Joseph Maiden that: ‘the sap of two species
of Grevillea is used by the natives to scarify their
bodies, forming the scars they deem to be ornamental’
(Maiden 1902). An exudate from the follicles and
stems of the Willings Tree (Grevillea dimidiata) was
used similarly in the Northern Territory to burn
tribal markings into the skin. However, caution was
needed due to the extremely painful blistering that
resulted. In the bush, even brushing against the leaves
of this tree can cause skin irritation (Wightman
1992; Smith 1993). The fruit exudate of the West
Australian Caustic Tree (Grevillea pyramidalis) had an
equally ferocious irritant effect that was reported to
even ‘take the skin off’ – hence the common name
‘Blister Bush’. The sap could cause a severe skin rash
merely through contact. The explanation of the rather
drastic effects of these plants lies in the fact that
Grevillea mimosoides has a reputation for irritating the skin. some Grevillea species contain vesicatory substances
(Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native Plants of Queensland, Vol. 1)
(resorcinols) that are related to the toxic compounds
found in Poison Ivy (Toxicodendron radicans, syn. Rhus
seeds which he found ... into his bosom, close to the toxicodendron).14 Thus it is not very surprising to find
skin, where he had already deposited a great number of that some individuals can have severe reactions to the
Sterculia, and was much inconvenienced by the starry
cut leaves, fruit exudate, or even the sawdust (Rycroft
prickles which surround the seeds. Afterwards, finding
the drooping Grevillea in fruit, he gathered some capsules
2006; Spoerke & Smolinske 1990).
and placed them as before stated. Upon arriving at the Some people are apparently more sensitive than
camp, he felt great pain; and, on examining the place, he others to these Grevillea irritants. Gardeners, tree
saw, to his greatest horror, that the whole of the skin of loppers and powerline workers have all reported allergic
the epigastric region was coloured black, and raised into reactions.15 Exposure can also exacerbate asthmatic
a great number of painful blisters. Upon his showing it to attacks (Morton 1982; Spoerke & Smolinske 1990).
me, I thought that it was caused by the Sterculia prickles 14 This tree belongs to the Anacardiaceae family, which contains the genera
having irritated the skin, and rendered it more sensitive to Anacardium (to which the Mango belongs) and Semecarpus (Marking Nut
the sharp properties of the exudation of the seed-vessels trees). Allergic reactions to these genera are not uncommon. The resin from
the Australian Marking Nut tree, Semecarpus australianum, can have quite
of Grevillea. Brown, however, merely touched the skin of severe caustic effects similar to those described above.
his arm with the matter, when blisters immediately rose; 15 The timber is well known for causing dermatitis in wood workers.
Feeding the sawdust to cattle has also resulted in skin irritation (Morton
13 Plant identification from Fensham 2006. 1982).
The Australian Silky Oak

Silky Oaks have long been valuable timber trees.
Once polished, the timber exhibits a beautiful
grain that has been sought after for panelling work
and cabinet making. Despite this, the name does
not appear (as one might expect) to have been
derived from this characteristic. Sir Joseph Hooker
mentioned: ‘From its deeply dissected foliage and
the silkiness of the underside, it has obtained the
name of “Silk Oak” among the pine-cutters of
Moreton Bay.’ Joseph Maiden gave further detail
Grevillea ‘Robyn Gordon’, a very popular cultivar that with reference to the Southern or Beef Silky Oak
has been widely planted in Australia and other countries, (Grevillea robusta): ‘When split on the quarter this
is a cross between a red-flowered form of G. banksii and timber shows a handsome oak-like grain, the prefix
G. bipinnatifida. (Courtesy: Melburnian, Wikimedia
Commons Project) “silky” being either because of the silky underside of
the leaves, or on account of the bright appearance of
An early record of this type of reaction was penned by the freshly split wood. Hooker’s statement, written
Mr Fellows, Curator of the Public Gardens, Albury, in 1832, may be the true explanation of why the
New South Wales, in the early 1900s – a case of allergy name was originally applied. On the northern rivers
to the Silky Oak: I have known it to be called “White Silky Oak” and
I have a man working here, who, whenever he has to work “Black Silky Oak”, though I have not been able to
much in the trees of Grevillea robusta, gets inflammation
clearly understand the difference.’ He mentioned
of the eyelids; have you met with a similar case, or can
that the Silky Oak was one of the few trees that
you account for it in any way? No other tree causes him
this inconvenience. I have asked our doctors about it, but exuded both a gum and a resin. The substance was
none can account for it. By working in the trees I mean exhibited in the New South Wales Court at the
in the top of the tree, lopping or thinning out branches Paris Exhibition of 1867 and Mr W. Baeuerlen,
of the older trees. The sap is the trouble. We have some of who collected samples, commented: ‘When quite
these trees in the streets in this town; the trees make good fresh and soft it is of a peculiar yellow colour, but on
growth here (cited in Maiden 1902). hardening it assumes something of a flesh or wine
colour. It has an extremely disagreeable smell … The
Species responsible for allergic reactions have included
Grevillea banksii, G. bipinnatifida and some garden
varieties, particularly G. ‘Robyn Gordon’. Allergic
reactions can be complicated by the fact that they
can be delayed some time (two or three days) and
may not respond to local treatment. In severe cases,
systemic corticosteroids are needed to moderate the
allergic response (Menz 2006; Spoerke & Smolinske
1990; Morton 1982). There are also individuals who
have a non-specific immune response. They simply do
not ‘feel well’ after working with the timber, or get
extraordinarily fatigued for no apparent reason. This
can be extremely difficult to detect because of the
diverse origins of ‘Silky Oak’ timber. The sensitivity
may therefore inexplicably occur only when working
Flowers of the Silky Oak, Grevillea robusta. (Courtesy: Kim
with the wood of one species (probably Grevillea) and & Forest Starr)
not other ‘Silky Oak’ timbers.
Grevillea robusta in flower. (Courtesy: Kim & Forest Starr)
local opinion is that there is more gum during very

rainy weather than during drier times. The country
people look upon it as a nuisance, as it sticks to the Above and left: White
horses’ manes when they rub themselves against the Oak or Briar Silky Oak
tree’ (Maiden 1902). (Musgravea heterophylla)
The name ‘Silky Oak’ has been used for a is a species that has
been harvested from the
number of Grevillea species: G. baileyana (Bailey’s Northern Queensland
Silky Oak, Findlay’s Silky Oak), G. banksii (Dwarf rainforest.
Silky Oak, Red-flowered or Red Silky Oak), G.
hilliana (Hill’s Silky Oak, White Silky Oak), G.
pteridifolia (Ferny-leaved Silky Oak, Darwin Silky
Oak). Numerous other genera contain species
that are called ‘Silky Oak’, among them Alloxylon, Neorites, Opisthiolepis,
Athertonia, Austromuelleria, Buckinghamia, Oreocallis, Orites, Placospermum, Sphalmium,
Cardwellia, Carnavonia, Darlingia, Gevuina, Helicia, Stenocarpus and Xylomelum. Many ‘Silky Oak’
Hicksbeachia, Lomatia, Macadamia, Musgravea, species are rainforest-sourced timber trees.
Elemi: Canarium resins

The genus Canarium belongs to the Burseraceae Myrrh resin
family, which contains the famous resin-yielding trees
Frankincense and Myrrh. Throughout Asia and the
Pacific Canarium species have been regarded as a useful
resin resource, notably for a product called ‘elemi’, a
substance that has been used for making medicinal
plasters and ointments, and in the manufacture
of varnish. In the past, the aromatic Manila Elemi
(Canarium luzonicum) formed the mainstay of
the international supply of Elemi resin from the
Philippines.16 The 1934 British Pharmaceutical Codex
provided the following details of its harvest: ‘The
exudation, although spontaneous, is increased by Myrrh (Commiphora spp.) and Frankincense
hacking the bark and is removed by scraping every (Boswellia spp.) are two aromatic resins of legendary
few days. When fresh, elemi occurs in the form of fame, sourced from shrubs of the dry African tropics
an opaque, soft, granular, pale yellow mass, with that belong to the Burseraceae family. They are
the consistency of honey, becoming firmer, darker classified as gum-resins due to their water-soluble gum
and more transparent on keeping. It has a fragrant, content – a characteristic that allows the oleoresin to
balsamic odour recalling that of a mixture of mace and be separated out of the mixture fairly easily. It is the
fennel. The taste is spicy and bitter.’ The resin of the fragrant oil component of the resin that has made these
Australian Elemi tree (Canarium muelleri) was found trees so valuable as sources of incense and aromatics.
to be an effective substitute. Myrrh resin contains 7–17 per cent volatile oil, 25–40
Canarium resin had diverse practical applications per cent resin, 56–61 per cent gum and 3–4 per cent
that included its use as a glue, for making torches, impurities (Evans 1989).
and as a caulking for boats. Perhaps one of the most Myrrh also has a medicinal reputation as an
innovative uses of elemi was in China – where it astringent, healing, tonic and stimulant. Traditionally
was employed extensively in making transparent Myrrh has had a wide range of applications. The
paper for windowpanes. The resin from Canarium British Pharmaceutical Codex (BPC) of 1949 stated:
benghalense, which could be mixed with bees’ wax to ‘Myrrh is slightly antiseptic, and is astringent to the
stiffen crepe, was also regarded as a good substitute mucous membranes. Internally, owing to its volatile
for shellac.197Elemi bark contains a limited amount oil, it is carminative and, during excretion, acts as
of tannin (7–8%), which could make it suitable for a mild, stimulating expectorant, diaphoretic and
use as a tanning agent for leatherwork (Burkill 1935; diuretic. Tincture of myrrh, and tincture of myrrh
Quisumbing 1951). and borax, are used as mouth-washes and gargles in
ulcerated or relaxed throat, aphthous stomatitis [gum
16 Canarium luzonicum is listed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened
inflammation] and spongy gums. The dose of myrrh
Species (2006) as vulnerable. Similar products include the African Elemi stated in the B.P. [British Pharmacopoeia] 1932
(C. schweinfurthii) and the Java Almond Tree (C. commune). The olive-like
fruits of the latter are edible and have been marketed in Malaysia. There are
was 0.3 to 1 gramme (5 to 15 grains).’ It was also
other species that produce similar fruit with varying flavours. Some contain regarded as being useful for promoting the digestive
substantial amounts of oil, i.e. C. album, C. grandiflorum, C. ovatum and
C. nitidum. Unfortunately the hard stone within the fruit has prevented oil
functions and was employed as a tonic in dyspepsia.
extraction becoming a viable commercial enterprise in many places. Myrrh was useful in treating leucorrhoea (vaginal
17 Shellac resin is secreted from the female Lac bug, Laccifer (Tachardia) discharge), amenorrhoea (lack of menses), chronic
lacca, and deposited on the bark of certain trees. It has been used as an
alkaline glaze for pills that are designed for timed release in the intestine, respiratory catarrh, and as a vermifuge (for expelling
well as for candies and bakery products. In addition, shellac has had diverse worms). Externally, Myrrh was applied locally for skin
practical uses as a glue, varnish, furniture polish, sealant and sealing wax. It
has been employed as a binder in Indian ink, for making moulded products, problems and was said to be excellent for healing ‘foul
and in dental technology – although many of these uses have been superseded and indolent’ ulceration (Grieve 1931).
by modern plastics and glues.
Turpentine oleoresin α-terpineol) for the manufacture of chemicals –

At this point it is worth mentioning the traditional uses particularly the synthetic Pine oil that is a popular
of elemi resin and turpentine – conventional medical ingredient in household cleaning products. It is a
and industrial products with which the Australian component of numerous fragrances, flavourings,
resources were being closely compared. European vitamins and insecticidal products. Additionally,
pharmacies valued elemi resin for the preparation polyterpene resins from turpentine have been used
of ointments that had rubefacient, stomachic and in adhesives, chewing gum, and for sizing paper and
sudorific (sweat-promoting) effects. Elemi had mild fabrics. The chemical components of turpentine are
stimulant and protective properties: ‘It acts in the fairly characteristic, although different grades may
same way as resinous substances generally, giving be used for specific purposes. Medicinal turpentine
protection to the skin. The ointment [Unguentum contains a high proportion of terpenes, primarily
Elemi] usually contains 20 per cent. of elemi in simple α-pinene (60–65%) and β-pinene (20–30%).
ointment’ (BPC 1934). Commercially, pinene is used in the production of
Elemi-based poultices were applied locally for the synthetic camphor (Morton 1977; Evans 1989).
relief of rheumatic pains and leg swelling. Elemi oil,
which is rich in phellandrene, can be distilled from the
resin. It had a similar reputation as an antibacterial,
expectorant, tonic, analgesic and stimulant agent. Like
many other balsamic products it was used as an inhalation
for treating respiratory disorders such as bronchitis and
coughing problems.19 In addition, the oil continues
to have a wide range of uses in the food industry as a
flavouring (in baked goods, confectionery, beverages,
alcohol, meat products, relishes, etc.). It has also been
widely utilised as a fixative and fragrance in skin and hair
care products (soap, creams, perfume, detergent).
Turpentine had a similar reputation. This
oleoresin was usually extracted from the Pinus
genus, although in the past some other genera (e.g.
Abies) within the Pine family have also been utilised.
Today its primary value is as a raw material (mainly
Turpentine (Terebinthina), from AS Blumgarten,

Textbook of Materia Medica, Pharmacology and
Therapeutics, 1939.
19 Pharmaceutical grade Pine needle oil has similar attributes: ‘[it] resembles
oil of turpentine, but has a more agreeable odour, and is employed as an
inhalant in bronchial affections. Steam-distilled from fresh leaves of Pinus
montana (Abies sibirica, Siberian Fir, Oleum Abieties, B.P.), a colourless
or faintly yellow volatile oil’ (Sollmann 1949). Pine oil, which has good
Unguentum Elemi, from Phillips’ Translation of the antiseptic properties, contains camphene, β-pinene, cadinene and borneol.
Pharmacopoeia of the Royal College of Physicians of London, After oil extraction the residual ‘pine straw’ retains an aromatic quality and
1836. has been used as a disinfectant in surgical dressings and effective maggot-
repellent bandages for wounds (Morton 1977).
addition of castor oil, internally or as an enema,

would help prevent the absorption of turpentine,
thus reducing its irritant effects. As an enema it
was effective in causing bowel evacuation and for
expelling threadworms. In relieving flatulence, half
to one teaspoonful of oil of turpentine was emulsified
with the yolk of an egg before being added to a
soapsud enema. The latter sounds rather drastic.
Eucalypt remedies were recommended as much
more pleasant, and much safer, alternatives to
turpentine-based drugs for respiratory disorders,
and for use as an antiseptic. The American herbalist
Harvey Wicks Felter (1922) made the following
Turpentine oleoresin is a transparent fluid gum that is comments regarding the use of the remedy:
found in ducts within the sapwood of the Pine tree. It
has an aromatic pungent smell and somewhat bitter taste. Eucalyptus is a fine stimulating expectorant for broncho-
Turpentine was once an important solvent for resins, waxes, pulmonary catarrhal disorders, when no very active
varnish and paint. inflammation is present. It restrains discharges, facilitates
expectoration, and deodorizes and antisepticizes the
sputum. Chronic bronchitis, bronchorrhoea, and the
The BPC of 1949 gave an in-depth appraisal of the
debility, with difficult expectoration, lingering in the
former deployment of turpentine oil. It was primarily
wake of bronchopneumonia and lobar pneumonia are
valued for its antiseptic properties: conditions in which it is of very great value. Agents of
this type, which may be compared to the turpentines, and
In sufficient concentration [it is] rapidly lethal to all which influence the respiratory membranes, usually are
forms of bacteria. Taken internally, the volatile oils excite valuable for similar uses in the urino-genital tract. Thus
a reflex flow of saliva, and cause a sensation of warmth we find eucalyptus an alterative and antipyetic in pyelitis
in the mouth and stomach. They are carminative, relieve and in catarrhal and purulent cystitis, particularly in the
colic, and assist in the expulsion of flatus. They are aged. Being eliminated by all the mucous surfaces, it
absorbed unchanged, and produce transient leucocytosis; exerts its antiseptic influence upon them in all parts of
their excretion takes place through the lungs, skin and the body. While the oil and eucalyptol are popular with
kidneys. During excretion by the bronchioles they act many, we prefer the specific medicine or the fluid extract
as expectorants, producing a more liquid mucus and for most purposes.
having a slight antiseptic action; excretion by the skin
causes some diaphoresis and may give rise to mild skin
eruptions. The most important action of certain volatile Turpentine toxicity
oils is that exerted upon the genito-urinary tract during Accidental inhalation of turpentine fumes could
excretion by the kidneys. They produce dilatation of renal be extremely hazardous. American pharmacologist
vessels and consequently diuresis, and appear in the urine Torald Sollmann (1949) mentioned that this was a
in association with glycuronic acid. They have also an well-known workplace hazard: ‘Fatal poisoning has
antiseptic action in acid, neutral or alkaline urine. been reported from inhalation of varnish in a confined
space, largely by exclusion of air. There are rapid
Small doses were used to treat bronchitis, breathing, palpitations, vertigo, stupor, convulsions
although it was preferably employed as a decongestant and other nervous disturbances; pain in the chest,
inhalation to ‘excite a more fluid secretion and relieve bronchitis and nephritis. The latter may also occur
congestion of the bronchioles, but the degree of on chronic exposure.’ Eventually the remedy was
concentration obtainable in this manner is insufficient discarded and the internal use of turpentine became
for the germicidal action to be exerted to any great extremely rare – it is now more likely to be associated
extent’ (BPC 1949). Large doses were utilised for with cases of accidental poisoning than with deliberate
their purgative and anthelmintic properties. The use. Poisoning involved a wide range of toxic effects,
to relieve the pain (BPC 1949).

A much safer option was the external use of
turpentine oil and rosin (a pine-derived resin that
minimises friction for stringed instruments and has
numerous industrial applications). These products
continue to be employed in a wide variety of ‘rubs’
with counter-irritant properties – for example, Vicks
VapoRub. Turpentine liniment was popularly known
as Kentish ointment (rosin cerate warmed and mixed
with turpentine oil). Its use stimulated the blood
flow to an area, often being used in the treatment
of joint or muscular pain. Regarding its external
use, the BPC of 1949 noted: ‘Applied to the skin,
the volatile oil produces irritation and rubefaction,
the redness being due to dilatation of the superficial
vessels’. The Martindale Extra Pharmacopoeia (1952)
provided more detail: ‘Externally it is rubefacient,
and is employed in numerous liniments for rheumatic
pain and stiffness, and a turpentine stupe consisting
of 60 to 120m. of the oil sprinkled on flannel wrung
out of hot water is used as a counter-irritant for the
relief of deep-seated abdominal pain.’ Linimentum
Eucalyptus globulus. (Courtesy: Kim & Forest Starr)
Terebinthinae and Linimentum Terebinthinae
evidenced by initial central nervous system excitement Asceticum were preparations used for easing chronic
and followed by depression. rheumatism and chest affections: ‘To relieve deep-
In some cases renal damage resulted. This was seated pain and inflammation, as in peritonitis,
a distressing side-effect of the use of sulphurated flannels are wrung out in hot water, sprinkled with
turpentine oils, as the genitourinary system oil of turpentine and applied to the area of pain. The
was particularly susceptible to tissue irritation. oil is used as an inhalation in chronic bronchitis, but
Sollmann reported: ‘Large doses, by irritation, terebene is usually preferred. It has been used, but
cause inflammation of the kidneys, bladder and with doubtful effect, to arrest minor haemorrhage
urethra, and small doses may exaggerate pre-existing from a tooth socket or from the nose.’ A preparation
inflammatory disease.’ Accidental overdoses were known as Dutch or Haarlem drops contained 15 parts
not unusual: ‘Turpentine oil is easily accessible from turpentine, 1 part sulphur and 4 parts linseed oil. It
its use in paints and varnishes and may give rise to
accidental poisoning or be taken as an abortifacient.
Half an ounce has been fatal to children, 6 ounces
to adults. The symptoms in man are those of gastro-
intestinal irritation; nausea and vomiting, colic and
diarrhoea, wild excitement and delirium, ataxia, painful
micturition, haematuria, albuminuria, glycosuria,21 skin
eruptions, coma’ (Sollmann 1949). Its use was strongly
contraindicated during pregnancy. It was unwisely used
to induce abortion in the past, and the side-effects could
result in permanent gynaecological damage. In cases of
poisoning by large doses of turpentine oil, emetics and Linimentum Terebinthinae, from British Pharmacopoeia,
demulcent drinks were recommended. Magnesium 1867.
sulphate was also taken to promote purging and opium 19 Respectively blood, protein or sugar in the urine.
was employed in doses of 0.3–2.0ml for lumbago rainforest, continues to be at risk.

and rheumatism. However, the side-effects of The fragrant oleoresin of the Australian Elemi
sulphurated turpentine oil eventually ensured its use tree (Canarium muelleri) resembles turpentine
was discontinued. in aroma. The Australian product was employed
medicinally by Aboriginal people for healing
wounds and cuts. Dr Joseph Lauterer recommended
Fragrant Canarium elemi oleoresins its use to treat ulceration and sores (Bailey 1909).
There are five species of Canarium native to Australia Despite its reputation being similar to the overseas-
and their medicinal reputation was linked to the sourced elemi resins, its chemical composition
use of a resinous product known as ‘elemi’. Costal was not identical. In a review of Australian natural
Queensland species include Canarium muelleri, which products, Professor Rennie (1926) commented:
is found from Rockhampton to Cape York. Canarium ‘The oleoresin of Canarium muelleri (Burseraceae)
australasicum ranges as far south as Brisbane and contains 26% of a lemon-scented oil consisting
northern New South Wales, while C. australianum20 chiefly of 1-α-pinene with α-terpineol, dipentene,
is more widespread in the tropics of Queensland, and 1-α-phellandrene. The residual solid resin
the Northern Territory and Western Australia, and is not unlike elemi (used in making varnishes)
which is supposed to be derived from a species
of Canarium, but which contains amorphous
substances similar to amyrin, derived from species
of Amyris.’21 Both α-terpineol and α-pinene are
antimicrobial: α-terpineol has antiseptic and
bactericidal properties, while α-pinene has shown
cancer-preventive and anti-inflammatory activity.
Australian Elemi contains other triterpenoids,
such as canaric acid, which have not been fully
investigated pharmacologically (Webb 2000;
Lassak & McCarthy 1992).
The Styptic Tree or Scrub Turpentine (Canarium
australianum) is a large rainforest tree, which can grow
to about 20 metres, often developing an impressive,
Canarium vitiense is a tropical northern Queensland species massive buttress root system. It is found primarily in
that extends to Papua New Guinea and the Pacific islands,
including Fiji. In some areas of Papua New Guinea the northern Australian coastal vine thickets or open forest.
harvest of the wild fruit has been regarded as an important The flowers are fairly inconspicuous and produce
seasonal resource. The oil-rich nut was dried, crushed and small grey-green edible fruits that are a popular repast
made into a paste to be eaten as a condiment with root crops with the Torres Strait pigeon (Ducula spilorrhoa). The
such as Taro (Colocasia esculenta var. antiquorum) and Yams soft timber’s buoyant qualities make it well suited to
(Dioscorea spp.). This suggests that similar harvests of native
rainforest Canarium species may have been undertaken by constructing canoes, and it is popular for ornamental
Aboriginal people in northern Australia. carvings. The straight branches, and the stems of
young trees, were made into long-stemmed smoking
extends to Papua New Guinea, as does C. vitiense. 20 Despite the similarity in spelling these are two different species. The
distributions of Canarium australasicum and C. australianum (of which there
Canarium acutifolium is a small rainforest tree with are three varieties) overlap only in northern Queensland.
a very restricted distribution, favouring streamside 21 Amyrin is a terpenoid compound found in the Amyris genus. Torchwood
locations between Mossman and Tully in northern or Candlewood refers to Amyris balsamifera, which is the source of an
aromatic West Indian ‘Sandalwood’ oil – not a true Sandalwood oil from
tropical Queensland. It is listed as a vulnerable species the genus Santalum. The Sea Torchwood (Amyris elemifera) is the source of
that has suffered from extensive clearing for farmlands Mexican Elemi, while Yucatan Elemi comes from Amyris plumieri. Other
species that yield Elemi include Protium heptaphyllum (Brazilian Elemi),
and housing developments. Its survival, as well as that Boswellia freriana (African Elemi or Elemi Frankincense) and Canarium
of many other rare and endemic native species in the zephyrenum (East Indian Elemi) (Parry nd).
Styptic Tree or Scrub Turpentine (Canarium aaustralianum)
pipes (Brock 1993; Yunupinu 1995; Marrfurra 1995). be melted for use as a type of cement for plugging
Scrub Turpentine gum, which sets extremely hard, can holes in didgeridoos. The Malak Malak people of
Canarium australasicum. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native Plants of Queensland, Vol. 3)

The resin of the Indian species Canarium strictum was used

in making plasters to treat chronic skin conditions, and
the oil was applied locally to ease rheumatic pain (Chopra
1956; Burkill 1935). (Courtesy: Tobias Rütten, Wikimedia
Canarium commune is the source of the Kenari nut, which Commons Project)
has been used as a cooking oil resource in Southeast Asia. australianum differed. In 1903 the Northern Protector
The oleoresin is fragrant, with an aroma that resembles
eugenol, and was once used by the Chinese for making joss of Aboriginals, Walter Roth, mentioned the medicinal
sticks. From Köhler’s Medicinal Plants, 1887, plate 171. use of Canarium australasicum at the Pennefather
River in Queensland. The bark was crumbled in water
the Northern Territory regarded the plant as having
to make a resinous milky liquid that was strained and
special spiritual healing powers (Lindsay 2001). The
drunk for gastrointestinal troubles – stomachache
bark, ground up and put in water, has been used as a
and diarrhoea. In the Northern Territory, however,
fish poison at the Mitchell River Mission in northern
the internal use of Scrub Turpentine (Canarium
Queensland (Webb 1969).
australianum) was regarded as a hazardous undertaking
The term ‘Scrub Turpentine’ refers to Canarium
and was avoided. It was also known as the Styptic Tree
muelleri, C. australasicum and C. australianum (and its
because the sappy inner bark was used to stop bleeding
three varieties: var. australianum, var. glabrum and var.
velutinum). However, the use of the term ‘Turpentine’
can be confusing as this name has been applied to
numerous other Australian trees:
• Scrub Turpentine (Rhodamnia maideniana)

• Turpentine Bush or Plant (Eremophila fraseri)
• Turpentine Bush or Caustic Tree (Grevillea
pyramidalis)
• Pale Turpentine Bush (Beyeria leschenaultii)
Chinese Olive, Canarium album. (Courtesy: judymonkey,
• Swamp Turpentine (Lopostemon suaveolens)
flickr.com)
• Brush Turpentine (Choriocarpia leptopetala,
formerly Syncarpia leptopetala)
• Turpentine Mulga (Acacia cibaria and A.
brachystachya)
• Turpentine (Acacia monticola)
• Red Turpentine (Syncarpia glomulifera)
• Hill’s Turpentine (Syncarpia hillii).
Despite their very similar names, records of the

medicinal use of Canarium australasicum and C.
– although its use was limited to small cuts. It was not as a astringent, stimulant, stomachic and tonic for the
applied to large wounds due to its toxicity, although treatment of eruptions, flux (diarrhoea), and herpes
Aboriginal women on Groote Eylandt (Northern infections. It was also regarded as having nutritive and
Territory) have used it to stop uterine bleeding. The sedative properties (Lou 1987; Duke & Ayensu 1986;
remedy appears to have been known only to this tribe. Perry & Metzger 1981).
A single crushed fruit was infused in a small amount There is other therapeutic potential for the genus.
of water. The softened pulp was then put on the end Investigations of Chinese Olive (Canarium album)
of thin twig, which was used as applicator to insert extracts have shown liver-protective actions. The
the pulp into the uterus. The residual mixture, which plant is tannin-rich, with leaf, stem bark and twigs
was regarded as poisonous, was discarded. Its use having substantial antioxidant properties. This
was quickly abandoned when alternative medicines would appear to be linked with the antioxidant and
became available (Levitt 1981). hepatoprotective activity of plant extracts containing
The quality and availability of Canarium oleoresins triterpenes and ellagic acid. Indian investigations
can vary considerably. Many species in Southeast Asia have isolated a biflavonoid (agathisflavone) from
were not of commercial importance, although some Canarium manii with liver-protective activity
were employed by village healers. Their use was similar, (Zhang & Lin 2008; Anand 1992; Ito 1990;
in many ways, to the official recommendations. In Tamai 1989). The leaves of the Southeast Asian
Malaysia Canarium resins were incorporated into Canarium vulgare have demonstrated experimental
ointments designed to facilitate wound healing. antibacterial activity. This species has been used as
Canarium commune resin was used in India for a remedy for headache and sinus congestion (Duke
treating indolent ulcers, while in Cambodia the tuber & Ayensu 1986; Perry & Metzger 1981).
was considered to have bechic (cough-relieving),
diaphoretic and styptic properties. In India the leaves Resin from tropical Garuga
and bark of Canarium benghalense were regarded as
being useful for the relief of rheumatic swelling. In
Kelantan, one unnamed species was used for treating
yaws – the leaves and bark were burnt and the diseased
foot enveloped in smoke (Burkill 1985; Chopra 1956;
Quisumbing 1951; Burkill 1935). The dried Galip
Nut (Canarium indicum) of Papua New Guinea had a
more unusual reputation. It was smoked and ground
with cooked Taro oil to be taken as a contraceptive
remedy by inducing sterility (Holdsworth 1984).
There is one other interesting species that gained
official therapeutic recognition in Chinese medicine.
The dried fruits of the Chinese Olive or Kenari-Nut
Tree (Canarium album) were specifically used for
treating feverish disorders – to replenish fluids, relieve Garuga floribunda. (Courtesy: Firitia-Tonga, Wikimedia
thirst, and soothe a sore, swollen throat. The fruit, Commons Project)
which has astringent actions, was also recommended as
a stomachic and anti-diarrhoeal agent. In addition, it The genus Garuga, which belongs to the
was useful for treating earache and alcohol poisoning, Burseraceae family, has only one Australian
and was used as an antidote to fish poisoning. The representative, the small tree Garuga floribunda
powdered seed was even reputed to dissolve fishbones (and its variety floribunda), found in northern
lodged in the throat – as was the powdered seed of the Queensland around Cairns and the Cape York
Black Canarium (Canarium pimela). In addition, the Peninsula. There is also an isolated population
leaf of the Chinese Olive was similarly recommended in northern Western Australia. Its distribution
(Lassak & McCarthy 1992). It is likely that the

extends to Southeast Asia. While nothing has been
resin of related species was utilised similarly. Joseph
recorded regarding this species’ use in Australia, in
Maiden’s review of Syncarpia laurifolia provides some
Southeast Asia it gained a medicinal reputation.22
interesting details about the nature of this resin and
The tree contains a dark resinous gum, produces
its collection:
edible fruit and the leaves are suitable for use
as animal fodder and as a dye. In Indonesia If the tree be wounded, there exudes a brownish liquid
a bark infusion was given to women lying- resin. If it be desired to collect this substance in quantity,
in during pregnancy, while in the Philippines the best way is to fell the tree and to cut it into logs, which
the root decoction was utilised as a remedy for may be inclined. The resin will exude, forming a ring
tuberculosis (‘pulmonary consumption’). In between the wood and the bark, and may be scraped off
Indonesia, a sap was extracted from the bark of or drained into a suitable vessel. It belongs to the class of
a species known as Kayu juping. This was used as bodies known as ‘oleo-resins’. It has been partly examined
an ointment for treating sores that resulted from by Professor E.H. Rennie, of Adelaide, who obtained an
contact with irritating insect hairs. It was said to acid from it by boiling with potash, which is not cinnamic
acid, but other duties have prevented the completion
‘dry out’ the infection and reduce the swelling,
of the research. It is stated that the native bees use the
which suggests that the remedy had astringent
oleo-resin for the purpose of varnishing the interior of
and antibacterial attributes. This could be due cavities in the trees before starting to build their nests.
to a tannin component. In Burma the juice of It is a substance of special interest for its own sake, apart
Garuga pinnata has been employed as a remedy from the fact that it is one of the few exudations from our
for asthma, while in other places the bark was Australian Myrtaceae that are not kinos (Maiden 1902).
mixed with honey and used similarly (Leaman
1991; Perry & Metzger 1981). Garuga floribunda
timber, although not particularly durable, is The detailed chemistry of this resin remains unknown.
reasonably strong and easily carved. The wood However, the fact that myrtaceous resins are rich in
has been used for general construction purposes phenolic compounds, which often have antimicrobial
(framework, posts, flooring), bridge building, properties, would suggest that they are likely to be
carpentry and cabinet making (carvings, turnery, present in this species (Lassak & McCarthy 1992).
toys, novelties), housing timber (interior trim, With regard to the use of the term ‘Turpentine’ for
mouldings, shelving, skirting boards). Diverse Syncarpia laurifolia, Maiden commented:
useful items such as agricultural implements,
It is an unfortunate name, as it implies inflammability,
boxes, crates, veneer and plywood have also been and turpentine is one of the most uninflammable
sourced from it (Sunarti 1998). of timbers. In some districts the fresh red-coloured
turpentine is called ‘red turpentine’ to distinguish it from
Syncarpia turpentine the chocolate or dark-brown coloured wood, known as
A few other Australian ‘Turpentine’ trees have been ‘black turpentine’. They are the same timber, the latter
used as minor resin resources, including a couple of is either over-matured, or suffering from incipient decay.
species of Syncarpia – the Red Turpentine (Syncarpia In the Gosford district the name ‘silky turpentine’ is
applied by timber getters to turpentines in which the
glomulifera) and Hill’s Turpentine (S. hillii).23 The
bark is thinner and stringy, and the wood comparatively
resin of the latter, a species that is found on Fraser
light in colour when freshly cut. Turpentine timber has
Island, was used for treating sores and chronic ulcers scarcely any odour, but I have known of perfectly well-
22 This species has a rather wide distribution in Oceania and Southeast Asia. authenticated instances in which men, insisting that
It ranges from tropical Australia and the Pacific islands (Vanuatu, Samoa turpentine timber is so-called because of an odour of
and Tonga), to the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and
Malaysia. Although it is rare in peninsular Malaysia and Borneo, it is found turpentine, were obliged by accommodating timber
in the Himalayas, Bangladesh, south-western China and Hainan. getters who sprinkled their logs with turpentine prior to
23 The Syncarpia genus contains three species (and a number of subspecies), inspection’ (Maiden 1895).
the third being S. verecunda. Syncarpia laurifolia is now listed under S.
glomulifera, while Syncarpia subargentea is now Choriocarpia subargentea. The
Brush Turpentine, Choriocarpia leptopetala, was formerly known as Syncarpia He considered that Turpentine was one of the best marine
leptopetala. Syncarpia glomulifera is listed as a weed in Hawaii.
timbers on the eastern Australian coast. Indeed, the fame

of the timber was such that Syncarpia glomulifera was

It is really no great surprise that so little is known
introduced as a timber and ornamental tree to California
about Australia’s natural resources. More than four
before 1870. It continues to be used for hardwood
decades ago, Professor Norman Farnsworth and his
flooring. The fact that the timber did not rot easily in
colleague Ralph Morris, writing on Higher Plants:
water saw it used for making poles and saltwater pilings.
The Sleeping Giant of Drug Development (1976),
Hill’s Turpentine (Syncarpia hillii) also gained some
made some enlightening observations on the quality
fame for being resistant to both white ants and marine
of the research associated with the search for plant-
borers; it was used in the construction of the Suez Canal
based medicines. They recounted a number of cases
(Ingrouille & Eddie 2006).
where drug companies evaluating botanical resources
ran across some interesting obstacles. In one instance,
Syncarpia essential oil a two-year collaboration between a botanist and
Investigations of the Turpentine (Syncarpia) leaf
essential oils have shown that α-pinene (30–50%) was chemist examined more than 100 plants. However,
the major compound present in oils from Syncarpia the pharmacology staff became highly disenchanted
verecunda, S. glomulifera subsp glomulifera and S. with the ‘thick, black, sticky extracts that clogged up
glomulifera subsp. glabra. Aromodendrene (1–13%) their syringes, and which, for the most part, did not
and globulol (3–8%) were also present. In addition, give dramatic activity’. Despite the fact that a lot of
substantial amounts of α-thujene (11–27%) could secrecy generally surrounds chemical advances from
be found in the oil of Syncarpia glomulifera subsp. natural sources, the chemist involved was allowed to
glabra. Analysis of Syncarpia hillii oil revealed quite a publish the data simply because pharmacologists were
different chemical composition – primarily hillyl acetate not really interested in assisting with the research.
(53–80%) and hillone (6–12%), with small amounts of
The plant extracts did not give easily evaluated,
other compounds, including α-pinene (2–22%) (Brophy
demonstrable results when compared to pure chemical
1998).
compounds, and eventually the program was closed
down. Despite this, ‘an examination of the fine print
in the article revealed that indeed many of these plants
elicited remarkable pharmacological effects. It was
difficult to envision a pharmaceutical firm making
such information known to the scientific community
without following through on the isolation of the
active principles’. It appears obvious that the results,
although they were significant from one point of view,
were not the dramatic discoveries that the company
desired.
Understandably, their chemical intricacies have
not endeared herbal medicines to investigators,
yet this has also been the essence of their clinical
success – a complex character that has continued to
Syncarpia hillii. ensure the future significance of plants as sources of
(Courtesy: J. Godwin)
unique pharmaceuticals. The fact that the action of
the whole herb is frequently different from that of its
main chemical components is obviously derived from
this complexity. Such effects cannot be completely
understood unless clinical information is evaluated –
experimental data, while being of assistance, ignores
too many other variables such as digestive processing
and metabolic interactions in the body.
While there are plants with acknowledged toxicity,

these are not sought after by herbalists for clinical use,
where a more gentle, gradual and supportive action
is desired. In contrast, toxic plants were more likely
to be examined by the pharmaceutical industry with
the aim of extracting a major chemical component for
drug development. While the latter situation paves
the way for new discoveries, it has also hampered the
investigation of herbal medicines in Western society.
Indian (Ayurvedic), Chinese and other Asian
traditions developed differently, with a greater interest
in explaining and refining the use of herbal medicines,
and herbal remedies became firmly entrenched as part
The lush vegetation of the forest can provide a great diversity of their health systems. Consequently pharmaceutical
of chemical compounds, many of which remain a mystery
even today. companies, with their bias towards chemical extraction,
did not have such an exclusive and dramatic influence
on the course of medical practice. Drug companies
simply find it easier to base their business on
distinctive chemical compounds. The motivating force
for this not only involves considerations regarding the
ultimate reliability of a drug (i.e. standardisation of
an extracted chemical), but there are also important
issues of patents and profits. The lack of motivation
to support herbal medicine has often been linked
with an inability to lodge a patent for a plant – a
process that bestows exclusive commercial rights to
discoveries or developments for a specified time. In
general, herbs cannot be exploited in this manner
as they are regarded as being common communal
property. Their investigation was, for a long time,
simply ignored in the West – that was, unless a unique
active component was discovered. The investigation of
tannin-based compounds such as resins, for example,
lagged in comparison to the study of plants with
easily extractable compounds such as alkaloids, from
which a number of highly influential medical drugs
were discovered in the nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries. The story of the evaluation of polyphenolics
and the later appreciation of their immense value to
herbal therapies is a fascinating later addition to the
tale.
The complex nature of plant-derived medicines is

the mainstay of their value in herbal traditions. Their
clinical effects have been observed and utilised over
the centuries and recorded in various materia medica
– the herbal equivalents of drug instruction manuals.
Chapter 4
THE NATIVE PINES:

COPAL, DAMMAR AND SANDARAC
Conifers have an ancient lineage. They are remnants
from the age of dinosaurs, the Cretaceous and Jurassic
periods, a time when they dominated Earth’s flora.
The term gymnosperm differentiates these plants from
the antiosperms (flowering plants) that developed
after this era of evolution. The gymnosperms that
survived the transition are classified in three phyla:
the Coniferophyta, Cycadophyta, and Ginkgophyta.
The conifers, which are the most prolific, are classed
in six to eight familites, which includes Australian
representatives of the Araucariaceae and Cupressaceae.
Many conifers produce resins and oils of
commercial importance. In particular, the pines
Developing pine cones, Pinus radicans. Conifers are

gymnosperms – a word that means their seeds (ovules) are
‘naked’. This means that the seeds develop on the surface
of appendages that resemble scales or leaves on the fruiting
cones. They can also develop at the end of short stalks. This is
quite different to the seeds of flowering plants (angiosperms)
which develop within an ovary.
(species of Pinus) were traditionally valued as a resin

resource throughout the world. Understandably,
Araucaria mirabilis, ancient fossilised cone from the Jurassic against this background, the Australian ‘Pines’ attracted
period (210 mya), Patagonia, Argentina. (Courtesy: Mila immediate interest after European colonisation. The
Zinkova, Wikimedia Commons Project) search for commercial or medicinal grade products
from the native flora led to early investigations of the
Cypress Pines (Callitris species, family: Cupressaceae),
the Kauri Pines (Agathis species, family: Araucariaceae)
and the Hoop Pines (Araucaria species, family:
Araucariaceae). The resin of the Araucaria was noted
to be very similar to Pine resin. Agathis robusta and
Araucaria cunninghamii were found to yield gums of a
very similar chemical composition.
Gymnosperms can be extraordinarily long-lived.
The tree that is acknowledged as the oldest single
plant in the world is an American Bristlecone Pine
Pollen-laden pine flowers, Pinus sp. (Pinus longaeva) nicknamed ‘Methuselah’. In 1957
110
Chapter 4 THE NATIVE PINES: COPAL, DAMMAR AND SANDARAC 111
(Above and right: Lomatia tasmanica, flowers and leaves.

(Courtesy: James Wood)
core samples were taken that dated the plant at around
4789 years old. Australia’s oldest trees are the Huon Pine
(Lagarostrobos franklinii) – several specimens of which are
around 2000 years old. Remarkably, naturally growing
clones of a tree from Tasmania are thought to be over
10,500 years old. There are a few angiosperms that can also
lay claim to remarkable longevity. They include the three
very rare Mongarlowe Mallees (Eucalyptus recurva) that are
found on the southern Tablelands of New South Wales.
Two trees, found growing 40 metres apart, may even be
part of the same original tree, are are estimated to be around
13,000 years old. Even more astounding are the only known
specimens of King’s Lomatia (Lomatia tasmanica) in south-
west Tasmania. This stand of trees is believed to originate
from a single clone around 43,600 years old. The individual
trees appear to be around 300 years old.
Huon Pine, Lagarostrobos franklinii
The harvest of the Huon Pine in Tasmania, from Baker &

Lagarostrobos frank-linii and details of leaves. Smith, A Research on the Pines of Australia, 1910.
Investigations in 1955 by Nancy Atkinson and

Helen Brice determined that the essential oil of the
Huon Pine (listed under Dacrydium franklinii) had
antibacterial properties. It was particularly active
against Mycobacterium phlei as well as giving good
results against Salmonella typhi – although it was less
active against Staphylococcus aureus. Later analysis
of the essential oil of Lagarostrobos franklinii leaves
(yield 0.8–0.9%) identified α-pinene (13–36%)
and limonene (16–42%) as the main constituents –
accompanied by reasonable amounts of δ-3-carene,
and diterpenes (16-kaurene, phyllocladene and
sclarene). The wood oil was primarily composed of
methyl-eugenol (57–74%), elemicin (22–24%) and
a small amount of methyl isoeugenol (2–18%). The
Queensland fruit fly (Batrocera tryoni) is attracted to
freshly cut Huon Pine, probably due to this methyl
eugenol component (Brophy 2003).
Ancient Pines: Tales of destruction

and exploitation
The Australian Pines were to attract interest as a source
of timber of great value. This led to haphazard and The adaptive strategies of Agathis allowed them to
survive in the tropics. Their ability to utilise poor soils was
destructive harvesting wherever they were found. It extremely important. The tendency of Pines to colonise
was only the inaccessibility of the terrain where they inhospitable climates such as steep mountainous ridges,
grew that saved some species from extinction. Kauri which are unsuitable for many of the flowering trees,
Pines (Agathis) were harvested to the point of scarcity, saw the Agathis successfully exploit these environments.
the assault on these trees being two-pronged – for However, in many places even their inaccessibility was
not enough to protect them. Most of the great forests no
not only did they provide valuable timber, the resin longer exist.
they produced was equally in demand. There were a
number of practical reasons for their popularity with
the timber-getters. Kauri Pines can reach spectacular
heights within the forest, growing very tall and
straight, and yield a close-grained soft wood. These
desirable attributes were attractive to both carpenters
and cabinet-makers. The tree’s growth habit also
made it relatively easy to harvest, as it tends to grow
in thick stands on ridge sites. Here the contrast of
the foliage with the surrounding forest habitat made
them easy to spot during aerial surveys. Another habit
that enhanced their value was the fact that these pines
tend to shed unwanted side branches as they grow,
contributing to the straight character of the timber. The rare native pine Black Kauri (Agathis atropurpurea) is
found in the highland rainforests of the Atherton Tablelands,
northern Queensland.
Left & above: Leaves of another rare native pine, the

Bull Kauri (Agathis microstachya), found in the highland
rainforests of the Atherton Tablelands, northern
Queensland.
Agathis robusta pollen
cones (male) form a
spike-like cylindrical
pendent cluster, similar
in appearance to the
catkins of Willows and
Poplars. The female seed
cones are globe-shaped
(around 8–13 cm in
diameter).
Agathis robusta (Queensland Kauri or Smooth-barked Kauri) is native to eastern Queensland, where it occurs in two
localities – a northern population on the Atherton Tableland west of Cairns and a southern population on Fraser Island
and around Maryborough on the nearby coast. The northern population, which was formerly distinguished as Agathis
palmerstonii, was later found to be indistinguishable from the southern populations and is therefore no longer considered a
distinct species (Whitmore 1980).
Resins of the Araucariaceae: copal dammars were valued primarily for their varnishing
properties, they were also suitable for making
and dammar ointments and plasters for application to skin spots
Over a century ago Agathis resin was a commercially
or sores, including the serious forms of ulceration that
important product. Large quantities of Kauri copal
were associated with leprosy (Burkill 1935).
(resin), extracted from the New Zealand Kauri
(Agathis australis), were exported to Europe. This
copal, which was too soft for making oil-varnishes, The incomparable works of Rumphius
was more useful for spirit-varnishes and lacquers. It
was also employed in the manufacture of sealing wax,
linoleum, and patent leather goods. The New Zealand
resin was a naturally colourless product that darkened
with age, and it was this characteristic that made it
commercially desirable because it was similar to the
black lacquer favoured by the Japanese and Chinese
for cabinet-work. Kauri gum oil, which was marketed
in New Zealand from 1873, was another lacquer-
like resinous product obtained from the distillation
of Kauri gum and coal. Its use gave an attractive soft
brown colour to furniture. It was also considered to be
a superior ‘tar’ for preserving wood exposed to damp.
Aside from the New Zealand Kauri, copal-
producing trees were later found in Southeast Asia Bark and leaves of Agathisdammara, native to the
and on some Pacific islands. The most familiar was Malukus and the Philippines.
the Manila copal from the Philippine species Agathis
alba (syn. A. philippinensis). Smaller amounts of copal
The genus Agathis was first described by the
were obtained from the Fijian species Agathis vitiensis,
eminent botanist George Everhard Rumpf, who
and the New Caledonian A. montana. There are three
originally categorised Agathis under a Latinised
Australian species of Agathis, the magnificent Kauri,
Malay name for the resin – Dammara. Rumpf (or
Agathis robusta (syn. A. palmerstonii), and the rare
Rumphius, as he became known) was famous for
species A. microstachya and A. atropurpurea.
the establishment of a herbarium of unique plants
The close resemblance of Agathis resin to the
on Amboina Island in the late 1600s. He was the
Southeast Asian ‘dammar’ originally saw Agathis
first European to botanically describe a remarkable
placed in the genus Dammara. As a resin classification,
array of new tropical species. This classification
that of dammar was fairly broad. Henry Burkill, in
covered around twelve hundred plants from
the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula (1935),
the fabled Spice Islands (the Maluku Islands,
provides a useful insight: ‘The non-fragrant resins,
Indonesia). The collation of his work in the six-
such being the dammars, were not carried in trade
volume Herbarium Amboinense was a remarkable
extensively until the plant and varnish industries
feat that was beset by almost insurmountable
arose, which was late in time, and slowly. Their
difficulties. His studies of the flora of Amboina
chemical complexity and great variability defied any
(Ambon) began in 1657, when he was working for
exact classification; but varnish-makers worked out a
the Dutch East Indies Company. He eventually
classification dividing them first into (i) copals, and
undertook full-time study of the subject under the
(ii) the rest, or spirit-varnish resins; the copals (from
Company’s patronage. In 1670, when Rumphius
Africa and America) giving, on drying, a harder, more
went blind, he relied on the support of his family
desirable film than the others. A piece of copal shatters
and assistants to continue his work. In 1674
more or less when hit; this the softer spirit-varnishes
tragedy struck when his wife and child died
do not do.’ There was great variability in the harvested
after an earthquake and tsunami, and in 1687 –
product, as well as in the species utilised. While
encourage the resin flow, which eventually weakened the

with the work almost finished – the illustrations tree. Many simply died from their injuries.1 Meanwhile
were lost in a fire. Rumphius and his assistants the great forests were harvested for their timber, leaving
persevered and the manuscript was completed in only some ground resin undetected. This too, was
1690 – when he sent it to the Netherlands. In eventually mined (Burkill 1935; Jost 1989).
an almost unbelievable chain of events, the ship
never reached its destination as it was attacked 1 Later strategies have used the application of sulphuric acid to the resin
channels in the bark to facilitate the flow of resin, although this does not
and sunk by the French. Fortunately, Rumphius increase the yield. The procedure breaks down the cell walls and enlarges
had kept a second copy that ultimately arrived in the channels – but it must be done carefully to avoid irreparable damage to
the tree.
the Netherlands six years later. Another, almost
fatal, blow to his work was dealt by the East
Resin-tapping strategies
India Company, who placed a prohibition on
printing it because they considered it contained
too much sensitive information. Rumphius died
in 1702. The embargo was lifted in 1704. By then
no publisher would undertake the task. It was
finally printed in 1741 and has been considered a
masterpiece of botanical science ever since.
Over the centuries, dammar resins were an

important source of income for villagers in Indonesia
and Malaysia. Henry Burkill (1935) provided details
of its collection: ‘The resin runs into wounds. When,
for instance, high winds crack the wood in a fork resin Collecting Manila copal. (Courtesy: Tom Connelly)
collects there. It drips to the ground.’ As it dried slowly
in tree forks and hollows it acquired a soft consistency
and was easily harvested. In the late 1800s and early Manila copal (also known as almaciga) continues to
1900s the market expanded. The natural reserves of be harvested from Agathis philippinensis, and recent
this type of resin were quickly harvested, which led evaluations of resin tapping continue to mention
to the search for root-derived resin. This was of two the damage that this process inflicts on the tree.
types: a semi-solid form that was found at the base of Recommendations have been made to minimise the
the tree and around the surface roots, and an older, trauma and thereby maintain productivity. Deep-
‘fossilised’ form that had seeped into the ground and tapping, which involves cutting into the sapwood,
hardened over time. destroys the vascular cambium that allows the tree
After 1908, when their supplies became to grow and heal wounds. Over-tapping (oversized
exhausted, a ‘tree-tapping’ industry began to flourish. cuts or too many cuts) likewise impairs growth and
Unfortunately, this enterprise led to a majority of the results in the tree’s death. Frequent re-chipping of
trees being badly mishandled. Burkill described the the wounds introduces impurities into the resin,
operation: ‘Man hacks the trunk to make wounds, instead of increasing the flow rate. This yields a
cutting off strips of bark and exposing the surface lower quality product.
of the wood to bleed, either at the base of the tree It therefore makes good economic sense to look
or at intervals spaced up the trunk. It is said that the after the crop. Large, vigorous trees give higher resin
crown wounds produce better than basal ones, but yields. Resin can also be manufactured by the leaves,
the trappers in the Dutch Indies will not undertake thus trees with generous foliage in the crown are
the arduous work of climbing …’ Basal tapping, a desirable. Location may also influence the yield – as
haphazard process that seriously damaged the tree, does the trees’ genetic inheritance. All these factors
was usual – although efforts were made to prevent argue for conservation ethics and good management
this practice. The trunk was slashed and cut away to practices of the tropical forest (Ella 2003).
In Australia and New Zealand the great Kauri The Araucariaceae

forests were likewise decimated – the giant trees
were felled for timber and drained of their resin.
The best quality copal could often be found
in the ground long after the trees were dead.
Bark and dried leaves of the Hoop Pine (Araucaria

cunninghamii).
The Brazilian Pine (Araucaria brasiliensis) is the source of a
resin known as Resina de pinheiro. From Flora Brasiliensis, The Araucaria genus is
1840–1906. the only close relative
of Agathis, the Kauri
Pines. This small
classification contains
only fifteen species from
eastern Australia and the
Pacific Islands – with an
additional two species
native to the South
American west coast. In
Australia there are three
A dying Hoop Pine species: the Bunya Pine
colonised by epiphytic ferns. (Araucaria bidwillii), the
Araucaria brasiliensis. (Courtesy: lurig.altervista.com) Norfolk Island Pine (A.
heterophylla syn. A. excelsa) and the Hoop Pine (A.
cunninghamii, along with the variety A. cunninghamii
The description provided by Maiden (1909) with var. cunninghamii). The Chilean Monkey Puzzle tree
regard to the South American copal, Resina de pinheiro, (Araucaria araucana) is an introduced ornamental –
gives further insight into the character of the Araucaria although, because it can grow to a substantial size, it is
resins. He was particularly interested in its comparison not often found in suburban gardens.
with the Australian product: ‘The resin of Araucaria The story of the naming of the Pacific
brasiliana [sic] exudes from the old trees, especially if the representatives of the Araucaria genus is closely
bark has been damaged by beetles, and hardens rapidly intertwined with the early botanical exploration of
in the air. Dull white or dark brown irregular pieces, Oceania. The New Caledonian Pine or Cook Pine
varying in size from that of a bean to that of a walnut, (Araucaria columnaris, syn. A. cookii) was named in
and elongated drops. Has a faint lustre, and a smooth honour of Captain James Cook, who discovered it on
waxy fracture. Smells balsamic, somewhat turpentine- the Isle of Pines on his second voyage. The botanical
like, and tastes resinous, biting and aromatic; sticks to name of the Hoop Pine (Araucaria cunninghamii),
the teeth. Heated on platinum foil it carbonises without also known as the Moreton Bay Pine or the Richmond
melting completely, evolving an odour of incense.’ River Pine, commemorates Alan Cunningham, one of
partly hardened resin protecting the material forced up

later, and so retarded, if not prevented, the evaporation
of its volatile constituents. That this is so appears evident
from the large masses which had accumulated upon the
stumps of the trees, and by the presence of the volatile
constituents found in this exudation. Corresponding
results were also obtained under our own observation
with the exudation of a large tree of A. bidwillii growing
near Sydney.
Thereafter, the commercial exploitation of the gum

ensured that not even the tree stumps were left
unharvested. The old roots of Kauri and Hoop Pines
were scoured from the earth in the search for the
dark fossilised resin that had settled there over the
centuries.2 This was considered to be an exceptionally
valuable harvest. The once impressive forests were
turned into burnt, desolate wastelands.
Agathis robusta was another native species that
was considered to have marketable potential, with
regard to which Baker and Smith (1910) outlined the
following:
[a] turpentine-producing plant, and its commercial

exploitation in this direction is worthy of serious attention.
From our present knowledge this is the only species of
pine growing naturally in Australia from which a product,
New Caledonian or Cook Pine (Araucaria columnaris). agreeing in composition with ordinary ‘oil of turpentine,’
can be distilled in commercial quantities; and this fact,
the botanists who investigated the Australian flora in together with the excellence of its timber, to say nothing
the early 1800s. of the value of its resin,3 suggests the advisability of largely
Initially, the search for resinous material from the utilising this tree in forest cultivation, because of its economic
Australian Pines for chemical analysis was not as easy possibilities. The present policy of indiscriminate destruction
of Australian vegetation, now going on all round us, is to
as one would expect. With regard to the Hoop Pine,
be deplored, and we raise our voices in protest; while, on
Araucaria cunninghamii, a review by the chemists the other hand, we would indeed welcome a vigorous policy
Richard T. Baker and Henry G. Smith (1910) included in the opposite direction. Nature has been good to us in
the following observations: Australia in providing such a natural vegetation suitable to
the climatic and other conditions of the country, of which
Attempts were made to draw the latex from the living tree we should not be slow to take advantage for our own welfare
… Poor results were obtained in this way, although a little and profit.
gum resin had accumulated at the injured places after a
2 In New Zealand, Agathis australis was virtually harvested to extinction for
week, yet, the amount was very small during that time. its timber and the land likewise scoured for the resin that lay in the ground.
Better results, were, however, obtained by collecting the In 1905, 11,000 tons were exported. By 1924 production was in decline –
material which had accumulated upon the stumps of trees with only 7,000 tons available for the market. This ceased in the 1950s, with
an estimated total of 500,000 tons of fossilised resin extracted from the land
felled some time previously. Masses of gum-resin were (Cambie 1971). Since then there has been renewed interest in the harvest
found upon these stumps, mostly at the junction of the of resin found in peat swamps in the Northland. It can be refined to give
inner and outer bark. The material was quite fluid beneath a bituminous resin useful for the production of surface coatings, linoleum,
rubber compounding, adhesives, paper coatings and ink (Brooker 1989).
the crust which had early formed on the surface, and it
3 The volatile oil of Agathis robusta resin consisted primarily of α-pinene,
was evident that the liquid material beneath this crust had which is the main component of the oil distilled from Manila copal (Agathis
been forced up from below by root pressure, the film of alba) (Brophy 2000).
Conservation efforts came far too late for many of Resin acids
the country’s magnificent forest trees. Unfortunately, Resins can be distinguished by their resin acid
the indiscriminate wholesale wild harvest of the great component. Resin from the Araucariaceae family
pine forests that remain continues to devastate parts of contains a fairly high level of resinic acid. This can
Indonesia and Borneo. differ markedly from the resins that are harvested
Under the listing Copal in the British from other botanical sources. Caesalpiniaceae resins
Pharmaceutical Codex of 1934 the following details have an even higher content of resinic acids, while
regarding Dammara resin were provided: Dipterocarpaceae resins contain high levels of resenes.
The Burseraceae yield a soft resin with a low content of
Dammar is a generic term for a number of different resinic acids that also contain amyrins. This influences
resins, of which East Indian or Singapore dammar is the their solubility characteristics (Jost 1989):
only one that appears on the English market in quantity.
East Indian dammar is derived from species of Shorea,
Hopea and Balanocarpus (Fam. Dipterocarpaceae), which • Araucariaceae (Agathis) resin: 61% resinic acids,
are cultivated in the Eastern Archipelago. Dammar occurs 11% resenes
in nodules 3 to 6 millimetres in diameter, but sometimes • Burseraceae oleo-resin (e.g. Canarium, Myrrh,
larger; the exterior is coated with white powder, while the Frankincense): 20–25% amyrins, 13–16%
interior is pale amber on warming in the hand. It softens resinic acids, 30–35% resenes
at about 100 deg. [F], melts at about 150 deg. [F] to a • Dipterocarpaceae (Dammar) resins: 24% resinic
clear liquid and ignites with difficulty. The fracture is acids, 62% resenes
conchoidal and vitreous, and usually exhibits air bubbles
• Caesalpiniaceae resins (Copals): 85% resinic
and vegetable debris. The odour is balsamic when the
acids, 5% resenes.
resin is fresh, but afterwards imperceptible … Dammar
is sometimes known as Manila copal or mastic. Rock
dammar, obtained from Shorea species, is sometimes
imported and closely resembles the above, but may be
distinguished by its insolubility in 60 per cent aqueous
solution of chloral hydrate, in which all coniferous resins
are soluble. Kauri resin is sometimes called New Zealand
dammar. Dammar is partly soluble in cold alcohol,
moderately soluble in ether, soluble in boiling alcohol, fixed
oils, oil of turpentine and other volatile oils, chloroform,
carbon disulphide and light petroleum. Dammar consists
mainly of a mixture of resenes (about 20 per cent.) and
resin-acids, and also contains small quantities of a bitter
principle and a volatile oil. The principal use of dammar is
in the preparation of varnishes, but it is occasionally used
as a constituent of plaster masses and as a microscopical
mountant.
Agathis lanceolata is a New Caledonian species that is now
Copal, which was occasionally known as ‘Gum classified as threatened due to habitat loss.
Animi,’ was incorporated into plasters. In addition, to However resins within these classifications can
make varnish the copal was heated until the frothing differ substantially. Manila resin (from Agathis
ceased, then linseed oil was added and the mix re- dammara4) basically contains communic acid and
heated to a high temperature (260°F). This produced sandarcopimaric acid. There are two resin types
a thick liquid that was dissolved in oil of turpentine. with additional components. The first contains large
amounts of agathic acid, and some agathalic acid.
The second type is characterised by torulosic acid.
4 Agathis dammara has sometimes been listed as A. philippensis – which is
a separate species found in Malaysia, the Philippines, the Sunda Islands, Kauri resin (from Agathis robusta, A. lanceolata and A.
Borneo and the Maluku Islands. australis) also contains sandarcopimaric and agathic
acids. Kauri resin is, however, distinguished by the

diterpene communic acid (cis-communic and trans-
communic acids) and communol, which gives a very
hard character to the varnish (Jost 1989; Langenheim
2003). The practical value of Kauri resin lay in the
fact that it held its colour better than many other
varnish resins and it had a lower melting point. This
meant that it was safer and easier to handle during the
manufacturing process. During the twentieth century,
even though its application was difficult and it took
a long time to dry, this resin gained a reputation as a
premier varnish (Langenheim 2003).
Kauri gums, which Agathis robusta oleoresin, from Baker & Smith, A Research
characteristically ooze on the Pines of Australia, 1910.
through the bark, were
lighting properties that could keep fires burning even
collected off the trunk
under rainy weather conditions. In Australia, Agathis
of the tree. There were,
robusta gum was used for fire-making by Aboriginal
however, other resin
people. It could be combined with the leaves of the
types: crutch gum (which
Hairy-leaved Bolly Gum (Neolitsea dealbata) and the
collected in the forks
wood of the Kerosene Tree (Halfordia sp.) (David
of branches), candle
Warmington, Flecker Botanic Gardens, Cairns, pers.
gum (long stalactite-like
comm.). Hoop Pine gum-resin, although never very
collections) and sugar
abundant, likewise provided a useful glue. The resin
gum from the roots
was warmed with the fingers and applied as a cement
(Langenheim 2003).
(Leiper 1984).
Early evaluations of the
Agathis robusta and detail of resin of Agathis robusta
leaves. established that it was Resin samples
an oleo-gum-resin (a In the late 1800s Joseph Maiden examined the resins
mixture of oil, gum and resin). Investigations by Baker of the Hoop Pine (Araucaria cunninghamii) and the
and Smith published in 1910 identified the acids of Norfolk Island Pine (A. excelsa), describing them in
the resin component: ‘The name dundathic acid is great detail. Of Araucaria cunninghamii he wrote:
proposed for the acid of high melting point as it was
first obtained from Agathis robusta – the Dundathu The resin which exudes from this tree is very remarkable,
Pine, also present in Araucaria cunninghamii.’ It as it is transparent and nearly colourless, and that
was present in fairly low concentrations (16%). portion of it which adheres to the trees, hangs from
There was another acid, which Baker and Smith them in pendants which are sometimes three feet long
called dundatholic acid. It had a low melting point and 6–12” broad. This species, in fact, appears to yield
and was present at much higher levels (73.2%). The it most abundantly of all the genus, the resin flowing
gum of Agathis robusta, which was similar to that of from every slight wound of the stem. The Norfolk Island
pine (Araucaria excelsa) also yields resin on wounding
Araucaria cunninghamii, was of interest because it was
but not so abundantly. The sample before me is very like
comparable to gum arabic: odourless, tasteless and
gum, or common frankincense,5 the produce of various
with marked adhesive properties. The oil component species of Pinus, except that it is paler in colour; pieces
of the resin from both Pines was very small (0.005%) externally are quite hard and very brittle but internally
and considered to be of little importance (Baker &
Smith 1910; see also Table 4.1). In general, copal- 5 The resin referred to as Frankincense is actually derived from the genus
type gums had a reputation for having effective fire- Boswellia, and not Pinus, as mentioned in this quotation.
they are still in a viscid condition and possess the pleasing

odour of Canada balsam, with perhaps a dash of creosote
thrown in. In the mouth it has a slight aromatic flavour,
readily softens, first feels sticky like dough, and then
like paraffin. Cold water simply whitens the resin. Hot
water seems scarcely to effect any change in it, although
the liquid becomes slightly cloudy. In rectified spirit the
greater part quickly dissolves, forming a pale yellow or
almost colourless liquid. The residue is white and granular
(Maiden 1888–90).
Bunya Pines (Araucaria bidwillii), Atherton Tablelands,
Early botanical investigations were often marred by North Queensland. The Bunya Pine is an impressively
the difficulty of obtaining authenticated fresh samples large tree that is primarily found in the Bunya Mountains
of plants or their parts. This problem has regularly National Park 120 km north-west of Brisbane. There are also
a few smaller communities (and the occasional isolated tree)
frustrated the studies of botanists and chemists. to be found in the northern Queensland remnant rainforest
The description of a resin sample from the Bunya on the Atherton Tableland.
Pine (Araucaria bidwillii) given by Joseph Maiden is
illustrative of the problem. He expressed doubts about
the integrity of the resin, and questioned the extent
of adulteration of the sample with impurities. The
raw material should have been clear and transparent:
‘This specimen is as different from that produced by
Araucaria cunninghamii as possible. It is not easily
described. It is rather brighter in colour than low-
grade resin of Xanthorrhoea arborea, otherwise they
are very similar in appearance. Except in redness in
colour it is much like some samples of inferior gum
benzoic I have seen. It has a creosote-like odour. Its
prevailing colour is purple-brown; and lustre, dull
resinous.’ Powdered, it was bright red, ‘something
between Venetian and Indian red, forming a very
pleasant colour’. It had a dye quality as it readily
stained the fingers and, upon tasting, turned the saliva
red, similar to the effect of Dragon’s blood resin. A
description of the resin by Joseph Lauterer (1895) was
entirely different. Initially the resin was quite white
and only turned yellow when exposed to the weather
for ‘some days’. He commented:
A remedy like the gum resins, useful as a stimulant for the

mucous membranes and for external application, is the
resin or rather gum resin of our Araucarias. The Araucarias
belong to a tribe of the Conifers and have a rather smooth
bark out of which a resin exudes or rather a kind of milk Medicinal Araucariaceae
when the bark is wounded. The milk hardens very quickly There have been few investigations of the medicinal
and looks then like tallow running down from a burning properties of the Araucaria gums, although there is
tallow candle. The resin never collects under the bark in evidence to suggest they could have some interesting
form of bubbles as it does on the stems of European pines therapeutic potential. The use of Araucaria resin
like Abies excelsa and A. pectinata (Lauterer 1895). prepared as a tincture (dissolved in alcohol) has been
recommended for treating kidney complaints and The medicinal use of the South American Monkey
urethral structures that resulted in urine retention. Puzzle Tree, Araucaria araucana, tends to suggest that
The dose was 20–30 drops, with a course of treatment investigations of the Australian native species could be
limited to four doses (Maiden 1909).6 Oleoresin worthwhile. Araucaria araucana has been employed in
extracts of the Bunya Pine (Araucaria bidwillii) and southern Chile and Argentina as an anti-ulcer remedy.
the root-bark of the Indian shrub, the Nilgiri Barberry A number of diterpenes were isolated that showed good
(Berberis tinctoria) have shown significant antifungal gastroprotective attributes, which tends to support the
properties. Bunya Pine resin was effective against traditional use of the remedy (Schmeda-Hirschmann
Aspergillus strains, while Berberis inhibited Candida 2005). Araucaria-derived diterpenes have also been
albicans. In particular, a gel formation for external found in Brazilian propolis sourced from hives found
application showed extremely good antifungal in these forests. Studies have shown that a number
activity (Kumar 1995). Bunya Pine resin has also of the diterpenes possessed antibacterial properties
demonstrated experimental antipyretic properties (Bankova 1996). The Brazilian Pine, Araucaria
(Suresh 1995, 1990). angustifolia, is another South American species with
Information with regard to Agathis is equally some interesting traditional uses. It was employed for
scarce. A couple of Agathis species have shown the treatment of skin disorders (dry skin), wounds
antiparasitic properties. In Malaysia, Agathis borneensis and shingles – as well as sexually transmitted diseases.
was traditionally utilised for treating fevers. This Investigations have confirmed antiviral (anti-Herpes)
species, and Agathis celebica from the Philippines, activity in leaf extracts, and determined that the active
have shown activity against the Plasmodium parasite components were present in the polyphenolic fraction
responsible for malarial infections (Noor Rain 2007; of the extract (Freitas 2009). Needle extracts of this
Horgen 2001). species have also shown radioprotective properties
against UV radiation damage. The activity was traced
to a biflavonoid component (Yamaguchi 2005, 2009).
The seeds (pine nuts), which are a popular snack food,
contain a lectin with anti-inflammatory properties
that also had pro-inflammatory activity – depending
on the route of administration and the type of
inflammatory process that was studied (Mota 2006).
Lectins with antibacterial and antifungal properties
are also present in the heartwood (Céspedes 2006). In
addition, a seed lectin was found to have interesting
anticonvulsive properties (Vasconcelos 2009).
There are overseas studies that suggest our native
Araucaria Pines could have valid medicinal potential.
The South American Monkey Puzzle Tree, Araucaria Araucaria bidwillii, the Bunya Pine, has been the
araucana. subject of some interesting studies. In Indian and
Thai folk traditions various Araucaria species have
been used as sedative and hypnotic remedies that were
recommended for the treatment of nervous system
disorders. This included anxiety, sleeping problems,
and neurological dysfunction – as well as for pain
and inflammatory conditions (Mukherjee 2007). In
northern Thailand the leaves of Bunya-Bunya were
boiled and the liquid given to children with insomnia.
The Hoop Pine has also been used as a food resource
(Anderson 1993, 1972). This led to Indian studies of
Araucaria bidwillii that identified biflavones with a
6 This information was supplied by the botanical collector Mr W.Bauerlen.
neuroprotective effect.7 The extract had a protective thwarted in their efforts by poor oil yields, they were able
effect on brain injury due to the type of oxidative to identify various oil components. Indeed, the oil yield
stress that occurs with ischaemia (reduced blood flow). from Agathis robusta was only 0.005 per cent – which
This type of cellular injury is associated with a stroke gave them only a miniscule amount to work with.
(Mukherjee 2007). Strangely enough, this suggestion The newly discovered Wollemi Pine (Wollemia nobilis),
is very similar to the use of Ginkgo biloba. the only species in a rare and unique genus of the native
The examination of essential oils of the Australian pines, is included in the analysis in Table 4.1. An extensive
Araucariaceae (Agathis and Araucaria) began with evaluation of Araucariaceae leaf oils, published by Brophy
the chemists Baker and Smith in 1910. Despite being and colleagues in 2000, is the basis of this table.
7 Extracts were made from fresh leaves sourced from the Botanical Garden,
Udhagamandalam, Tamil Nadu, India.
Table 4.1 Araucariaceae essential oils
Species and native country Oil yield Main components Additional components
Agathis atropurpurea 0.25 16-kaurene 19% α-pinene 8%

Australia phyllocladene 13% δ-cadinene 9%
Agathis australis 0.28 16-kaurene 37% sclarene 5%

New Zealand germacrene-D 9%
unidentified diterpene K 12%
Agathis macrophylla 0.04 rosadiene 60% 16-kaurene 7%

Australia
Agathis microstachya 0.18–0.39 α-pinene 18% myrcene 7%

Australia bicyclogermacrene 6%
δ-cadinene 9%
Agathis moorei 0.09 sesquiterpene rich allo-aromadendrene 6%

New Caledonia germacrene-D 5.7%
δ-cadinene 10.2%
16-kaurene 6%
unidentified sesquiterpene 12%
Agathis ovata 0.05 phyllocladene 39% caryophyllene oxide 15%

New Caledonia
Agathis robusta 0.04 spathulenol 37% rimulene 6%
Australia unidentified sesquiterpenes 40%
Araucaria angustifoliaa 0.03 hibaene 30% germacrene-D 9%

South America (Brazil, phyllocladene 20%
Argentina)
Araucaria bidwilliia Australia 0.04 hibaene 76%
Araucaria columnarisa 0.06 luxuriadiene 23% hibaene 9%

New Caledonia sclarene 6%
unidentified hydrocarbons:
B 33% and E 10%
Araucaria cunninghamiia 0.14 16-kaurene 53%

Australia hibaene 29%
Araucaria heterophylla 0.17 α-pinene 52%

Australia phyllocladene 32%
Species and native country Oil yield Main components Additional components
Araucaria husteinii 0.02 α-pinene 18% sclarene 11%

Papua New Guinea germacrene-D 5%
Araucaria luxuriansa 0.09 rosadiene 20%

New Caledonia luxuriadiene 19%
Araucaria montanaa 0.14 phyllocladene 60% Unidentified hydrocarbons:

New Caledonia 16-kaurene 23% B 15% and E 10%
Araucaria muelleria 0.11 sclarene 20%

Australia luxuriadiene 19%
Araucaria scopuloruma 0.03 α-phyllocladanol 41% luxuridiene 10%

New Caledonia δ-cadinene 6%
α-copaene 6%
Note: a diterpene-rich oils
Ginkgo: a remedy from a lost time
Ginkgo biloba is an isolated relict of the ancient Ginkgoaceae

plant family. The genus name Gingko was derived from the
Japanese ginkyo (originating from the Chinese ideogram
Yin Hsing) and referred to the ‘silver apricot’ fruit seeds.
The species epithet biloba was descriptive of the two-lobed
leaves, which led the seventeenth-century botanist Engelbert
Kaempfer to originally describe it as the ‘tree with duck feet’
(Ya Chio).
The Ginkgo tree is an intriguing member of the

Gymnosperm classification that has endured
throughout the great evolutionary changes of the last
200 million years. It is regarded as a ‘living fossil’. This
species is the last member of an entire botanical sub-
phylum (‘phylum’ refers to a tribe or race descended
from a common ancestor) and the only living which the Gingko’s leaves closely resemble. The debate
member of the Ginkgoaceae (class Ginkgoatae). The was eventually nullified, with Ginkgo resuming its
tree is unique in that has no close living relatives and original botanical name.
exhibits a range of botanical characteristics not found When Kaempfer found the tree in Japanese temple
in other plant families (Bilia 2002). The original gardens in 1691 he was intrigued by its unusual
discovery of the Gingko was surrounded by great appearance. He sent seeds to numerous European
excitement, as the plant showed a relationship to botanic gardens (Utrecht, Kew, Paris, Pisa, Padua),
both ferns and conifers which led to its placement in and some of these plantings survive to this day.
a unique classification, the Ginkgoales. These plants Certainly, the tale of the discovery of a tree of
flourished about 250 million years ago (mya) in the such unique botanical interest was deemed worthy of
Permian period, making the Ginkgo part of a truly attention in Australian journals more than a century
ancient lineage. Ginkgo biloba appears to have evolved ago. In the 1896 Proceedings of the Royal Society of
around the Cretaceous or Jurassic periods, at least 200 Queensland, John Shirley wrote:
mya. The fossilised remains of a similar plant, named
Ginkgo adiantoides, which flourished in Europe prior
On the eastern coast of China is found, growing near
to the last Ice Age, have also been found. Although sacred edifices, an allay [sic] of Phyllocladus, known
it is placed in the same division of the plant world botanically by its Chinese name – Ginkgo. It is not
as conifers, Ginkgo does not strictly resemble them now found in its native state in any portion of the
in that its method of reproduction is quite different, globe; but the piety of generations of religious Chinese
being closer to that of the ancient strategies employed and Japanese has preserved uninjured those planted
by ferns and cycads. near religious institutions in their respective countries.
Ginkgo is important in that it illustrates how an This tree, called Ginkgo biloba, or the maiden-hair tree,
ancient plant, that should be extinct, can become of receives its trivial names from the fancied resemblance of
paramount importance in modern medicine. In this its cladodia to fronds of a gigantic maiden-hair fern; and
to a correspondence in venation in the two organs. Its
case a substantial amount of pure luck was thrown
seeds are plum-like, and arranged in pairs at the ends of
into the equation. Only the fact that the Gingko axes that resemble cherry stalks; the integument is bright
tree was sacred, deliberately cultivated since ancient orange coloured and succulent; and the seeds resemble a
times as a temple tree, truly ensured its survival. Today drupe. The plant was first made known to the world by
Ginkgo biloba is no longer found in the wild, although Kaempfer in 1712, who found it in cultivation in China
there is some debate regarding a stand of 160 trees in … from whence it was introduced into England in 1754,
the Tian Mu Shan Reserve, China, which may be a and afterwards to the whole of Europe and European
remnant population. colonies. This species has also been found in a fossil
Gingko biloba was the name proposed by botanist state; and its allies were formerly much more numerous,
Engelbert Kaempfer when he published the first especially in the Jurassic period.
description of the Gingko in 1712 that was accepted
by Linnaeus. Subsequently the title had a rather Once in cultivation the tree was found to have some
contentious history. The influential English botanist highly desirable qualities that, rather remarkably,
Sir James Smith re-named it Salisburia adiantifolia, in allowed it to thrive despite the inhospitable conditions
recognition of the work of a colleague named Richard of a city environment – for it could withstand polluted
Salisbury – this was before the two men became atmospheric conditions, and had the ability to tolerate
intense rivals. Because Smith disagreed with Linnaeus’ low levels of sunlight. These attributes promoted its
name, he simply changed it. This type of practice is adoption into the urban environment. This, as well
not condoned in botanical circles today as there are a as its attractive maidenhair-like leaves, inspired its use
certain set of protocols that must be strictly adhered to as a unique ornamental in European countries. From
regarding plant names. One of them is the retention of here its distribution around the world was assured.
the name originally bestowed upon the plant when it Overall the Ginko is a rather remarkable medicinal
was first described botanically. Smith’s species epithet plant, whose use in modern times has little to do
adiantifolia refers to the leaves of the Maidenhair fern, with the traditional therapeutic recommendations
that utilised the seeds in Chinese medicine. Its

value lies in the isolation of flavonoids from the
leaf with cellular protective effects on brain injury.
Other natural products with this type of activity
include resveratrol, green tea extracts and quercetin
(Mukherjee 2007),although the most clinically
relevant medicinal herb is Ginkgo biloba. The remedy
has had a profound influence on some areas of modern
medicine, particularly for its ability to enhance
blood flow to the brain, thereby assisting memory
function. In addition to flavonoids, the leaves contain
biflavonoids, proanthocyanidins, diterpens (notably Information sign and a Wollemi Pine (Wollemia nobilis) in
ginkgolide) and sesquiterpenes.8 Ginkgo has strong Sydney Botanic Gardens, caged to protect it from thieves.
protective properties with regard to cellular function.
Antioxidant and free radical scavenging actions are
central to its therapeutic activity. The fact that Ginkgo
extracts have shown antagonistic effects due to PAF
(platelet-activating factor) suggests a wide range of
potential activity. This compound is involved in the
process of platelet aggregation, in inflammation,
bronchial constriction and vascular permeability.
It has vasorelaxant effects as well as neuroprotective
activity. This appears to give Ginkgo particularly useful
potential for use in states characterised by hypoxia
(oxygen deprivation), seizures and peripheral nerve
damage. In addition to its use for memory support,
the herb is recommended for numerous problems
associated with poor circulatory function, including
peripheral circulatory disorders, ocular problems and
tinnitus (Wohlmuth 2000).
7 These are the components that have been found in some Araucaria extracts.
An ancient survivor: the Wollemi Pine

The rare Wollemi Pine (Wollemia nobilis) is a member
of the Araucariaceae. The botanical importance survival to the modern day, virtually on the edge of
of this Australian native lies in its ancient lineage. natural extinction, appears to be rather miraculous.
The Araucariaceae family dates back about 250 This Australian Pine was discovered as recently in
million years ago (mya), to the great forests that 1994, on an inaccessible site in the Wollemi National
once dominated the Gondwanan landscape. Fossils Park, little more than 150 kilometres from Sydney.
resembling Wollemia are widespread in Australia, New David Noble, from the New South Wales National
Zealand and Antarctica, although this family branch Parks and Wildlife Service, came across a small
was considered to have become extinct about 2 mya. grove of unfamiliar trees. The majestic conifers were
Attesting to Wollemia’s antiquity is the fact that the imposing, reaching around 35 metres in height, and
fossil pollen from the extinct species Dillwynites of 91 had an unusual looking bark that resembled ‘bubbling
mya was very similar to the Wollemia pollen. The tree’s chocolate’. The trees had another unusual attribute
in that they did not shed the fern-like leaves; instead,

they discarded a whole branch.
In total only 38 adult trees and 130 seedlings were
found. Some individuals appeared to be remarkably
old, with estimations placing their age at over
1,000 years. Botanists were astounded to eventually
discover that the tree was not only a new species but
an entirely new genus, hitherto known only from
fossil records. Worries were expressed about the
viability of this unique find. The Wollemi Pine had
withstood thousands of years of isolation – which
meant that it had a very limited genetic variation
owing to its small population. The site needed to be
kept in virtual quarantine to prevent disease (fungal,
bacterial) or new pests attacking the trees. The
limited genetic resources meant that the genus could
quickly become extinct if the plants encountered a
pathogen they could not cope with.
It was rather extraordinary to find that the
leaves of the Wollemi Pine contained the anticancer
compound taxol, which was originally extracted from
the Pacific Yew (Taxus brevifolia). Later investigations
showed that the tree itself did not actually produce
taxol – it was a fungus (Pestalotiopsis guepinii) on the
leaves that was responsible (Strobel 1997).
The Norfolk Island Pine (Araucaria heterophylla, formerly A.
excelsa). Labdane diterpenes from the resin of the Norfolk
Pine were recently found to have anti-ulcerogenic activity
Native Pine timbers as well as cytotoxic properties in experimental colon and
The collection of unique plant specimens was a breast cancer cell lines (Abdel-Sattar 2009).
favourite passion of the early European settlers, an
measures 12 feet in circumference at 2 feet from the base,
appreciation of the unusual that led to the planting and 76 feet in height. In was in 1839 that I first perceived
of innumerable types of Australian trees, shrubs and several cones upon the uppermost lateral branches of the
herbs in botanic gardens throughout the world. The largest of these Pines, and it has borne cones occasionally
majestic Norfolk Island Pine was one of the impressive ever since. The age of these trees must be coeval with the
native specimens deemed worthy of cultivation in foundation of the colony. In 1857, at Ash Island, Hunter’s
Sydney. The planting of these Pines occurred early in River, the Norfolk-Island Pines bore cones with fertile
the history of the colony, as Dr George Bennett noted seeds and around the trees self-sown plants sprung up –
in 1860: the first instance of fertile seeds having been produced
by trees grown in the colony. The wood of this Pine (like
that of most of the Araucarias) is not durable, excepting
The finest specimens of the Norfolk-Island Pine
for interior work, or for ornamental purposes, as picture
(Araucaria excelsa) perhaps, to be seen in any part of the
frames, work boxes etc.; the roots and knots are turned
world, are those in the Sydney Botanic Garden; they
into cups and vases, for which they are well adapted
are considered to be fifty-five or sixty years old. They
(Bennett 1860).
have attained a beauty, equalled by few, if any, in the
straightness and regularity of their growth, denseness
of foliage, branches drooping to the base of the trunk, The Norfolk Island Pine rates among the more
and the general noble character of the trees. The largest famous native Araucaria species for its valuable
Leaves of the Norfolk Island Pine. The leaves of the Araucariacese tend to have a thick and leathery character, with deep-
seated oil cavities. Oil extraction involves dessication of the leaf into smaller pieces and steam distillation. The resultant oils
tend to be colourless or a pale yellow.
softwood timber. It has been extensively planted as a is Moreton Bay pine. In first-class houses it is still
plantation crop in temperate regions. The Moreton used for flooring, ceiling joists, rafters, and battends
Bay Pine (Araucaria cunninghamii) held a similar or boarding. It is also used for the bottoms of punts,
reputation. In 1877 W. Pettigrew read a paper before where, if it is kept constantly wet, it lasts remarkably
the Queensland Philosophical Society, called ‘On well. Where this pine grows on anything like level
the Habit and Pecularities of some of our Timbers’, ground farmers know they can grow maize, sugar-
in which he commented: ‘This timber [Moreton Bay cane &c.; and therefore many pine scrubs are cleared
Pine] is largely used in house-building. Indeed, three- for cultivation, to the injury of the country, from a
fourths of the timber used in our wooden buildings timber-merchant’s point of view.’
The Hoop Pine (Araucaria cunninghamii) is distributed along much of Australia’s eastern coastline. In particular, the Whitsunday group of islands, situated
mid-way along the Queensland coast, were once famous for natural stands of these trees. Much of the region has now been listed as National Park,
providing a protected habitat for those pines that remain. The rocky outcrops of many of the islands are not ideal environments and trees growing here
may be stunted. In comparison, the rainforest specimens can grow to an impressive height (around 50 metres). The central
trunk bears decorative whorls of scars that mark the sites of discarded lateral branches. Like most pines they produce prickly
female cones which break open on the tree and disperse the wind-borne seeds.
Seeds of Araucaria cunninghamii.

Bark of Araucaria cunninghamii.
The Hoop Pine was popularly known as the Moreton
Bay Pine because Sydney was supplied with this timber ornamental, and in longitudinal section strikingly so. It
is dark coloured, of various shades of brown, and usually
from Moreton Bay:
shows a most beautiful figure. It is an ideal substance for
small articles of turnery, such as pencil and needle cases,
This is our principal cheap softwood, and will only be rulers, &c., and small objects, such as flat-rulers, may be
suitable for local use, as the pine timbers of Europe and suitably made from it. A drawback to pine-knot wood
America are of superior quality. It is largely used for is its brittleness. I think that if pine-knots were better
flooring, lining and ceiling boards, packing cases, and for known (and very few people even in this State seem to
many other purposes where an easily-worked softwood is have heard of them), an increased demand would spring
required. In buildings, it is essentially an ‘inside’ wood, up for them, and they might form the basis of a minor
and is susceptible to the effects of moisture and heat. It is industry, much in the same way that small articles are
sometimes considered rather heavy for doors unless well made of bog-oak, in Ireland. The substance turns just
seasoned. There is one use, an increasingly important one, like bone, and comes quite polished from the tool.
to which colonial pines may be put, and I recommend
Richmond and Clarence millers to take it to heart. I allude The name ‘Hoop Pine’ originated from the appearance
to butter-boxes. An enormous quantity is required every of the leftover timber rings that persisted after the
year for New South Wales butter, and yet this Colony, wood decayed: ‘The bark is brown to black, not thick,
with all its pine forests, fails to make enough timber to and has circular horizontal markings. It peels off
case its own butter. I believe the wood to be suitable for horizontally in tough, fibrous flakes. Owing, in some
the purpose, but some of our northern saw-millers hardly measure, to the resin it contains, and also to its tough
realise that they are allowing a good trade to slip away nature, it does not readily decay on exposure. The
(Maiden 1895).
timber itself is peculiarly liable to decay under such
circumstances, and so it happens when a tree is felled
Joseph Maiden made some interesting comments on in the forest and chopped into lengths, if allowed to
another aspect of Hoop Pine timber, its decorative remain, all the wood disappears, leaving the bark as
potential: a ‘hoop’ or natural pipe, reminding one of a pipe for
water supply (Maiden 1909).
When a Pine-tree decays in the forest, it often gives
indication that a tree once existed by the presence of
a number of club-shaped pieces of wood 1 to 2 feet
long, tapering at one end, and more or less hollow, and
having the appearance of a fracture at the other. These
are what are known as ‘pine knots’, and are the bases of
the branches, which penetrate a considerable distance
into the trunk. No doubt they owe their durability to the
large percentage of resin they contain. In the Richmond
River district carters collect them wherever possible, and
sell them for firewood, as they fetch 2s. per load more
than teak (Flindersia australis), which is considered the
best fuel timber of the district. It is a pity, however, to Hauling Araucaria cunninghamii logs at Sandilands Range,
New South Wales, from Baker & Smith, A Research on the
put pine knots to such a vulgar use, as the wood is of
Pines of Australia, 1910.
a most ornamental character. In cross-section it is very
Famous Bunya Pine feasts ‘Andrew Petrie, who held the post of Foreman of
Works, January, 1836, under the Government,
Brisbane, was the first white intelligent discoverer
of this tree, sometimes I think, in 1838. Under the
guidance of some blacks, he had visited a spot on
which it grew, took a drawing of it, and brought in
a sample of timber, the finding of which, and his
opinion as to its value, he at once reported. It got the
name of “Pinus Petriana”; deservedly, I should have
thought; but not, it seemed, in accordance with the
manorial rights of red tape.’
Another source of historical information, Mr T.
Archer, in Recollections of a Rambling Life, commented:
‘Its botanical name, the Araucaria bidwilli, was given
to it because Mr. Bidwill is supposed to be the first
white man who brought it to notice. But this is a
Araucaria bidwillii and detail of leaves.
mistake. The tree was first discovered by Mr. Petrie, the
The Bunya Pine (Araucaria bidwillii) was a famous Government Engineer, on his expedition … when he
traditional food plant of the Aboriginal people. The ascended Mount Beerwah, and found the Maroochie
tree was named after botanist John Bidwill, who sent River. He, however, was not a scientific botanist, and
the first samples to England for botanical review. In only reported his discoveries in the colonies, whereas
1843 Bidwill’s comments regarding the plant were Mr. Bidwill sent the cone to England, and thus got the
published in Hooker’s London Journal of Botany: credit of being the discoverer of the tree’ (Petrie 1904).
The Bunya Pine featured in the writings of a
The native name of this tree is Banza-tunza or Banya- number of early colonists who were interested in
tunya. The fruit it is said ripens only once in three years, the natural history of the Australian flora. Explorer
and the precise period of the year when it does ripen does Ludwig Leichhardt described the Pine in great detail:
not seem to be known to the aborigines, who visit the
trees at different periods to mark how it advances. The
seed, which is twice as large as that of the Chili Pine The cones shed their seeds, which are 2 to 2½ inches long
[Araucaria imbricata], before it is ripe is very sweet, by ¾ inch broad; they are sweet before being perfectly
but acquires the same bean-like flavour which has been ripe, and after that resemble roasted chestnuts in taste.
remarked in those of Araucaria imbricata as it approaches They are plentiful once in three years, and when the
maturity. It is greedily eaten by the natives at all times, ripening season arrives, which is generally in the month of
before ripeness, raw; and when ripe, roasted and pounded January, the aboriginals assemble in large numbers from
into cakes. I have never heard of any white man who has a great distance around, and feast upon them. Each tribe
tasted the ripe seed (Maiden 1900a). has its own particular set of trees, and of these each family
has a certain number-allotted, which are handed down
from generation to generation with great exactness. The
The discovery of the Bunya Pine was a subject of some Bunya is remarkable as being the only hereditary property
contention. To set the record straight with regard to which any of the aborigines are known to possess, and
the naming of this tree, Constance Campbell Petrie, it is therefore protected by law.8 The food seems to have
furnished information with regard to her grandfather a fattening effect on the aborigines, and they eat large
quantities of it after roasting it at the fire. Contrary to
Andrew’s collection of specimens. She provided
their usual habits they sometimes store up the bunya nuts,
a valuable insight into the heritage of the early hiding them in a water-hole for a month or two. Here
Queensland settelement by publishing her grazier they germinate, and become offensive to a white man’s
father Tom’s recollections (from original writings 9 Leichhardt erred in his assumption that Aboriginal people did not usually
dating from 1837), in Tom Petrie’s Reminiscences of recognise hereditary rights to natural resources. Other tribes did practice
the allocation and inheritance of specific floral assets, and their harvest,
Early Queensland (1904). Mr Henry Stuart Russell, in a similar manner. In Queensland, Cycas groves were regarded as family
author of Genesis of Queensland, had informed her: property, and Western Australian tribes had special hunting grounds.
palate, but they are considered by the blacks to have

acquired an improved flavour (Leichhardt 1847).
When unearthed, the ‘disagreeable, musty smell’ of

the Bunya nut was said to dissipate and their taste
improved greatly after they were roasted (Petrie 1904).
In January 1844, at Archer’s station, Leichhardt
mentioned his experiences after sampling the Bunya Nut:
The blackfellows go up to the top of these giants of

vegetation with a simple bush vine … The blackfellows
Bunya Pine cones, from Baker & Smith, A Research on the
eat an immense quantity, and, indeed, it is difficult to
Pines of Australia, 1910.
cease, if one has commenced to eat them … the kernel of
there on the Blackall Ranges. Each blackfellow belonging
the Bunya fruit has a very fine aroma, and it is certainly
to the district had two or three trees which he considered
delicious eating, but during a very hot day, or from an
his own property, and no one else was allowed to climb
unfavourable tree, the fruit is by no means so tasteful as I
these trees and gather the cones, though all the guests
hoped to find them generally. The blackfellows roast them,
would be invited to share equally in the eating of the
and we even tried to boil them; the fruit lost, however, its
nuts. The trees were handed down from father to son,
flavour in both cases. Besides, it did not agree with my
as it were, and every one, of course, knew who were the
stomach. The blackfellows thrive well on them, but Mr.
owners (Petrie 1904).
Archer told me that the young people return generally
with boils all over the body, and I witnessed myself some
cases (Leichhardt 1847). The Aboriginal festivities were quickly organised into
gatherings that resembled huge picnics. This was a
The latter reference is possibly linked to the time of story telling and re-establishing kindred links:
development of nutritional deficiencies due to the lack
of a balanced diet. The Bunya nut is a carbohydrate Tales were told of what forefathers did, how wonderful
rich-food (26.9–49.2mg per 100g) but low in fat. Per some of them were in hunting and killing game, also
100g it contains variable amounts of protein (3.6– in fighting. The blacks have lively imaginations of what
20.4mg), fairly good levels of potassium (194–230mg) happened years ago, and some of the incidents they
and magnesium (36–62mg), and small amounts of remembered of their big fights etc. were truly marvellous!
sodium, calcium, zinc and copper. In addition, iron They are also born mimics, and my father has often felt
can be present in reasonably good quantities (1.1– sore with laughing at the way they would take off people,
and strut about, and imitate all sorts of animals.
4mg) (Brand Miller 1993). At this point, however,
there appears to be little information regarding the
levels of essential vitamins – vitamins C, E, A and B Australian Sandarac
complex. The Callitris Pines (Cupressaceae) were as valued a
It was only every third year that the Bunya trees timber resource as the Araucariaceae. However, the
produced a bumper crop. This was the signal for large Sandarac resin they yielded was a less familiar product
ceremonial feasts by Aboriginal people in southern that pharmacists were more likely to appreciate.
Queensland. Tom Petrie travelled with his Aboriginal Sandarac was useful in for the preparation of
companions to a Bunya feast and recorded details of ointments, pills and plasters – and, commercially, for
the gathering he attended: the production of varnish or incense. The resin, which
did not mix readily with water, had to be dissolved
The tribes were all assembling from every part of the in alcohol before use. This was a fairly important
country … When all turned up there numbered between preparation because it was used as a coating on tablets
600 and 700 blacks. According to some people, the that were designed to stay intact during exposure to
numbers would run into thousands at these feasts. That
the acidic conditions of the stomach. They could
may have been so in other parts of the country, but not
therefore dissolve lower down in the intestinal tract.

In addition, Indian medicine employed Sandarac as The Tasmanian Pencil Pine
an astringent for treating haemorrhoids and to relieve
diarrhoea.
The Athrotaxis genus belongs to the same family
Callitris pine timber had attractive aromatic qualities
(Cupressaceae) as the Callitris Pines. There are
and Australian pioneer settlers inhaled the fragrant fumes
only three species, which are endemic to western
of the burning timber for pain relief and to alleviate
Tasmania: Pencil Pine or Western Tasmanian Cedar
chills. These fragrant qualities were highly appreciated,
(Athrotaxis cupressoides), A. selaginoides and A.
as Joseph Maiden commented: ‘There is nothing more
laxifolia, although there is some level of uncertainty
delightful in the approach, on a winter evening, to a
as to whether the latter is a hybrid of the former
township where Cypress Pine is used as a fuel. Its delicious
two species. Like many of our great native trees,
perfume is borne on the air for miles, and is often the first
they survive in a compromised habitat. Their high
intimation that the weary traveller experiences that he is
altitude forests were stripped of millable timbers
approaching a human habitation, and his long journey is
long ago, which left the seedlings vulnerable to fire
drawing to a close.’
and weedy incursions. The scented reddish wood
was once used extensively in Tasmania as its soft
character was suitable for cabinet work and coach-
building purposes. Now the trees that remain are too
rare to justify their harvest.
Callitris pines at Tolmer Falls, Litchfield National Park,

Northern Territory. The tropical Cypress Pine (Callitris
intratropica) and the native Sandalwood (Santalum
lancolatum) are found in the scrubs of this region.
The Australian Cypress Pines are descended from an

ancient floral lineage – the ‘southern Conifers’. These
trees dominated much of the landscape before flowering
plants evolved. Callitris is largely an Australian genus,
with only a couple of other species found in New
Caledonia. There are around fifteen native species that
have a fairly wide distribution on the eastern part of the
continent and throughout the drier inland regions.10 Tasmanian Pencil Pine (Athrotaxis selaginoides) from Baker
The best known are valuable timber trees: & Smith, A Research on thee Pines of Australia, 1910.
• The Black Cypress Pine, Callitris endlicheri (syns

10 Differences of opinion continue among the state herbariums as to the
classification of Callitris species. For instance, the Northern Territory gives C. calcarata, Frenela endlicheri, F. calcarata).
Callitris glaucophylla and C. intratropica as different species, whereas in • The White Cypress, Murray or Western Pine,
other states they are regarded as being the same and are listed as synonyms.
The botanical names used in this text are according to the source of the Callitris glaucophylla (syns Callitris columellaris
information that is quoted therein. var. campestris, C. glauca).
• The Richmond Cypress Pine or Coast Cypress

refers to Callitris columellaris (syns C. arenosa,
Frenela columellaris, F. microcarpa, F. moorii,
Octoclinis backhousei).
Numerous species of Callitris are popular ornamentals:
the Port Macquarie Pine (C. macleayana), the Port
Jackson or Oyster Bay Pine (C. rhomboidea, syn. C.
cupressiformis), Mueller’s Cypress Pine (C. muelleri),
the Rottnest or Slender Cypress Pine (C. preissii)
and the Tasmanian Cypress Pine (C. oblonga, syns C.
gunnii, Frenela gunnii).
In a 1960 review of the natural plant products
industry of Australia, Professor H.H. McKern
mentioned a Callitris-derived ‘Australian Sandarac’
that was considered to be very similar to the
conventional Sandarac:
In the case of the Australian product this should strictly

be called Callitris resin, since it is collected from several
species of this genus which is closely related to Tetraclinis
of North Africa,11 the normal commercial source of
sandarac. However, recent shortages in supply have
caused overseas consumers to turn to Australia for a
Coast or Bribie Island Cypress, Callitris columellaris.
substitute. It has long been known that Callitris resins are (Courtesy: Drew Deveraux, Wikimedia Commons Project)
similar to African sandarac, that from Callitris columellaris
being indistinguishable. Commercial supplies are,
however, drawn from Callitris hugelii, the white cypress
pine. Although the living tree exudes a certain amount of
resin from the trunk, the greatest yield is found from the
stumps left after timber-getting operations.
Callitris gums appear to have been fairly widely

utilised throughout the Australian continent. The
Coast or Bribie Island Cypress (Callitris columellaris)
yields a strong straight timber that was employed by
Aboriginal people for making spears, while the resin Foliage of Callitris columellaris. (Courtesy: Ethel Aardvark,
was used to attach the spearhead. Brough Smyth, Wikimedia Commons Project)
author of The Aborigines of Victoria (1878), mentioned
its use: ‘The resin of Callitris verrucosa was used to intratropica. It was noted to be particularly valuable
make firm the union (after lashing) of the hard-wood when a strong glue was required and was employed
head to the reed, in the making of reed-spears by in making durable, tough appliances or tools – for
the aboriginals of Victoria.’ In the northern tropical instance, attaching wooden prongs to fish spears or
regions, a similar gum was sourced from Callitris the hardwood head to the shaft of a bamboo spear.
However, the gum had toxic properties. Ingestion
10 The Callitris Pines and the African Sandarac, Tetraclinis articulata
(formerly Thuja articulata), belong to the family Cupressaceae. The North was said to cause swelling of the stomach, and even
American tree Callitris quadrivalvis was another commercial source of the inhaling fumes when the gum was heated was believed
resin. Tetraclinis articulata has been utilised as an anti-diabetic remedy in
Morocco and immunomodulatory compounds have been isolated from leaf harmful. Children were kept well away from where
and wood extracts (Barrero 2003; Ziyyat 1997). the resin was being used (Levitt 1981).
Joseph Maiden was an enthusiastic proponent

of the use of the natural resources of Australia. He
considered that Callitris-based resins had excellent
potential as a local enterprise: ‘It is a matter of
common observation that a number of raw vegetable
products of more or less importance are going to waste
in Australia, simply because our people are ignorant
of their properties and value. I can hardly cite a better
instance than that of Australian Sandarach [sic]. Here
we have a product absolutely and entirely identical in
chemical and physical properties with a well-known
article in regular demand …’ The resin, which exuded
from injuries to the tree, gradually hardened on
exposure to the air. These ‘tears’ were then harvested:
‘The collection of Australian Sandarach is one of those
minor industries which could be readily undertaken
by a family of children. As the resin flowed from the
Cypress Pines, it could be accumulated in clean dust-
proof tins until a sufficient quantity was obtained to
be sold to the local store-keeper, who would again
sell to the wholesale chemist, or wholesale oil and
colourmen of Sydney.’12
Maiden forcefully supported the case for its local A stand of Callitris endlicheri, Goulburn River National
Park, New South Wales. The red colour of the bark is not
collection:
a standard feature of this tree species and is probably some
sort of alga. The same colouring is seen on electricity poles,
I say there is money in it, and to not only pay children wooden houses and sandstone cliffs in some of the hill
to collect, but grown up people too. Seventy shillings regions of New South Wales. (Courtesy: Tony Rodd, Flickr)
per cwt. leaves a handsome sum to the collector when
all expenses are paid, and inasmuch as in many districts gathered in worthwhile quantities. The fresh air inhaled
large quantities are available, particularly where the pines by the collector during this activity is undoubtedly a
have been ringbarked or felled. It would be a kindness on special medicinal bonus.’
the part of people who read these articles to tell the poor
struggling families where the Cypress pine grows, what
the resin is, and that it is really valuable … In regard to
Medicinal Callitris Pines
Australian Sandarach I speak confidently, and hope that Callitris Pines were of considerable practical medicinal
our poorer settlers benefit by what I have said. There is no value to Aboriginal people. A decoction made
immediate danger of over-supplying the market (Maiden from White Cypress (Callitris glaucophylla13) leaves
1895). (sometimes with the twigs added) provided a wash for
treating sores, rashes and scabies. In Central Australia
The process of collection has changed little. More than the aromatic leaves were used as a decongestant for
a century later the harvest continues, albeit on a small treating chest colds. In addition, they were used as
scale. Tim Lassak and Tara McCarthy, the authors of a form of fumigation treatment. A hole dug in the
Australian Medicinal Plants (1992), noted: ‘The collection ground was filled with the leafy branches, which
of this resin is a real cottage industry. It involves visiting smoked profusely when lit. The patient, who would
those parts of our cypress pine forests which have been stand over the site, became enveloped in a fragrant
logged say, a year and a half beforehand. In that time smoky haze. This heat had a diaphoretic effect and
enough resin has collected on the stumps to allow it to be
13 White Cypress has also been listed as Callitris intratropica, C. columellaris,
12 Powdered sandarac was useful to prevent the ‘blurring’ of writing inks C.glauca and C. arenosa. The botanical name used in the text is the one that
and to limited its indiscriminate spread over paper. appears in the original references.
and Melville islands) it was used as a skin-wash to heal

sores and cuts, and as an analgesic agent. It has also
been recommended for soothing abdominal cramps
(Lindsay 2001; Webb 2000; Marrfurra 1995; Smith
1993). When fresh, the sticky, red inner bark was
pounded and boiled to make a wash for bathing the
body to relieve the abdominal pain associated with
diarrhoea. To enhance the treatment, a long strand of
the inner bark could be wrapped around the abdomen,
and some of the bark infusion taken internally. The bark
of the tree can be collected in cylindrical tubes which
were used as splints for fractured limbs (Barr 1993).
Dulcie Levitt mentioned a rather unusual use
of Callitris intratropica cones as a styptic in her
extensive examination of Plants and People:
Aboriginal Uses of Plants on Groote Eylandt (1981).
Callitris intratropica is As a treatment for bleeding after childbirth, it was
fairly widely distributed used as a substitute for Styptic Tree (Canarium
throughout the northern australianum) fruit. The crushed cones (green or
tropical regions of
Australia. It has been a ripe) were soaked in a coolamon until soft. A thin
popular medicinal plant twig was then selected as an applicator to put some
for Aboriginal people of the mix into the womb. Importantly, the water
wherever it has been was discarded as it was considered to be toxic. The
found. The tree is known gum has also been employed as a contraceptive –
for yielding a useful
firewood that burns after digging a hole in the ground, the gum and dry
well, even under wet pandanus leaves were set alight and the woman
conditions. The aromatic would squat over the fumes, allowing them to enter
smoke had good insect- her body. The procedure was said to be so effective
repellent qualities that that she would never give birth again (Levitt 1981).
are effective against
mosquitoes and sandflies. An analysis of the essential oil of these plants can
help explain at least some of these medicinal uses. The
main component is the antiseptic and decongestant
induced a great deal of sweating. The ritual was said
agent pinene. Professor Rennie (1926), in commenting
to greatly improve the symptoms. The resin was
on the chemistry of Callitris leaf oils, mentioned:
also made into an ointment with animal fat, which
‘In general the Callitris leaf oils contain well-known
was rubbed on locally to ease body aches and pains.
terpenes, sometimes pinene to excess, sometimes
European settlers used the same process for making
limonene and dipentene, and both of them in both
plasters (Barr 1988, 1993; Isaacs 1994; Latz 1996). In
of their stereo-chemical forms, with occasionally
addition, the Black Cypress Pine (Callitris endlicheri)
some of the related alcohols such as borneol and
had a reputation for possessing vermifugal properties.
geraniol, also geranyl acetate.’ The latter has been
The twigs were used, mixed with fodder, to rid horses
found in Callitris tasmanica (now C. rhomboidea) in
of worms (Lassak & McCarthy 1992).
fairly large amounts. Climate and soil conditions can
be important influential factors with regard to oil
In the Northern Territory Callitris intratropica has yield. The fruit oil of Callitris verrucosa, for example,
had numerous interesting medicinal applications. which is high in pinene, has shown a variation in oil
Like the White Cypress it has often been employed constituents that depends on where the raw materials
as a ‘smoking’ (fumigation) treatment for colds and were harvested: New South Wales or South Australia
influenza. Traditionally, in the Tiwi Islands (Bathurst (Rennie 1926). In addition, the essential oil of the leaf
Callitris intratropica, fruit

Callitris tasmanica (now C. rhomboidea), leaves and habit, and foliage.
from Baker & Smith, A Research on the Pines of Australia,
1910.
known as azulenes, which
possess anti-inflammatory
and anti-allergenic pro-
perties. Originally, azulene
was identified as the active
principle of a blue-coloured
oil that was extracted from
Roman Chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile).14 Azulene-
containing herbs have traditionally been of medicinal
value because they tend to exhibit a superior level of
anti-inflammatory activity. Guaiazulene is an anti-
inflammatory component that has shown benefits
for the liver (hepatoprotective, liver-cell regenerative
of Callitris endlicheri is rich in geranyl acetate – an activity) and stomach function (anti-peptic, antiulcer
aromatic component with sedative properties (Lassak properties) – as well as anti-leprotic, anti-allergic
& McCarthy 1992; see tables 4.2 and 4.3 for current and anti-pyretic attributes. Guaiol is the other
oil analysis). major component of Blue Cypress oil which, in
More recently, the Northern Cypress Pine (Callitris combination with guiazulene, accounts for around
intratropica) has attracted interest for the production 20–30% of the essential oil.15 Other oil constituents
of Australian Blue Cypress oil – which is distilled from include furanones, guaienes, selinenes, eudesmols,
the bark and the cambium (a layer of cells in the stem
and roots that is responsible for growth). The blue 14 Azulene is particularly prevalent in medicinal herbs of the Asteraceae
family, e.g. Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) and closely allied species.
colour is due to a component called guaiazulene. This
15 Guiaol is a fragrance compound used for perfumery purposes. It also has
compound belongs to the sesquiterpene classification pesticidal activity and is active against termites.
and β-elemene (Webb 2000; see tables 4.2 and 4.3 for Blue Cypress oil has been employed as a
further details). wound-healing agent with anti-inflammatory and
antibacterial properties. Its anti-inflammatory effects
appear to be useful for skin conditions characterised
Cypress oil
by erythema (redness and skin irritation) – including
Cypress oil from Cupressus sempervirens is one of the
nappy rash, insect bites and stings. In addition, it has
more familiar woody aromatic
shown good clinical analgesic properties and has been
oils of the Cupressaceae. It is used
effectively employed for pain relief and wound healing
as an astringent with supportive
in burns cases – as well as the joint pain and swelling
effects on the peripheral
associated with arthritis. Experimentally the oil has
circulation. The oil is often
shown anti-viral activity, which has led to its use in the
added to a foot-bath to relieve
treatment of warts (verucca), shingles (Herpes zoster)
tired aching legs and swollen
and cold sores (Herpes simplex). The heartwood, which
feet, as well as being employed
lacks guaiazulene, yields a clear essential oil known
as a drying balsamic remedy
as ‘Cypressence Clear’ that has similar attributes.
for sweaty feet or to counteract
However, the leaf oil, which contains a small amount
foot odour. In addition, it has
of limonene, has not attracted any particular attention
been used as a facial oil or steam
Cypress oil. (Court- inhalation to tighten and cleanse (Webb 2000).
esy Esoteric Oils, the skin pores. There is also an The other species in the Callitris genus appear to
www.EssentialOils. have an insignificant level of antibacterial activity.
co.za)
uncommon essential oil called
The essential oil of Callitris glaucophylla demonstrated
‘Araucaria oil’ that is sourced
activity only at a high concentration, as did that of C.
from New Caledonia. This is
intratropica. The latter had a minor level of activity
produced from the endemic tree Neocallitropsis
against Staphylococcus aureus (Wilkinson 2005).
pancheri (syn. Callitropsis auraucarioides),
Egyptian studies of extracts of Callitris glaucophylla
which is the only species in a unique genus
have shown insecticidal activity against mosquito
that belongs to the Cupressaceae family – not
larvae, albeit less potent than conventional insecticides.
the Araucariaceae, as the name ‘Araucaria oil’
Guaiol and citronellic acid were among the major
suggests. The essential oil has a thick consistency
components of the oil – although it is interesting to
that has been compared to Elemi absolute.15 It
note that the effect of these constituents was less than
has aromatic qualities and fixative properties
that of the oil itself (Essam Abdel 2006).
that could make it a candidate for commercial
In 1910, Baker and Smith examined the needle oil
essential oil exploitation. However, because the
of the Illawarra Pine (Callitris muelleri). They found
oil is extracted from the heartwood of a species
that the needles gave only a small oil yield, which had
that is listed as rating conservation concern, the
a different character to the other Cypress oils they had
market would appear to be very limited. Around
examined, possibly due to its limonene content. The oil
forty compounds have been identified in the
also contained pinene and had an aroma that resembled
oil, with eudesmol being the major component
turpentine. Attempts to extract oil from the fruit were
– α-eudesmol (13.26%), β-eudesmol (25.92%)
unsuccessful, leading to the comment: ‘The fruits of this
and γ-eudesmol (19.04%). Other components of
species are apparently devoid of oily constituents, and 26
interest include guaiol (3.02%), elemol (4.99%),
[pounds] removed from the green branchlets, although
β-bisabolenol (4.93%) and bulnesol (3.69%). It
distilled for 5 hours, did not give a single drop of oil.’
also contains the sesquiterpenoids β-bisabolenal
Callitris oblonga is popularly called the Tasmanian
and β-acoradienol. The use of different solvents
Cypress Pine, although it is also found in two regions
and steam distillation altered the yield (6.96–
(northern and southern) in New South Wales. This
12.9%) and the chemical composition of the oil
species has been known by various other common
produced (Raharivelomanana 1993).
names (depending on the site where it is found) – and
has also been named the Pygmy Cypress Pine, due to
15 ‘Absolute’ is a specially prepared tincture used in perfumery.
Leaves of the Tasmanian Callitris oblonga. (Courtesy:

Cypress Pine (Callitris J. & R. Coghlan, Australian
oblonga). Plants Society Tasmania)
The fruit and leaves of Callitris muelleri (now C. rhomboidea),

C. calcarata and C. cupressiformis, from JH Maiden, Forest
Flora of New South Wales (1904), plate 48, illustration by
Lilian Margaret Flockton.
Fruit of Callitris oblonga. (Courtesy J. & R. Coghlan,

Australian Plants Society Tasmania)
its small stature. The tree is considered to merit serious
conservation concern in the wild and is listed as a
threatened species. It is distinguished by the lovely blue
hue of its foliage and yields an oil that is characterised by
pinene – although good amounts of geranyl acetate and
neryl acetate were found in oil samples of Callitris oblonga
subsp. oblonga. In 1910 Baker and Smith mentioned that
the oil had a unique character: ‘The oil of this species
shows distinctive characteristics from those of any other
species of Callitris, and although having resemblances in
composition in some respects to the oil of C. muelleri,
yet, it can be seen that the two oils are distinct’ (see tables
4.2 and 4.3 overleaf for current oil analysis). Extensive
research has shown that the essential oil of numerous
Callitris species contain pinene and limonene as their
Callitris muelleri, from Baker & Smith, A Research on the primary constituents. The species that can yield quite
Pines of Australia, 1910. high amounts are listed in Table 4.2 (Brophy 2007).
Table 4.2 Constituents found in Callitris essential oils: properties, species and oil yield
Compound Main properties Species (level in essential oil)
Pinene Anti-inflammatory Callitris baileyi (4–82%)

Anti-spasmodic and spasmogenic Callitris canescens (49–81%)
Antiseptic Callitris columellaris (72.7%)
Flavour, fragrance and perfumery Callitris drummondii (WA chemical variety: 67–69%)
Callitris gracilis subsp. murrayensis (60.2%)
Callitris intratropica (39–61%)
Callitris macleayana (10–72%, majority around 35%)
Callitris oblonga subsp. corangensis (72–82%)
Callitris verrucosa (28–86%)
Limonene Anticancer Callitris baileyi (2–60%)

Antimicrobial (antibacterial, Callitris columellaris (40–78%)
antiseptic) Callitris endlicheri (7–40%)
Antifungal and anti-candida Callitris glaucophylla (17–31%)
Antiviral Callitris gracilis subsp. gracilis (12–20%)
Anti-inflammatory Callitris intratropica (20–43%)
Antiasthmatic and antispasmodic Callitris macleayana (0.9–36%, majority 30%)
Expectorant Callitris muelleri (19.4%)
Sedative Callitris preissii (15–19%)
Callitris rhomboidea (0.8–41%)
Callitris tuberulata (single sample: 23.8%)
Callitris species (Emerald Falls, 27–32%)
Callitris columellaris (Nigerian sample, 37.2%)
(Ogundwunde 2005)
Table 4.3 Other compounds of interest present in Callitris essential oils

Compound Properties Species (level in essential oil)
Bornyl acetate Flavouring Callitris baileyi (3–17%, one sample)

Antibacterial and antiviral Callitris drummondii (24.2%)
Muscle relaxant and sedative Callitris columellaris (Nigerian sample, 27.1%) (Ogunwande
Antispasmodic 2005)
Cardioactive Callitris endlicheri (4–40%)
Expectorant Callitris glaucophylla (1–12%)
Pesticidal Callitris preissii (6–31%)
Camphor Perfumery and flavouring Callitris glaucophylla (1–6%)

Antiseptic, antiviral, antifungal Callitris verrucosa (23–39%),
Anticancer Callitris gracilis subsp. gracilis (3–6% plus camphene 2–4%)
Analgesic, anaesthetic,
antispasmodic, anti-neuralgic
Antidiarrhoeal, anti-dysenteric,
anti-emetic
Respiratory tract activity:
(decongestant, expectorant,
stimulatory and inhibitory
effects)
Insecticidal
Note: Potential irritant and
convulsant actions
Compound Properties Species (level in essential oil)
Citronellol, Citronellol: Citronellol:

citronellal, Antimicrobial (antiseptic, Callitris endlicheri (1–4%)
citronellyl acetate antibacterial, antifungal, anti- Callitris subsp. oblonga (trace–13%, plus citronellal 2–6%)
candida)
Sedative
Perfumery
Citronellyl acetate: Flavouring Citronellyl acetate:

Callitris rhomboidea (2–18%)
Fenchyl acetate Fragrance Callitris species (Emerald Falls, 5–11%)

Callitris glaucophylla (1–12%)
Geranyl acetate Perfumery and flavouring Callitris drummondii (14.9%)

Sedative Callitris endlicheri (2–17%)
Potentially allergenic Callitris oblonga subsp. oblonga (38.4%)
Callitris rhomboidea (7–55%, majority 25%)
Methyl citronellate Fragrance and flavouring Callitris canescens (1–20%)

Callitris glaucophylla (5–11%)
Myrcene Perfumery and flavouring Callitris baileyi (4–16%)

Antibacterial Callitris columellaris (10–15%)
Analgesic Callitris glaucophylla (8–14%)
Anticancer (antimutagenic, Callitris gracilis subsp. gracilis (11–18%)
chemopreventive) Callitris intratropica (3–12%)
Anticonvulsant, antispasmodic Callitris macleayana (1–20%)
and muscle relaxant Callitris preissii (11v17%)
Pesticidal Callitris oblonga subsp. parva (3–18%)
Allergenic potential
Nerolidol Perfumery Callitris roei (11–16%)

Anticancer
Antibacterial (antiacne, anti-
cariogenic, anti-streptococcus)
Pesticidal
Allergenic potential
Neryl acetate Perfumery and flavouring Callitris rhomboidea (3–24%, majority 15%)
Antiviral and anti-influenza Callitris oblonga subsp. oblonga (12.3%)
Pesticidal
Source: Brophy (2007)

Anticancer studies It appears that podophyllotoxin is fairly widespread

From the mid-1900s chemical investigation of the in the Cupressaceae family. In addition to the genera
Australian flora involved an extensive screening Callitris (C. drummondii contains particularly good
effort to discover anticancer compounds. The native levels), podophyllotoxin has been found in Diphylleia
Conifers attracted attention from collaborative (D. grayi roots), Juniperus (Savin, J. sabina needles),
investigations with the United States because the the New Zealand conifer Libocedrus bidwillii and its
American National Cancer Institute (NCI) had already Chilean relative, L. chilensis. Cytotoxic compounds
been screening conifers for anti-tumour activity. have also been isolated from Libocedrus plumosa and
CSIRO investigations of the Australian Callitris genus Cupressus macrocarpa (Perry & Foster 1994).
established that a number of species had positive Medicinal Podophyllums
anticancer activity: C. columellaris, C. drummondii, C.
preissii, C. rhomboidea (syn. C. tasmanica), C. robusta
and C. verrucosa. Only two gave negative results: C.
endlicheri and C. macleayana.
The active constituent of Callitris columellaris was
found to be desoxypodophyllotoxin (Collins 1990).
The related compound podophyllotoxin, originally
isolated from the Podophyllum genus of herbs (family:
Berberidaceae), is an established anti-tumour agent
with antimitotic, cathartic and antiviral actions that
has been in common use as an external treatment Fruit and flower of the
for genital warts.17 Importantly, podophyllotoxin is Himalayan or Indian
used as the starting point for the chemical synthesis Podophyllum (Podophyllum
emodi).
of etoposide (VP-16-213) and teniposide (VM-26) –
drugs that are used for treating lung cancer, leukaemia
and some other types of tumours. Unfortunately, there Below: Podophyllum emodi,
(syn. P. hexandrum), from
can be serious side-effects accompanying the use of Köhler’s Medicinal Plants,
these drugs, namely gastrointestinal distress (nausea, 1887.
vomiting) and immune system suppression (Canel
2001, 2000; San Feliciano 1993; Bedows & Hatfield
1992; von Krogh 1978). In addition, studies of the
African Sandarac tree (Tetraclinis articulata, family:
Cupressaceae) have shown anticancer (apoptosis-
inducing) properties on melanoma, breast and ovarian
cancer cells for essential oil extracts (Buhagiar 1999).
Foliage of Libocedrus bidwillii. (Courtesy Brian Mokena,

17 Podophyllotoxin also has insecticidal properties (Miyazawa 1999).
An underestimated environmental role

The genus Podophyllum provides an important The environmental value of Australia’s Cypress Pine
illustration of the value of natural drug resources: forests has often been under-appreciated. These trees
their successful commercial exploitation and can withstand very harsh conditions and, importantly,
clinical use, as well as technological advances that have long been a valued timber resource. In Forests of
can maximise their value. New developments Australia, Alexander Rule (1967) eloquently described
with therapeutic potential have been discovered, his appreciation of these native pines:
along with a level of exploitation that has led to
serious conservation issues. The herb Himalayan If a visitor comes direct to the cypress pine forest from a
Podophyllum (Podophyllum emodi) is the main coastal hardwood forest his first reaction may be one of
commercial source of the antitumour and anticancer disappointment at the relatively small size of the trees. In
agent podophyllotoxin – although this compound is general the cypress pine reaches a height of from 60 to
present in lesser amounts in related species such as 70 feet with a diameter of from 2 to 2 feet, although on
P. peltatum and P. pleianthum rhizomes (Harborne the better soils, with an annual rainfall of 20 inches or
& Baxter 1993). Podophyllum emodi and P. peltatum more, it may attain a height of 100 feet and a diameter of
3 feet. It is one of the delights of the cypress-pine forest
have been used as a source of an alternative
that the eye quickly readjusts itself to the scene so that
compound called podophyllin – an extract that was trees at first sight written off as rather scrubby, gain stature
cheaper to produce, with effective wart removal and dignity in their own right. Apart from its tremendous
activity (White 1997). The collection of wild contribution to the economy of these dry inland areas
sources of podophyllotoxin has become an issue of as the right tree in the right place to provide timber
concern in recent years. Podophyllum hexandrum, supplies for building requirements, fencing and so forth,
although listed by the Indian government as the cypress pine is successfully planted as shelter belts on
protected, continues to be illegally collected from farms; its shapely pyramidal crown also earns it a place as
the wild. This has compromised the viability of an ornamental tree near homesteads.
many natural populations. This species has been
the most important of the genus because it yields Decades later, the words of Raymond Rowell in
substantial amounts of podophyllotoxin – at levels Ornamental Conifers for Australian Gardens (1996)
around three to four times that of the American again demonstrate appreciation of the Cypress Pines.
species Podophyllum peltatum. Recent improvements The environmental value of these trees has remained
in extraction techniques have increased yields from consistent over time: ‘In the harsh, dry conditions of
the latter, however, and this could help ease the much of the interior, the cypress pines are unequalled
pressure on wild populations (Canel 2001, 2000; in providing shelter against dust-laden wind, as well
Drew 1987). as for the soil binding properties of their roots. When
The importance of the re-evaluation of drug- used with careful judgement in ornamental planting,
yielding plants can be illustrated by new discoveries several of the species outclass many overrated,
from this genus that have the potential to enhance introduced species. There are few more handsome
their clinical significance. Podophyllum hexandrum trees than the clonal form of the Richmond Cypress
extracts have shown significant antoxidative Pine when its vivid-green column is suitably placed
properties and experimental radioprotective activity. in the landscape, or used to decorate the facade of an
In animal studies, extracts acted to reduce cellular attractive building.’
damage and lower mortality rates (Kumar & Goel Cypress Pine forests were once dominant
2000; Goel 1998). Certainly, a better understanding throughout much of the continent. Today, however,
of these activities could open new avenues of some species persist only as remnant populations – for
investigation for developing more effective therapies. example the Brush Cypress Pine (Callitris macleayana),
which has an interrupted distribution on the eastern
Australian coast. These forests suffered severely from
the indiscriminate land-clearing practices that ravaged
the Australian landscape. Not only were they harvested
Brush Cypress or Stringybark Pine

(Callitris macleayana)
Brush Cypress, Callitris macleyana. (Courtesy: Trevor

Hinchliffe)
The aftermath of bushfire: a burnt and twisted Cypress Pine.
for timber, large tracts of their habitat became infested

with prickly pear in the early 1900s. Despite the
problem being rectified to some extent in the 1930s
with the biological control of this pest, the natural
integrity of the environment was never restored. There
were other agents of destruction that disrupted the Foliage and bark of Callitris macleyana. (Image on
habitat. Alexander Rule mentioned: right courtesy: Trevor Hinchliffe)
there have been wholesale clearances for agricultural The Brush Cypress has a fairly restricted
and pastoral purposes. Extensive forests of cypress pine distribution, occurring in northern New South
now remain only in the Dalby-Roma area of south- Wales and a few southern coastal Queensland
eastern Queensland and in the ‘Pilliga Scrub’ of New locations. There are also a few isolated populations
South Wales. Here an area aggregating in all about one in tropical north Queensland. It is the only
million acres still remains as Crown land largely because
Cypress Pine that is found at the rainforest
the rainfall in these parts is on the light side for wheat-
margins. It is tolerant of poor soil types and is
growing in any case and the forest in general is of medium
to poor quality. Black cypress pine also is present on the found in the transitional zones that lie between the
poorer stony soils, mainly in the hillier parts. Its timber is tall, open forest and the closed, wetter rainforest
less durable in use and less resistant to termite attack, the habitat – such as dry ridges and rainshadow sites.
two qualities that give white cypress pine its well-merited It yields a durable timber that has been used for
reputation as a building construction timber.
The fame of these trees appears remarkably durable.

making weatherboards and shingles, as well as The words of Raymond Rowell (1996) seem to
being suitable for interior work (joinery, cabinet echo Maiden’s sentiments: ‘The cypress pines are a
making). The essential oil of the leaf, which is timber resource of great value, used extensively in the
rich in limonene and pinene, has been used in building and furniture industries for the stability and
aromatherapy. The wood oil is also of interest as it durability of the relatively hard wood, its attractive
contains the aromatic compound guaiol. appearance, ability to dress well and to take a high
polish, and above all, its resistance to attack by wood-
Joseph Maiden’s 1895 review of Australian timber boring insects and termites.’
trees examined the Cypress Pines (Callitris spp., syn. Gum from the Cypress Pines appears to have been
Frenela) in some detail. The pleasant camphoraceous fairly widely utilised by throughout the country. The
odour of the wood was said to be reminiscent of Coast or Bribie Island Cypress (Callitris columellaris)
Sandalwood (see Table 4.3, page 138, for species yields a strong straight timber that was used by
containing camphor in the oil). Perhaps the most Aboriginal people for making spears. Callitris resin
impressive attribute of the timber was: was a useful glue for attaching spearheads, as Brough
Smyth, author of The Aborigines of Victoria (1878),
noted: ‘The resin of Callitris verrucosa was used to
[its] great power of resistance to insect attack. It is
said to be absolutely resistant to white ant, but that is
make firm the union (after lashing) of the hard-wood
overstating the case. Nevertheless cypress pine is about head to the reed, in the making of reed-spears by the
the very last timber that white ants will attack. Some of aboriginals of Victoria’. In Australia’s northern regions
the species, the red or black pine in particular, produce a similar type of gum was sourced from Callitris
very showy timber; in fact many of the planks are so intratropica. It was particularly valuable when a tough,
showy in appearance, that care is required in using it for strong and durable glue was required – attaching
decorative purposes, lest it should have too overpowering wooden prongs to fish spears, or hardwood heads
an effect. At the same time much of the timber is of a to the shaft of bamboo spears. However, the gum
quiet, handsome character. The prevailing colour of the had toxic properties, and ingestion was said to cause
figure is brown of various shades. Drawbacks to cypress swelling of the stomach. Even inhaling fumes from the
pine timber are its brittleness; it will therefore stand but
heated gum was believed harmful and children were
little transverse strain, and a nail can hardly be driven into
the wood without previous boring, for fear of splitting the
kept well away from where it was being used (Levitt
timber. Another drawback is its great inflammability. It 1981).
may be readily dressed up to a smooth and glossy surface. Throughout Australia, Cypress Pines have had
important mythological and totemic significance for
Aboriginal people. A report in 1959 in the Wynnum
The building trade made allowances for dealing with these Herald mentioned a very large Cypress Pine on
disadvantages and this saw the timber become widely Stradbroke Island, at least two centuries old, that was
utilised. Even the off-cuts could be put to good use: killed by a bushfire. Traditionally, Aboriginal people
from the local tribe paid their respects at this site
It is used to an enormous extent a couple of hundred before approaching the Blue Lake on the island. In
miles and more back from the coast for house-blocks, the report, ‘Granny Sunflower’ recalled a tale that the
linings, and ceiling of houses. It is used for telegraph poles sacred pine tree would die when the last of the full-
out west because of its resistance to white ants, and the blooded men of Stradbroke Island passed away:
station buildings of the trans-continental telegraph line
are built of this timber for the same reason … It is one
of the most luxurious firewoods I know of; it burns well, The spirits or ‘jargons’ inhabited both the Brown and
and in burning emits a delicious fragrance very generally Blue Lakes. The jargon took the form of a very large
admired. My idea is that the small pieces produced in carpet snake and certain rituals had to be played out
saw-mills would sell at a remunerative price as a superior before one approached their lake homes. Before the lakes
kind of fuel for drawing rooms &c., if people could only were approached, the natives would stand a few hundred
readily obtain it (Maiden 1895). yards off and call out and then wait on a signal or sign to
Blue Lake, Stradbroke Island, Queensland. (Courtesy: Scott

Mackinney, Wikipedia Commons Project)
indicate they should come nearer or not; thus if the lakes’

surface remained calm one could come near but if the
surface was disturbed it was better to stay away (Colliver
& Woolston 1975).

The resinous dammars, copals and sandarac slowly
disappeared from medicinal prominence. Over
time the technology involved in the extraction and
concentration of essential oils improved, and these
products regained a role in the marketplace. Products
such as the Blue and White Cypress oils have been
fairly recent innovations from the Callitris genus.
Tables 4.2 and 4.3 (page 138) indicate the interesting
array of essential oil components in these plants that
could give other Callitris species potential commercial
White or Sulphur-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua galeria),
value, even if they are only suitable for small niche enjoying life in the rainforest. Some interesting seed
markets. distribution strategies deploy a cooperative effort with
Essential oils have not only been of interest for native wildlife. The White Cockatoo is a magnificent, if
their aromatic qualities, many have potential value somewhat noisy, bird that is an avid pruning agent in the
as antimicrobial agents. In the last couple of decades rainforest. They snap off branches while eating fruits and
the flower-nectars. They are particularly good at prising
their investigation has once again seen researchers open woody cones, such as those of introduced pine species
turn their attention to the Eucalyptus genus, with and the various Cypress Pines. These messy birds rip the
some surprising results. Eucalyptus-based insect cones apart searching for the seeds within, even before the
repellents have shown a very good commercial future. cones are ripe. Unintentionally, the Cockatoo also help the
Another development of particular interest to the plant’s propagation by allowing seeds to escape for wind
distribution. They distribute the fruit by dropping them
research chemist and the pharmacologist has been the on new sites – a partly prised-open remnant that then
discovery of an entirely new class of chemicals (FPCs) becomes accessible to ground-dwelling animals for further
with potent biochemical potential. seed dispersal.
Chapter 5
THE MYRTACEAE:
HIDDEN CHEMICAL TREASURES
The hidden chemical treasures of Australia’s native

flora continue to provide inspiration as new and novel
compounds with medicinal value are found. Perhaps
some of the best illustrations of this vast potential lie
within the remarkable Myrtaceae family – among
them insect-repellent and insecticidal compounds,
bioflavonoids (notably rutin), and a unique new
class of chemicals known as FPCs (formylated
phloroglucinol compounds). The ingenious chemical
achievements involved in the discovery and evaluation
of these components has enhanced an appreciation
of the value of Australian natural resources. This has, A contorted specimen of Corymbia citriodora at Mt Aunt,
in turn, led to increased support for natural products Atherton Tableland, North Queensland. (Courtesy: Peter
research and development projects. These include Richardson)
unique essential oil and native bush tucker markets,
as well as numerous initiatives that aim to evaluate the
medicinal potential of the flora.
Natural insect repellents: the

Lemon-scented Gum
One of the best illustrations of a native Eucalypt filling
a unique market niche is the development of insect
repellents from the Lemon-scented Gum (Eucalyptus
citriodora, which is now classified as Corymbia
citriodora).1 The leaf of the tree has been utilised as an
antiseptic, carminative and digestive agent. The essential
oil of the leaf has antibacterial properties (active against Juvenile foliage of the Lemon-scented Gum, Corymbia
Staphylococcus aureus), as well as strong antifungal and citriodora (syn. Eucalyptus citriodora).
insect-repellent activity (Lassak & McCarthy 1992,
Pengelly 1989). Eucalyptus citriodora oil has shown good The antimicrobial activity is mainly due to a
anticandidal activity with clinical potential comparable synergic (complementary) effect between citronellol
to that of conventional antifungal drugs (Dutta 2007). and citronellal – although there are other components
The antifungal properties of the oil has also led to that could be of value. This complexity implies that the
the suggestion that it could be suitable for use in the 1 As Eucalyptus citriodora is the name utilised in many research papers,
management of fungal diseases in crops susceptible to this is the name that is cited when using the appropriate reference, unless it
states otherwise. The same applies to Eucalyptus maculata – now Corymbia
Alternaria and Rhizoctonia (Ramezani 2006, 2002). maculata.
145
best effect would be obtained from using the natural

product rather than an isolated constituent. However,
as the oil has a low cineole content, this would limit its
usefulness as a decongestant – for which other types of
medicinal Eucalyptus oils would be more appropriate
(Lassak & McCarthy 1992; Pengelly 1989). Another
component in the Lemon-scented Gum with
pharmacological merit is ellagic acid – a compound
that has attracted particular interest in its antioxidant,
haemostatic and anti-tumour properties.2 The oil
also contains the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant
substance guaiazulene, which has liver regenerative
properties. Via the activation of liver detoxification
systems, guaiazulene has the potential to reduce the
cellular damage that is associated with various toxic
and carcinogenic substances (Kourounakis 1997).
Azulene is discussed in chapter 4, page 135.
Bark and kino of the
Lemon-scented Gum. The
kinos of this species and
Eucalyptus globulus contain
citriodorol – a component
with antibiotic actions that Spotted Gum, Eucalyptus maculata (now Corymbia
is likely to be present in the maculata), from JH Maiden, Forest Flora of New South Wales
kino of a number of other (1904), illustration by Lilian Margaret Flockton.
Eucalypts (Watt & Breyer-
Brandwijk 1962, Lassak &
McCarthy 1992). Spotted Gum, Eucalyptus (Corymbia) maculata, has
a much more widespread distribution along the east
Botanically, the Lemon-scented Gum is very coast, ranging from Queensland to Victoria.
closely related to Corymbia maculata (syn. Eucalyptus The Lemon-scented Gum gained particular fame
maculata) – of which it was once classified as a variety. for having the highest levels of citronellal that has
The Kew Report for 1882 noted: ‘E. maculata Hook. been found in a plant. However, in addition to the
var. Citriodora … You can safely recommend this citronellal rich form (over 65% citronellal), there are
for warm climates. Its foliage, as its name denotes, is a few other chemical types. One form of Eucalyptus
beautifully fragrant, the tree itself is fast growing and citriodora oil is rich in both citronellol and citronellal,
hardy.’ Joseph Maiden commented: ‘The leaves of the another intermediate oil type has guaiol and citronellal
Lemon-scented Gum are used to a limited extent for levels ranging from 20–50 per cent, and there is a
perfumery purposes when dry; they are, however, of ‘hydrocarbon form’ that contains citronellal (10% or
far greater importance as yielders of essential oil. As less) and hydrocarbons (10%) (Brophy & Southwell
regards ordinary Spotted Gum, I am not aware that the 2002; Boland 1991). The Essential Oil Research
leaves are distilled for commercial purposes’ (Maiden Center (EORC) at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, analysed
1904). Eucalyptus (Corymbia) citriodora is restricted to a citronellal-rich form (70.1%) that contained low
a subtropical climate and is found along the Australian levels of citronellol (5.4%) – as well as α-pinene
east coast between Mackay and Maryborough. In (19.4%) and camphor (5.0%). The oil of Eucalyptus
addition, there is a small population found on the maculata differs in that it is devoid of citronellal, with
Atherton Tablelands in the northern tropics. The more emphasis on α-pinene and limonene.3 A New
2 Good dietary sources of ellagic acid include strawberries, grapes, apples, 3 Limonene and camphor are two components found in a number of herbs
cranberries, blackberries, and walnuts. that have shown good insect-repellent properties (Gillij 2008).
Chapter 5 THE MYRTACEAE: HIDDEN CHEMICAL TREASURES 147
South Wales form of Eucalyptus maculata also contains from the market. It is made from the waste distillate
terpenes (α-pinene, dipentene, limonene, cadinene, after the extraction of lemon eucalyptus oil from the
cadinol), as well as 1,8-cineole. A quite different plant Eucalyptus maculata citriodon’ (Collins 1993).
Queensland form is characterised by α-pinene and However, the product had some limitations. While
guaiol (Brophy & Southwell 2002). its effectiveness was clearly established, the duration
of protection was less than that of N,N-diethyl-m-
toluamide (commonly known as Deet) – and both
Eucalypt insecticides were ineffective against Anopheline mosquitoes
The Common House- (Schreck & Leonhardt 1991).4 However, a Tanzanian
fly, Musca domestica. study has found that a Eucalyptus-based repellent
(Courtesy: JJ Harrison, was as effective as Deet against Anopheles mosquitoes
Wikimedia Commons (Trigg 1996b). Studies in Ethiopia found that burning
Project)
Corymbia citriodora foliage had a good repellent effect
against Anopheles pharoensis (over 78%) – which
was superior to Eucalyptus camaldulensis and the
Basils Ocimum suave and O. basilicum. Interestingly,
Ocimum basilicum was more effective against Anopheles
Eucalypt preparations have had a substantial history arabiensis (Dugassa 2009).
of use for combating infestations of vermin. In Africa 4 Anopheles and Aedes mosquito species are major vectors for the malaria parasite.
the powdered leaf or the leaf-tea was used as an
insecticide, with the latter sprayed around the house
to rid it of pests (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Lemongrass and Citronella oil
The insecticidal and wound-healing properties of
Eucalyptus oil have even been effectively utilised
in dressings for lambs affected by fly-strike in
Australia (Pearse & Peucker 1991). This is of interest
because Egyptian studies have shown that Eucalyptus
globulus oil (known as ‘Camphor oil’) was effective
as a larvicidal agent against the Common Housefly
(Musca domestica). Even very low concentrations
(0.1–0.7%) were around 90–100% effective (Abdel
Halim & Morsy 2005). Another study has shown Lemongrass, Cymbopogon sp.
1,8-cineole was the active component of Eucalyptus Citronella oil. (Courtesy: Mohamed Yosri
oil (Eucalyptus cinerea, essential oil cineole content (Courtesy: Herbs Mohamed Yong, Malaysia,
of Mexico) Wikipedia)
56.86%) with good insecticidal (insect-killing)
activity against the housefly (Palacios 2009).
The aromatic Citronella Grass (Cymbopogon nardus)
would be among the best known of the herbal
The reputation of the Lemon-scented Gum as a mosquito repellents. The active ingredients are
mosquito deterrent has provided the impetus for the citronellal (7–15%) and geraniol (55–75%). Other
extraction and marketing of this oil on an international components include nerolidol (0.3%), methyl
scale. Chinese investigations of a locally produced eugenol (1.7%), geranyl butyrate (1.5%), elemol
mosquito repellent named Quwenling found that (1.7%), methyl isoeugenol (7.2%) and traces of a
it was highly effective. Manufactured by Nangue number of other compounds (Duke & du Cellier
Pharmaceutical in Hunan Province, it was reported to 1993). Even though the use of Citronella oil as
have been ‘so successful in China that it has largely a mosquito repellent is an old practice, it seems
displaced the synthetic repellent dimethyl phthalate strange to find that the recommendations for the
practical prevention of malarial infection, made most effective during the first four hours, after
in a medical manual over seventy years ago by which time it progressively decreased (Tyagi 1998).
Professor John H. Musser, are virtually the same as The mosquito-repellent and insecticidal effects of
those made today: ‘The protection of man from the Cymbopogon oils appear to have additional diverse
bites of mosquitoes is accomplished by the proper potentials. Cymbopogon proximus was among a
screening of habitations, the use of mosquito nets number of essential oil-containing herbs with
over the bed, the use of head net and gloves, and larvicidal and ovicidal (egg-killing) effects against
the smearing of various odorous substances upon Anopheles mosquitoes (Bassole 2003). There is also
the exposed skin, the most generally useful being an interesting report showing that Cymbopogon
a mixture of 1 part citronella and 5 or 6 parts of giganteus had antimalarial effects in mice, albeit
liquid vaseline.’ used as an injection (Kimbi 1996).
Other species used in the extraction of
Citronella and Lemongrass oils are the West
Indian Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus), East
Indian Lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus, syn.
Andropogon nardus var flexuosus), Java Citronella
(Cymbopogon winterianus) and Palmarosa or East
Indian Geranium (Cymbopogon martini) (Corrigan
1992). Studies of Lemongrass oils in different types
of bases (creams, ointments) and a liquid paraffin
solution have verified that the insect-repellent
effects were comparable to commercial mosquito
repellents. The active component was citral, which
is commonly found in the Cymbopogon genus as
well as in numerous other essential oils, for example,
Eucalyptus oil. However, the base properties of
the various formulations were shown to influence
their effectiveness – with the most efficacious being
a hydrophilic (water) base. The emulsion was less
effective, while oleaginous formulations rated the
lowest (Oyedele 2002).
A field study evaluating the effectiveness of a local
mosquito repellent, Cymbopogan martinii martinii
oil, on Car Nicobar Island (India) against a malaria-
carrying mosquito (Anopheles sundaicus) supported
its use. The oil was effective both indoors (98.7%
protection) and outdoors (96.52% protection) over Silkyheads (Cymbopogon obtectus), an Australian
a twelve-hour period. It is of interest that geraniol Lemongrass. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native Plants
from this species has shown anthelmintic properties of Queensland, Vol. 4)
(Das & Ansari 2003; Kumaran 2003). Another Of the several Australian Lemongrass species, none
study of the oil extracted from four species of has the insect-repellent properties of Citronella
Cymbopogon investigated their mosquito-repellent Grass. The Lemon-scented Grass (Cymbopogon
activity against the mosquito vectors for malaria, ambiguus), Silky Oilgrass (C. bombycinus),
filariasis, Japanese encephalitis and dengue fever. Silkyheads (C. obtectus), Lemongrass (C. procerus)
All oils were found to have more than 85 per cent and Barbwire Grass (C. refractus) have all been
repellent activity for a distance of 4 to 6 feet (1.5–2 utilised medicinally – usually decocted as a wash
m). The protection was active for eight hours, being for skin disorders or as a steam inhalant for colds
or influenza. Infusions, which have been widely Citridiol is the active component of Mosi-guard
used as an antiseptic, may also have anti-parasitic Natural spray (40% citridiol in a base of ethanol,
potential, as the aromatic Lemon-scented Grass (C. water and isopropanol). This product has also
ambiguus) has been utilised for treating scabies skin shown excellent leech-repellent activity in field trials
infections (Barr 1993). (Courtesy: KAW Williams, undertaken in peninsular Malaysia. It effectively
Native Plants of Queensland, Vol. 4) minimised leech bites – and even prevented leech
infestations in sprayed boots and clothing (socks,
Numerous products have incorporated extracts trousers) (Kirton 2005). Scottish experiments have
of the Lemon-scented Gum as the active repellent also shown that a Eucalyptus-based repellent gave
component. A Lemon Eucalyptus extract named 98–99.5 per cent protection from biting midges over
Citridiol has shown good activity against mosquitoes, a long period (Trigg 1996a).
stable-flies, and midges. In particular, its potential .
efficacy against Ixodes ricinus attracted serious Clove oil
interest because this tick species can act as a vector Clove oil is the familiar
for a number of microorganisms. They include Lyme analgesic oil applied to
disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) and the tick-borne ease toothache. It is also
encephalitis (TBE) virus. Field studies established an effective knock-out
a substantial reduction in tick bites – 31 per cent anaesthetic for Koi carp.
attachment rate when the spray was used compared Clove oil, which has a high
to a 65 per cent attachment rate without the use of eugenol content, has good
the repellent (Gardulf 2004). Tea Tree oil has also antiseptic properties that can
shown good acaricidal (mite-killing) activity against be useful for infected skin
Ixodes ticks (Iori 2005). An evaluation of Eucalyptus conditions, including acne. It
globulus and Rose Geranium (Pelargonium roseum) BaoBIO clove oil. (Court- has also been applied locally
essential oils has shown effective acaricidal properties esy: www.happykoi.co.za) for treating warts, scars and
against ticks (Rhipicephalus annulatus, syn. Boophilus parasitic skin problems. Clove
annulaus) that was dose-dependent. Females exposed oil has become popular as an anti-mould cleaning
to these oils also experienced a reduced egg-laying agent, and has attracted interest as an effective
capacity (Pirali-Kheirabadi 2009). mosquito repellent. One study has shown that
citronella, clove and Lily-of-the-Valley (Convallaria
majalis) oils had repellent effects that were
comparable to Deet (N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide).
Eugenol from Clove oil, as well as the citronellol
and geraniol components of Citronella and Lily-of-
the-Valley oils, had a pronounced activity – as did
phenethyl alcohol, a minor component of the latter
oil (Thorsell 2006). Clove oil also has herbicidal
properties and has been used as a component of
weed-killing agents.
Rose Geranium essential oil

A study of the antifungal properties of essential
Mosi-guard® natural Partially engorged leech. Some oils has shown that Rose Geranium (Pelargonium
insect repellent. Eucalyptus-based repellents have graveolens) and its main components, geraniol and
(Courtesy: Citrefine also shown activity against leeches. citronellol (which are also found in Lemon-scented
International Ltd)
repellent Mosi-guard Natural. Minor constituents

were identified as isopulegol and citronellol, while the
active component was menthane-3,8-diol (50%) – the
same primary constituent found in Quwenling. The
London product showed good repellent effects against
Anopheles gambiae – results that were comparable to
Deet and superior to the use of citronella. It was also
useful against ticks and biting midges.5 Investigations
of derivatives of menthane-3,8-diol have continued
to attract interest for development as insect repellents
(Barasa 2002; Trigg & Hill 1996).
Flowers of the Rose Geranium. (Courtesy: Laitche, Another study of Eucalyptus-based mosquito
Wikimedia Commons Project) repellents in the Bolivian Amazon, where Anopheles
Eucalyptus oil), possessed substantial antifungal darlingi is the main vector for the malaria parasite,
activity. In addition, Rose Geranium oil, geraniol and confirmed that preparations based on menthane-diol
citronellol had an additive effect with the antibiotics (30%) had a slightly superior effect to Deet: with
amphotericin B or ketoconazole against Aspergillus protection levels of 96.89 per cent over a period of 4
fungi (A. flavus and A. niger). Similar efficacy has hours, and 84.81 per cent, respectively, over a period
been shown against skin fungi (Trichophyton spp.), of four hours. The extraction of this active component
including a synergistic effect in combination with could be a fairly inexpensive way of obtaining a locally
ketoconazole. This suggests that these products could produced effective mosquito repellent (Moore 2007,
have clinical value as effective antifungal agents. 2002). In addition, para-menthane-3,8-diol was
Their combination with antifungal drugs could be identified as the main repellent compound in Lemon-
also be worthwhile, particularly in situations that scented Eucalypt oils that were effective against the
are not responding to conventional treatment (Shin tick Ixodes ricinus (Elmhalli 2009).
& Lim 2004; Shin 2003). Studies of citronellol and
geraniol sourced from Rose Geranium oil have also
shown highly effective acaricidal activity against
Battling the mosquito, naturally
house dust mites (Dermatophagoides farinae and D. The active ingredients of the Boys
pteronysissinus) and food storage mites (Tyrophagus from the Bush Natural Insect
putrescentiae). The active components against the Repellant Spray are: Lemon-
latter were geraniol and neral – although other oil scented Gum (Eucalyptus citriodora),
Sandalwood (Santalum lanceolatum),
constituents such as citral, benzyl benzoate and beta- Mangrove (Osbornia octodonta),
citronellol were active to a lesser degree (Jeon 2008, Lemon-scented Paperbark (Melaleuca
2009). The Austral Storksbill or Wild Geranium citrolens), and the Lemon-scented
(Pelargonium australe), the native Australian species, Ironbark (Eucalyptus staigeriana).
has a very similar appearance to the Rose Geranium. (Courtesy: Milton James, www.
boysfromthebush.org.au)
The constituents of essential oils, their The larvicidal properties

concentration, and the type of formulation utilised of essential oils have only
(including other ingredients and the base components) relatively recently attracted
can substantially influence the effectiveness of a product. serious research interest. Determining the products
A special extraction process developed at University that are most likely to be useful for commercial
College, London, produced the Eucalypt-based development has been the focus of a number of
5 A rather unusual finding resulting from one evaluation of the activity of investigations. A comparison of essential oils of
Lemon-scented Gum oil against biting midges showed that it could actually
attract midges into traps (Braverman 1999). This might be dependent on the Cinnamon (Cinnamomum cassia), Lemon Eucalyptus
dose or type of preparation process utilised. (Eucalyptus citriodora), Turmeric (Curcuma longa)
and Sandalwood (Santalum album)6 determined that with that of Centella asiatica a higher mortality rate
the latter was particularly effective as a mosquito (80–100%) resulted (Senthilkumar 2009). This
larvicide against species of Aedes and Culex. The suggests an area of interest for the potential use of
essential oils from a number of Australian plants –
including Gotu Kola (Centella asiatica), the native
Sandalwoods, and citronellol or eudesmol-rich
Eucalyptus oils.
There is great scope for the production of locally
sourced repellents in poor regions that suffer from
serious outbreaks of mosquito-vectored diseases.
Recent investigations from Taiwan focused on the
larvicidal attributes of Eucalypt oils with the potential
to limit mosquito breeding sites. The essential oil of the
River Red Gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) was found
Gotu Kola (Centella asiatica) is a small creeping herb native to have excellent activity against the larvae of Aedes
to Australia, India, the Indonesian region, and many parts of aegypti and A. albopictus. The active compound was
Asia. It has been used as a remedy for circulatory disorders, identified as α-terpinene (Cheng 2009).7 An Indian
failing memory and neurological distress, and has an excellent study has shown that the essential oil of the Forest Red
reputation as a wound-healing herb. The predominant Gum (Eucalyptus tereticornis) leaves had good activity
constituents of Gotu Kola oil (sourced from South Africa)
are α-humulene (21.06%), and β-caryophyllene (19.08%), against the larvae, pupae and adult mosquitoes of the
with smaller amounts of bicyclogermacrene (11.22%), malaria vector Anopheles stephensi (Senthil Nathan
germacrene B (6.29%) and myrcene (6.55%). Studies 2007).
demonstrated that this oil had very good broad-spectrum
antibiotic properties (Oyedeji & Afolayan 2005). There are
at least two chemotypes of the plant, which suggests there
could be other oil types with different constituents that may
affect their healing properties.
active component was β-eudesmol. The other oils had

varying degrees of efficiency against different mosquito
species. The essential oil components of interest were Eucalyptus camaldulensis fruit capsules with seeds. While
identified as cinnamaldehyde (Cinnamon), citronellol leaves are the most common source of essential oils, Eucalypt
(Lemon Eucalyptus) and cumerone (Turmeric) (Zhu fruits can also be a good resource. Studies in Turkey of the
essential oil sourced from Eucalyptus camaldulensis (dried
2008). Indian investigators have evaluated the activity fruits) showed mosquito-repellent properties against
of Eucalyptus globulus against Anopheles stephensi larvae. Culex pipiens (Erler 2006). (Courtesy: J. Brock, via Peter
They found that when Blue Gum oil was combined Brocklehurst, Northern Territory Herbarium)
6 This Sandalwood oil was characterised by guaiol (43.8%), elemol (12.84%)
and eudesmol (11.86%) (Zhu 2008). Oil from Santalum species normally 7 The essential oil of Eucalyptus urophylla, which was also evaluated in this
contain santalol – a component that was not listed in this oil analysis. study, did not show comparable activity.
Argentinian investigations of the efficacy of

Eucalypt essential oils against the mosquito vector
for yellow fever, Aedes aegypti, determined a number
of species that were effective due to their 1,8-cineole
content: Eucalyptus gunnii, E. tereticornis, E. grandis,
E. camaldulensis, E. cinerea, E. dunnii, E. globulus
subsp. globulus, E. globulus subsp. maidenii, E.
saligna, E. sideroxylon, E. viminalis and a couple of
hybrids (E. grandis x E .tereticornis, E. grandis x E.
camaldulensis) (Lucia 2009). The pinene component
of Eucalyptus grandis (α-pinene) and Turpentine (α-
and β-pinene in the pine resin essential oil) were
identified as the active larvicidal agents in these
oils (Lucia 2007). Studies at the National Institute
of Malaria Research in India have shown that the
Lemon-scented Eucalypt had similar larvicidal activity
against Anopheles mosquito larvae (Singh 2007).
Evaluation of the efficacy of essential oils against
The Forest Red Gum, Eucalyptus tereticornis, is a 1,8-cineole- different disease vectors has shown some interesting
containing species that has shown good activity against the
larvae of the malaria mosquito. (Courtesy: KAW Williams,
repellent activity. Scrub Typhus is a rickettsial disease
Native Plants of Queensland, Vol. 4.) that is transmitted by insects commonly known as
chiggers (Leptotrombidium species). Among the oils
that had the most effective repellent properties were
Clove (Syzygium aromaticum: 100% repellency, 5%
oil concentration), Tea Tree (Melaleuca alternifolia:
100% repellency, 40% oil concentration), Zingiber
cassamunar (100% repellency, oil undiluted) and
Blue Gum (Eucalyptus globulus, 100% repellency,
oil undiluted) (Eamsobhana 2009). Another study
of forty-one essential oils determined that the five
most effective were Litsea (Litsea cubeba), Cajeput
(Melaleuca leucadendron), Niaouli (Melaleuca
quinquenervia), Violet (Viola odorata) and Catnip
(Nepeta cataria). They had 100 per cent repellency
for eight hours against the Yellow Fever Mosquito
(Aedes aegyptii), the malaria vector Anopheles stephensi,
and the filariasis and encephalitis vector Culex
quinquefasciatus. Innovative formulations are needed
that ensure the essential oils persist in their adherence
to the skin and the long-term release of the active
repellent components (Amer & Mehlhorn 2006).
The repellent properties of Melaleuca leucadendron
and Litsea (Litsea cubeba and L. salicifolia) against
Aedes aegypti have been confirmed by another study
(Noosidum 2008).
The fact that essential oils from numerous
Melaleuca leucadendra, Cairns Swamp. Melaleuca oil
aromatic traditional herbs have long been valued as
has gained popularity for inclusions in formulations as a
mosquito and midge repellent. insecticidal and pesticidal agents has led to a lengthy
tradition of experimentation with oil combinations

that aim to maximise their effect. Synergistic
activity has excellent potential for substantially
increasing the effectiveness of formulations, although
determining the right mixture is not a straightforward
undertaking. For instance, one study showed that at
a 40 per cent concentration for all the tested extracts,
Lemon Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus maculata citrodion)
and pyrethrum (oleoresin of Chrysanthemum
cinerariaefolium) were substantially more effective
than Rue (Ruta graveolens) and Neem (Azedarachta
indica). A 50 per cent concentration combination of
Deet and pyrethrum was more effective – but at 75per
cent concentration levels, Lemon Eucalyptus and
Deet performed significantly better than pyrethrum
and Neem (Hadis 2003). Studies of oils from
Eucalyptus globulus, Lavender (Lavendula officinalis),
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) and Thyme (Thymus
vulgaris) have confirmed their mosquito-repellent
effects. In particular α-terpinene, carvacrol and
thymol had a high repellent rate (0.5% topically,
repellency 97%) – while a spray solution containing
2 per cent α-terpinene had stronger effects than Deet.
Thyme essential oil gave very good results – as did
The specimen of the Mountain Blue Gum (Eucalyptus
oil of Cloves (Eugenia aromatica). However, some
deanei) pictured here is aiming to be one of the ‘forest
individuals showed a sensitivity to the test products, giants’. It has already reached a height of 80 m plus in a
experiencing irritant effects (e.g. skin irritation or remote hidden location. (Courtesy: Peter Woodard)
hayfever-like reactions), or they were considered
aromatically unattractive (Choi 2002; Barnard 1999).
Acaricidal effects of Eucalyptus oils
Molluscicidal activity of Eucalyptus deanei
A number of interesting investigations have pointed Bosisto’s Eucalyptus oil spray. (Courtesy:
Felton Grimwade & Bosisto’s Pty Ltd)
to the useful anti-parasitic potential of Eucalyptus
leaves. Effective anti-protozoal substances against
internal worm infestations have been found in the The Eucalyptus oil components
genus (Bennett-Jenkins & Bryant 1996). Many cineole and farnesol have shown
Eucalyptus species have shown molluscicidal activity activity against dust mites – which
– toxic effects against the snail hosts of various would indicate that some species
parasites. This may include the ability to kill the with high levels of these compounds
eggs and cercaria of the parasite. In Brazilian studies, have good potential as an addition
Eucalypt extracts and oils had varying degrees of to the cleaning products used by
usefulness as antiparasitic agents. In particular, the allergic individuals. For instance,
Mountain Blue Gum, Eucalyptus deanei, was found Eucalyptus spray is an excellent
to be highly effective (Mendes 1990). In Africa it method of delivery as an antiseptic
was even proposed that Eucalypt trees could be and antifungal cleaning agent for bedding. Tea tree
planted on river banks to act as a toxin ‘self-delivery’ oil has similar benefits.
system – utilising the naturally-falling foliage as a
molluscicidal agent (Hammond 1994).
as citral, geranyl acetate

and β-caryophyllene, make
a contribution to the
fragrance and flavour
qualities of Lemon-scented
Eucalypt. A couple of
Eucalyptus species rate
even more highly among
the richest floral sources of
rutin.
Flavonoids are the
House Dust Mite (Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus). natural yellow pigments
(Courtesy: Federal Department of Agriculture, US in a plant that are
Government)
Lemon (Citrus limon). important for its growth,
Lemons also contain good development and chemical
amounts of vitamin C and defence. Of these, rutin
flavonoids, notably rutin. has been of serious
pharmacological interest
since its discovery. (In older works rutin and hesperidin
were often referred to as vitamin P1.) Flavonoids act
to alter cell permeability, thereby decreasing capillary
fragility, which can have substantial benefits for the
integrity of the vascular system. Torald Sollmann, in A
Manual of Pharmacology (1949), mentioned details of
Poultry Red Mite (Dermanyssus gallinae). (Courtesy: Luis the discovery of this substance:
Fernández García, Wikimedia Commons Project)
Vitamin P – Szent-Gyorgyi et al., 1936, found that

paprika and lemon juice contain another substance
An interesting study has shown Eucalyptus citriodora
than ascorbic acid, apparently a flavone which controls
essential oil was an effective pesticide (85% mortality)
haemorrhage in various conditions, especially in clinical
against the Poultry Red Mite (Dermanyssus gallinae). cases of increased capillary vulnerability … in retinal
Comparison with the essential oils from Eucalyptus haemorrhage and apoplexy. Isolated as crystals from
globulus and E. radiata showed the latter were far lemon juice,8 the substance was named citrin and was
less active (11% and 19% mortality, respectively). found to consist of a mixture of two related flavone
The observation was made that the more chemically glycosides, hesperidin and eriodictyol … It is apparently
complex essential oil had greater efficacy against the identical with rutin, present in many plants, prepared
mite, which appears to indicate that the synergistic from tobacco and most economically from buckwheat
activity of a range of components in the oil enhanced leaves9 … This appears sometimes to decrease capillary
its overall pesticidal activity (George 2009). fragility but further experience is needed.
Numerous plants that can be used for dye

extraction contain flavonoids. In 1842 a compound
Flavonoids: rutin resources was isolated by Weiss from Rue (Ruta graveolens)
The lemon aroma of Eucalyptus citriodora is based on
8 Rutin is also present in good quantities in the rind of many fruits,
its citronellal and citronellol components. This is in particularly Citrus fruits.
contrast to Lemon oil, which contains large amounts 9 Commercial sources of rutin include tobacco residues (Nicotiana tabacum
and related species), the flower buds of the Pagoda Tree, Styphnolobium
of limonene (over 50%) and γ-terpinene (10–50%). japonicum (syn. Sophora japonica) and Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum). The
Smaller amounts (1–10%) of other compounds such fruiting tops of the latter are particularly valued as a rutin resource.
It can be extracted in commercially useful quantities

from the Red Stringybark (Eucalyptus macrorhyncha),
which contains levels ranging from 6–24 per cent,
and from Youman’s Stringybark (E. youmanii) at more
consistent levels of 13–21 per cent. Knowledge of
these resources has been around a long time. In 1897
Henry G. Smith from the Technological Museum in
Sydney wrote of the discovery of a yellow crystalline
substance from these sources. He announced the
existence of a ‘true dye material found existing in
the leaves of the “Red Stringy Bark”’. This was later
found to be identical with rutin. Smith proposed that
it had a future commercial value as a dye: ‘It appears,
Rue (Ruta graveolens). therefore, that the prospective value of these eucalyptus
leaves is very good, and at present they are put to
which, in 1910, was shown in investigations by Perkin no use whatever. Myrticolorin [rutin], too, is easily
to be identical with rutin. In the early 1900s interest obtained in comparison with the preparations from
was shown in rutin’s medical use, but this was not to quercitron bark.’ The latter, which was obtained from
last. At the time it was proposed for the treatment the North American Black Oak (Quercus tinctoria),
of a variety of haemorrhagic conditions, particularly was used worldwide as a source of yellow dye. Initially,
capillary fragility in hypertensive patients. Little came in Australia, commercial rutin production from
of this proposition – although some commercial Eucalyptus macrorhyncha and E. youmannii lasted from
enterprises did develop with regard to the export of the mid-1950s to the end of the 1960s.
rutin. However, with the resurgence of interest in
natural products bioflavonids such as rutin have re- Bark of the Red Stringy-
established themselves in the marketplace. There is an bark (Eucalyptus macro-
rhyncha), Black Mountain,
interesting recent reference to rutin’s medicinal value Australian Capital Terri-
by Farooqi and Sreeramu (2004) who mention its tory. (Courtesy: Robert
use for retinitis and rheumatic fever of haemorrhagic Myers, Wikimedia Com-
conditions: ‘Generally, capillary fragility occurs in a mons Project)
significant number of cases of high blood pressure,
diabetes, and other conditions … In those cases where
capillary fragility is concerned it is used in cases of With regard to Eucalyptus macrorhyncha, Farooqi
coronary thrombosis and for the purification of blood. and Sreeramu (2004) make some interesting
Rutin can also protect against the harmful effects of comments concerning its quality and the potential of
X-rays, indicating that it may be of use to persons this species as a crop in India:
exposed to dangerous atomic radiation. Under
certain conditions, rutin can protect animals against It is considered to be the best source of rutin, both in
histamine shock.’ The authors mention that the rutin terms of quantity and quality. This plant being perennial,
requirements for India are around 7 ton per annum, and due to the ease of cultivation even on moderate
which have been met ‘mainly through imports from soil under rainfed conditions, offers great advantage in
Australia, involving large sums of foreign exchange’. commercializing its cultivation in India. There are vast
This appears to indicate that it remains a lucrative areas and different regions in the country which can
enterprise for Australian concerns. adopt this crop to meet rutin requirements indigenously.
Few would be aware that the Australian flora Furthermore, Eucalyptus macrorhyncha is considered the
best source of the drug because the rutin produced from it
contains a couple of species of fame as rutin resources.10
is considerably purer and requires less capital outlay when
10 Low levels of rutin are also present in Acacia decurrens var. dealbata: compared with other sources. The leaf is the main source
flowers (5.2–5.9%) and leaves (2.1–2.8%). of rutin in this crop.
The Alpine Ash or Woollybutt (Eucalyptus delegatensis)

could have potential for the extraction of rutin. The
leaves, which are comparatively large, contain 6–7 per
cent rutin.11 Although this is substantially less that
Eucalyptus macrorhyncha (average 10%) or E. youmanii
(up to 20%), this tree has other uses (mainly as a
timber resource) and rutin could be harvested as a by-
product (Lassak 2002). The leaves, which have a very
fragrant odour, have the unusual quality of retaining
their aroma for years in their dried form. Eucalyptus
delegatensis oil contains large amounts of phellandrene
(α-phellandrene 24%, β-phellandrene 18%), as well
as a fair amount of p-cymene (10%) (Boland 1991).
Eucalyptus macrorhyncha at Spring Gully in the Clare Valley, In contrast, the Essential Oil Research Center, Addis
South Australia, suffering the effects of drought. The large Ababa, Ethiopia, identified a low-cineole essential
tree that stands alone (below) has not, as yet, succumbed to oil (8.3%) that had α-pinene (36.9%) as the main
the stresses placed on the more populated site. Given time, component – with reasonable amounts of p-cymene
some may even recover when rain arrives. (Courtesy: David (13.9%) and α-terpinene (19.9%) – plus a small
Clarke, Clare Valley)
amount of citronellal (1.5%) and terpineol (5.6%).
As a timber tree the Alpine Ash is considered one
of the very best. The light-coloured wood, which
is fairly hard and not particularly heavy, seasons
well. In addition it has the advantage of being easy
to work and has been used as a local substitute for
imported ‘Ash’. Alpine Ash has been widely employed
for construction purposes, and for paper and pulp
manufacture. In 1910 Joseph Maiden summarised its
uses: ‘It is used for house-building, show-cases, oars,
golf-shafts, tool-handles, and its bending qualities
are almost equal to American or English Ash, and is,
in my opinion, a splendid timber for carriage work,
and could be used in place of Ash and Hickory.The
Alpine Ash is found in New South
Wales, Tasmania and Victoria – where
it rates among the giants of the forest.
This led to it being named Eucalyptus
gigantea by the eminent botanist Sir
Joseph Dalton Hooker. It was later re-
classified by R.T. Baker as Eucalyptus
delegatensis when it was realised that
the giant Western Australian Kauri
had prior claim to the title ‘gigantea’.
The Alpine Ash was originally found in
New South Wales, around the vicinity
of Delegate – hence the botanical
name.
Eucalyptus youmanii. (Court- 11 Recent studies of Eucalyptus globulus leaves have also shown they contain
Eucalyptus delegatensis, leaves esy: Warren & Gloria good levels of rutin (1132 ug/gm) as well as reasonable amount of the
and bark. Sheather, www.yallaroo.com.au) flavonoid quercetin (440ug/g) (Bajpai 2005).
Dye from Drosera sundews … belong to a class of compounds very largely used as
dyes, but owing to the lengthy and tedious process of
Natural colouring materials can be difficult to source digging up the bulbs, the quantity of colouring dye very
and are not always of good quality. For practical small in each, and the further difficulty of separating
use they need to be present in reasonable amounts, out the material in a pure state, the exact structure has
and in a form that can be extracted from the plant. not yet been made out.
Therefore, quality materials tend to attract the interest
of investigative chemists. A rather unusual local A rekindled interest in flavonoid pharmacology
find involved a small carnivorous plant, the Scented has proved of particular import for the study of
Sundew. In 1926, traditional medicines, including the Eucalypt. In
addition to rutin, the most commonly encountered
flavonoids are hesperidin, hesperetin, kaempferol,
eriodyctiol, diosmin, naringen and quercetin.
Investigations of these compounds have established
that they have substantial health benefits, and
many formulations on the market have a vitamin
C and flavonoid component. Understanding their
Scented Sundew (Drosera whittakeri). (Courtesy: Friends pharmacology has also helped to unravel some of the
of Black Hill and Morialta Inc.) mysteries surrounding a diverse array of folk remedies
that appeared to have therapeutic effects that were not
linked to a single ‘active chemical’ such as an alkaloid
or saponin.
In many plants, flavonoids appear to be candidates
for solving the puzzles associated with their elusive
pharmacologically active ingredients. Flavonoids
have been shown to have a wide range of biological
activity: anti-inflammatory, muscle relaxant,
antibacterial, antifungal, anti-allergic, antithrombotic
(preventing blood clotting), anticancer potential, and
gastroprotective effects on the stomach mucosa. Study
Professor Rennie mentioned this dye resource in of these compounds has begun to provide insights into
his review of the potential of Australian plants for the activity of remedies that, until now, have simply
chemical investigation: remained a baffling puzzle. For instance, Pakistani
studies on the liver protective effects of Artemisia
One of the most interesting coloured substances is that scoparia (Redstem Wormwood) identified rutin as the
which occurs in the small carnivorous plant Drosera component in this herb that maintained the structural
whittakeri, popularly known as ‘Sundew’, which is integrity of the liver cell membrane (Janbaz & Gilani
to be found in many parts of New South Wales and 1995).
Victoria. It grows from a small bulb surrounding which Rutin has shown interesting potential for use as
are several layers of dark-coloured tissue and between
an anti-oedema (anti-inflammatory) agent in the
these layers the colour is deposited. The bulbs are used
by children to make ‘red ink’. The colouring matter was
treatment of cobra snakebite. Like rutin, hesperidin
partially examined by Francis, at one time Government is a particularly valuable vasoprotective agent that can
Chemist in Adelaide, who showed that it could be help strengthen the vascular structure of the circulatory
used as a dye and was capable of producing beautiful system, thereby providing support for blood vessel
tints by use of various mordants. My attention having integrity and preventing capillary fragility.12 Both
been drawn to this plant I was able to separate from it are useful for treating chronic nosebleeds (epistaxis),
two substances, with some evidence of a third. They
12 Hesperidin is found in good quantities in rose hips.
diabetic retinopathy, hypertension, radiation injuries, constituents, has demonstrated liver-protective

haemorrhoids and varicose veins. The flavonoid properties (Mohammed 2005).
kaempferol possesses similar anti-inflammatory, diuretic,
anti-oxidant and free radical scavenging activity.13 Antidiabetic Eucalypt remedies
The discovery of a number of unique flavonoids
in herbal products has provided considerable
The herb Milk Thistle

(Silybum marianum, syn.
Carduus marianus) has
substantial liver protective
properties, due to its
flavonoid components,
which have led to it being one
The Blue Gum, Eucalyptus globulus, Maui, Hawaii.
of the most popular herbal
(Courtesy: Kim & Forest Starr)
remedies in use today. Not
only does it have a protective effect against toxins that cause
liver damage, it can assist liver cell repair and regeneration,
even in fairly severe clinical conditions. Myrtillin is a component of interest in the Lemon-
scented Eucalypt, Eucalyptus citriodora. Myrtillin
has a slow acting anti-glycosuric action (reducing
pharmacological support for their development as the sugar content of urine) and could be of use in
important medicines in the modern marketplace. This diabetes management. The first reports of the use
includes silymarin from the popular liver-protective of Eucalyptus in the treatment of diabetes were
herb Milk Thistle (Carduus marianus). In some herbs made in the British Medical Journal of 1902 (24
flavonoids are present in combination with other May) and the Medical Annual of 1903 – although
pharmacologically active substances – a situation its value was debatable. Even so, in the early
that becomes much more chemically complex. For 1900s Dr G.V. Perez commented:
instance flavoglycosides (heterosides, which include
the flavonoid quercetin) plus terpene derivatives In Teneriffe, where diabetes, or, at least, glucosuria, is
(ginkgolides, bilobalides) are found in the leaf of the very frequent, the fact remains that many cases have
memory and circulatory enhancement herb Ginkgo experienced great relief with this drug, and that there are
biloba. reports of cures. I heard in May also from a good source
that there were over 400 cases taking the decoction of
Eucalyptus leaves, and I also know for a fact that analysis
Innovative chemical discoveries of the urine of such patients, frequently made, has shown
Studies of the constituents of diverse Eucalyptus a very marked diminution in the quantity of glucose
species continue to reveal new, often intriguing, excreted. I have it also from quite a trustworthy witness
pharmaceutical potential. Indeed, Japanese studies that in several cases where sexual impotence was a marked
have shown that the antibacterial properties of symptom of diabetes, the sexual powers of the male have
Spotted Gum (Eucalyptus maculata, now Corymbia been restored, and this symptom appears to me to be a
maculata) leaf extracts were due to the presence of very remarkable one (quoted in Maiden 1921).
unique flavonoids (Takahashi 2004). There are other
components of interest. An exudate prepared from Even today, Eucalyptus globulus (Blue Gum) extract
Spotted Gum resin, and its component phenolic continues to be utilised as an anti-diabetic herbal
remedy in Jordan (Otoom 2006). Recent studies
13 Kaempferol is found in strawberries, leeks, kale, broccoli, radishes, endive
and red beets.
have confirmed that Blue Gum extracts possess

anti-hyperglycaemic (blood sugar lowering)
properties with potential as a dietary adjunct for
diabetes treatment. In animal experiments, Blue
Gum was among a number of herbal remedies that
acted to reduce hyperglycaemia (excessive blood
sugar), polydipsia (excessive thirst) and weight loss.
Oleanolic acid glycosides were identified among
the components that had anti-diabetogenic activity.
There may be additional benefits to the sugar-
regulating effects of this Eucalypt. Extracts have
demonstrated an ability to inhibit the absorption
of sugars (sucrose, fructose) via the intestine and
this helped to prevent weight gain in animals on
a high-sugar diet (Sugimoto 2010, 2005; Ahlem
2009; Yoshikawa & Matsuda 2000; Gray &
Flatt 1998; Swanston-Flatt 1990). The Forest
Red Gum, Eucalyptus tereticornis, has also shown
experimental anti-hyperglycaemic activity. In the
same study, extracts of the bark of the Jambul,
Syzygium cumini, and the leaves of the Chaste Tree,
Vitex negundo, demonstrated equally interesting
potential (Villasenor & Lamadrid 2005).
New leaves of the Cadagai (Eucalyptus torrelliana).

Triterpene discoveries an effective remedial action on drug- and alcohol-
Triterpenes, such as ursolic acid, are another chemical induced liver cell damage (Patnaik 1991).
classification that can be found in Eucalyptus-based Ursolic acid and its derivatives have shown anti-
extracts and oils.14 Ursolic acid has been isolated inflammatory, anti-ulcer, immune-enhancing and
from extracts of the Tea-tree (Melaleuca leucadendra) anti-allergic attributes. Their medicinal potential
and the Forest Red Gum (Eucalyptus tereticornis) appears to be substantial. In numerous studies, ursolic
– and is doubtless present in many related species. acid has also been reported to have antiviral (anti-
Studies of ursolic acid obtained from the latter species HIV), cytotoxic and anticancer properties (Il’icheva
demonstrated significant experimental liver-protective 2001; Choi 2000; Kashiwada 2000; Kim 2000;
activity. It reversed toxin damage, repaired cellular Lauthier 2000; Saraswat 2000; Subbaramiah 2000;
function, and had a restorative action on biliary Paik 1998; Baek 1997; Es-Saady 1996). Triterpenes,
activity. It acted as a choleretic (increased bile flow) including betulinic acid, oleanolic acid and ursolic
and promoted the synthesis of bile salts and bile acids. acid, have been isolated from leaf extracts from
Indeed, its activity was comparable to that of silymarin Eucalyptus camaldulensis var. obtusa. Camaldulin,
from the hepatoprotective herb Milk Thistle (Carduus along with some ursolic acid derivatives from this
marianus, syn. Silybum marianum).15 Ursolic acid had species, showed experimental spasmolytic activity.
The plant sterol β-sitosterol was also present. This
14 Ursolic acid is an active ingredient of numerous common herbs such as compound has shown anti-hypercholesterolaemic,
the Ground Ivy (Glechoma hederacea), Holy Basil (Ocimum sanctum) and anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, liver-
Heather (Calluna vulgaris) (Liu 1995; Najid 1992).
15 Silymarin is actually composed of three potent flavonoids (silybin, protective, anticancer and beneficial prostatic actions
silydianin and silychristin) which are insoluble in water. It takes sophisticated (anti-prostatic and anti-prostatadenomic activity). The
processing to ensure that they are present in appreciable quantities in herbal
extracts. fruit of the Blue Gum (Eucalyptus globulus) contained
similar triterpenoids (betulonic acid, betulinic acid, cytotoxic activity (Al-Fatimi 2005). Eucalyptus
ursolic acid, corosolic acid) and daucosterol (Chen occidentalis (collected from Algeria) contained
2002; Begum 2002, 2000; Siddiqui 2000). flavonoids that induced apoptosis (normal cell death)
Nigerian studies of the antibacterial properties of in leukaemia cell lines. The leaves of Eucalyptus
leaf and stem bark extracts of Eucalyptus camaldulensis cladocalyx contained a cytotoxic triterpene named
and E. torelliana have shown good activity against cladocalol – as well as ursolic acid and β-sitosterol
Helicobacter pylori. These herbs have been traditionally (Benyahia 2005, 2004). Oleanolic acid, which has
utilised in Nigeria for the treatment of gastric anticancer and anti-viral (anti-HIV) properties is
disorders and have shown gastroprotective properties. present in a number of Eucalypts – and has also been
Leaf extracts were shown to be able to decreased isolated from the Lillypilly, Syzygium claviflorum.
gastric acid production. This is of interest because the Related triterpenoids with anti-HIV properties, such
bacillus, which is currently treated with antibiotics, as pomolic acid, have been isolated from Syzygium
has the potential to develop resistance to treatment. buxifolium. Both of these Lillipillies contain betulinic
Helicobacter pylori is an important pathogen that has acid, which has shown ‘extremely potent anti-HIV
become familiar as a cause of gastric and duodenal activity’ (Kashiwada 1998).
ulceration due to its ability to survive in the extreme
acidic conditions of the stomach. It does this by
excreting an enzyme, urease, that has an alkalising The Sugar Gum
effect (via hydrolysis of urea to ammonia). In addition,
it is implicated in the development of gastric and
colorectal cancers (Adeniyi 2009).
Anticancer and antiviral studies

Investigations have indicated that the Myrtaceae
contains diverse additional species with anticancer
and antiviral potential. Studies evaluating extracts of
Eucalyptus camaldulensis showed they had substantial
The Sugar Gum (Eucalyptus cladocalyx, syn. Eucalyptus

corynocladyx) is so named for the sweet character of the
juvenile foliage. (Courtesy: Windmill Outback Nursery,
www.australiaplants.com)
Investigations of the leaves of the Sugar Gum

have isolated triterpenes that include ursolic acid.
A more uncommon find was cladocalol – which
had cytotoxic properties. Early studies in 1920 by
Richard T. Baker and Henry G. Smith established
White Stringybark, Eucalyptus globoidea. The Eucalypts that the essential oil was pinene- and cineole-
contain a number of compounds with antiviral potential. based. Later studies found another, completely
They include a lignan (globoidnan A) with an inhibitory
different, form of essential oil in which the major
effect on HIV integrase which has been isolated from
Eucalyptus globoidea (Ovenden 2004). This species is constituents were p-cymene, caryophyllene oxide,
widespread along the coastal regions of New South Wales spathulenol and β-eudesmol (Brophy & Southwell
and Victoria. There is also an isolated population on the 2002). This South Australian Eucalypt has been
Cape York Peninsula. (Images courtesy: Dennis Haugen)
widely utilised as a forage tree for cattle, leading Multi-coloured bark of

to extensive plantings throughout south-eastern the tropical Rainbow
Australia as an ornamental, windbreak and shelter- Eucalyptus or Kamarere,
belt tree. It yields a useful and durable timber Eucalyptus deglupta, is
suitable for construction purposes, flooring, the only Eucalypt whose
natural range migrated
decking, stair-treads, posts and poles, as well as into the Northern
being an attractive furniture timber. Interestingly Hemisphere, ranging
the seedlings, which have cyogenetic properties, to the islands of New
and been responsible for the poisoning of goats Britain, New Guinea,
(Webber 1985). Ceram, Sulawesi and
Mindanao. (Courtesy:
Jeff Kubina, Wikimedia
Commons Project)
Chemical discoveries can help to explain the clinical
efficacy of Eucalyptus preparations, as well as suggest compound is involved
new forms of therapy. The anti-inflammatory, antiviral in the biochemistry of
and antimicrobial properties of eucalyptus leaves can conditions such as gout
be of substantial benefit in the treatment of respiratory and cataract. Drugs with a track record of efficacy
disorders, including inflammatory conditions and in reducing xanthine oxidase levels include the
chronic obstructive lung disease. Support for its use has anti-gout agent allopurinol, a drug of substantial
been provided by recent pharmacological evaluations. clinical importance.
Eucalyptus leaf extracts possess remarkable antioxidant There are some natural products with potential
properties. The presence of flavonoids (rutin, quercitrin) for lowering xanthine oxidase levels with a
and phenolic acids (chlorogenic and ellagic acids) reduced incidence of side-effects. A Puerto Rican
would appear to contribute to this activity (Almeida investigation of nineteen tropical plants determined
2009). In addition, Eucalyptus globulus essential oil has that Kamarere (Eucalyptus deglupta) and the Malay
shown activity against the influenza viruses Haemophilus Apple (Syzygium malaccense) substantially inhibited
influenzae and H. parainfluenzae – as well as a bacterium xanthine oxidase, at levels of 51 per cent and 64 per
associated with pneumonia infections (Streptococcus cent respectively. In addition, experimental studies
pneumoniae) (Cermelli 2008). An investigation of the with clinical relevance have shown that diabetic
antiviral attributes of Eucalyptus oil against Herpes rats given a Kamarere extract for three months did
simplex has shown a substantial reduction in viral titres not develop cataracts (Guerrero & Guzman 1998).
(57.9% for HSV-1 and 75.4% for HSV-2). Although
studies showed that it was not effective once the virus Experimentally, the anticancer activity of the
had penetrated the host cell, the oil had the potential triterpene oleanolic acid is comparable to that of ursolic
to neutralise the virus before or during adsorption acid – although some studies have suggested the latter
(cell attachment). The finding that Tea-tree (Melaleuca is more potent. Oeanolic acid possesses some diverse
alternifolia) oil was more potent has opened up new activities of pharmacological interest: anti-mutagenic,
therapeutic possibilities that are worthy of clinical anti-leukaemic, antiviral and anti-invasive properties.
assessment. Eucalyptus and Tea-tree oil have both Both triterpenes have been used experimentally to
attracted interest as antiviral agents for use in recurrent promote the recovery of haematopoiesis (blood cell
Herpes infections (Astani 2010; Schnitzler 2001). production) after irradiation in mice. This suggests
that, in addition to having an anticancer role, these
Searching for anti-gout treatments compounds can modify the cellular damage inflicted
by radiotherapy. They also appear to have a beneficial
In the search for new drugs, investigations of the effect on immune system function (Chiang 2003;
inhibitory effects of xanthine oxidase can be a useful Raphael & Kuttan 2003; Li 2002; Novotny 2001;
protocol for establishing potential activity. This You 2001; Hollosy 2000; Hsu 1997). In Japan, where
the anticancer potential of oleanolic acid and ursolic

acid has been recognised, they have been incorporated
into cream formulations as a skin cancer preventative.
Ursolic acid was found particularly useful for
alleviating chronic skin inflammation. In addition,
interest has been directed toward its incorporation
into liposomes – which can have anti-ageing benefits
akin to retinoids (vitamin A derivatives) (Both 2002;
Manez 1997; Muto 1990).
Remedies for the heart

The potential cardiovascular benefits of oleanolic acid
and ursolic acid have attracted serious research interest.
These compounds have shown cholesterol-reducing
(hypolipidaemic) properties, anti-atherosclerotic Leaves and fruit of the Brown Myrtle or Brush Turpentine,
activity (reducing hardening of the arteries) and anti- Choricarpia leptopetala. (Courtesy: Melburnian,
hypertensive (lowering blood pressure) actions – the
latter related to antioxidant, hypoglycaemic (reducing
blood sugar) and cardioactive benefits – as well as an
effect on kidney function (diuretic, nuturietic and
saluretic activity). Studies of oleanolic acid isolated
from Jambul (Eugenia jambolana) and of ursolic acid
isolated from Holy Basil (Ocimum sanctum) indicated
that the latter only had mild activity. Oleanolic acid
was shown to be more potent with respect to protecting
The Giant Ironwood, Choricarpia subargentea. (Courtesy:
liver and heart cellular function. An important KAW Williams, Native Plants of Queensland, Vol. 2, Vol. 3)
discovery was that their effect was significantly
enhanced when these acids were combined. Studies 1,8-cineole (2–20%). In addition to pinene, this
have continued to evaluate the anti-inflammatory and oil had lower amounts of limonene (less than
cancer-protective potential of these compounds. The 20%). Other components were p-cymene and
anti-fertility activity of both ursolic acid and oleanolic 1,8-cineole, with small amounts (less than 3%) of
acid is another area of investigation (Somova 2003; methyl eugenol, methyl isoeugenol and elemicin
Lee 2001; Choi 2000; Honda 2000; Suh 1999, 1998; (Brophy 1994).
Manez 1997; Kapil & Sharma 1995; Liu 1995; Sohn With regard to Choricarpia subargentea
1995; Balanehru & Nagarajan 1992, 1991; Muto (formerly Syncarpia subargentea) Keith Williams,
1990; Rajansekaran 1988). in Native Plants of Queensland (Vol. 2, 1984),
commented:
Choricarpia: A little-known Myrtaceae genus It is now an uncommon species as most of its habitat
The essential oil of both Choricarpia species has been cleared. It is considered to be an endangered
is pinene-based. Jensenone was present in species. In places where the species still occurs, it appears
Choricarpia subargentea at levels up to 5 per to be quite abundant but clearing the area for any
cent, but was not found in the essential oil of C. purpose would completely wipe out the species. Areas
leptopetala. Choricarpia subargentea can contain which are close by have already been cleared and there
quite high levels of pinene (30–76%) – as well as is no evidence of any regeneration on any of those that
good quantities of limonene (2–55%) and some I have examined. Most of them have become neglected
and dense regrowth of rubbish – lantana etc. – has taken
over … This is a species which should be given much

attention with the object in view of bringing it into
cultivation if for no other reason than to help preserve
the species from extinction.
The tree, which is known as the Giant Ironwood,

is found in south-eastern coastal Queensland
(Brisbane and the Sunshine Coast), with a few
scattered populations in northern Queensland. The
Brown Myrtle (Choricarpia leptopetala) is found
in the coastal forests of New South Wales and,
although it is not considered to be under threat,
this habitat is rapidly being cleared for urban
development and roadworks.
FPCs: a remarkable new class of

compounds
During the 1990s the chemical evaluation of the
genus Eucalyptus was to take an unexpected turn
when an unusual group of chemical components
was discovered. The classification, given the name
formylated phoroglucinol compounds (FPCs),
contained a whole range of new compounds –
euglobals, macrocarpals and sideroxylonals. Later
investigations determined that these FPCs were not
present in all Eucalypts, and were concentrated in the TheRose Gum or Flooded Gum (Eucalyptus grandis).
grouping Symphyomyrtus (an informal subgenus).
Other Eucalyptus groups can contain variable E. amplifolia, tend to be strongly antibacterial against
amounts of these compounds (Foley & Lassak 2004): gram-positive bacteria – although they were inactive
against gram-negative bacteria, yeasts and fungi.
• Low concentrations: found in the genus Corymbia Investigations have indicated that some macrocarpals
(Bloodwoods) and the subgenus Blakella (the had good activity against oral bacteria (particularly
Paper-fruited Bloodwoods). Porphyromonas gingivalis). This has suggested the
• FPCs absent: Eucalyptus subgenera Idiogenes and potential use of Eucalyptus leaf-based extracts or
Monocalyptus appear to be devoid of FPCs, as macrocarpal compounds in dental care products such as
does the Myrtaceous genus Melaleuca. antibacterial mouthwashes (Nagata 2006; Lassak 2002).
• In addition, FPCs were present in a small Investigations of the FPCs grandinol (found in
Queensland Myrtaceous genus: Choricarpia, Eucalyptus globulus and E. grandis) and jensenone
which contains only two members (from Eucalyptus jensenii) have demonstrated
antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-leishmanial
FPCs have shown diverse biological activities, activity.16 Jensenone can be present in concentrations
some of which may have practical potential uses. (around 70%) in the essential oil. Both jensenone
They include antiviral, antibacterial and antifungal and some of its analogues showed active antifungal
properties. It is notable that the macrocarpals, properties against Candida albicans. Investigations
present in Eucalyptus macrocarpa, E. globulus and have indicated that other FPCs could have anticancer
potential. Euglobals have shown a strong inhibitory
16 Jensenone has also been found in Choricarpia subargentea action on skin tumours in mice, with euglobal-G1 from
the leaves of the Rose or Flooded Gum (Eucalyptus oxide, cuminal, eudsmols, globulol, phellandrene and
grandis) revealing a ‘remarkable inhibitory effect’. In spathulenol (Brophy & Southwell 2002; Cimanga
other animal studies it also had an inhibitory effect 2002).
on the tumour-promoting activity of various toxic Several interesting investigations have supported
chemicals associated with the development of lung antiviral activity for various FPCs – a topic that has
cancer (Bharate 2007; Takasaki 2000). attracted close scrutiny. A number of macrocarpals
have shown antiviral properties, including potential
Searching for new drugs anti-HIV activity. Euglobals with activity against
the Epstein-Barr virus have been extracted from the
leaves of Eucalyptus amplifolia, E. blakelyi, Eucalyptus
globulus, E. grandis, E. incrassata and E. tereticornis
(Takasaki 2000, 1995, 1994, 1990). The Epstein-
Barr virus (which belongs to the Herpes family)
can be used in screening studies to determine the
tumour-inhibitory potential of chemical compounds.
Epstein-Barr is the causative agent of glandular fever
(infectious mononucleosis). It has also been linked to
the development of Burkitt’s lymphoma, Hodgkin’s
disease (leukaemia), nasopharyngeal carcinoma and
possibly breast cancer – as well as chronic fatigue
syndrome, multiple sclerosis and various autoimmune
disorders. Therefore, compounds with good activity
against this virus can rate serious research interest.
In addition, euglobals can have potent anti-
inflammatory potential (Kozuka 1982). This may
be linked to the anti-inflammatory properties of
leaf extracts that have shown strong granulation
inhibitory activity – Eucalyptus cordata, E.
cosmophylla, E. cinerea, E. globulus, E. parviflora,
E. radiata, E. robusta and E. viminalis (Konoshima
& Takasaki 2002). The practical use of this type of
information could easily benefit herbal practitioners.
Evaluation could easily be linked with the known
The oil of the Forest Red Gum (Eucalyptus tereticornis) properties of the Eucalyptus essential oils. There is
has shown strong antioxidant attributes. The oil, excellent potential for the development of clinical
which was sourced from both the fresh and decaying herbal medicines.
leaves of the tree, was of interest because none of the There are a number of stages in the development
major individual constituents could demonstrate of cancer, identified as initiation, promotion and
activity comparable to that of the essential oil itself. progression. The promotion stage is long-term and,
This suggests a strong synergistic effect between because it is considered to be reversible, inhibitors of
these components (Singh 2009). Forest red Gum oil the process (anti-tumour promoters) have potential
contains primarily pinene, 1,8-cineole and p-cymene. for the chemoprevention of cancer. The inhibition of
The latter can be present in quite high quantities Epstein-Barr virus early antigen activation (induced
(28.6%) in a low cineole and low pinene oil form, by the tumour promoter TPA) is one method of
that also contained reasonable amounts of cryptone testing for compounds with anti-cancer activity. As
(17.8%), as well as α-terpineol (5.6%). There is also well as a number of euglobals, cypellocarpins from the
a cineole-rich oil form. Other components that have Mountain Grey Gum, Eucalyptus cypellocarpa, have
been found in different samples include caryophyllene shown anti-tumour promoting activity in Epstein-
Barr virus studies (Ito 2000). In addition, eucalyptals

isolated from Eucalyptus globulus fruits have shown
cytotoxic activity (Yin 2007)
Mountain Grey Gum (Euc-

alyptus cypellocarpa), Katoomba.
(Courtesy: Cas Liber, Wikimedia
Commons Project)
Below: Mountain Grey Gum

(Eucalyptus cypellocarpa). Cypello-
carpa, which was originally
isolated from this species,
has shown anti-tumour
activity in Epstein-Barr virus
studies. (Courtesy: Windmill Eucalyptus globulus. (Courtesy: JB Friday).
Outback Nursery, www.
australiaplants.com)
derivatives), triterpenes (betulinic, euscaphic,
oleanolic acids), sterols (β-sitosterol, stigmasterol),
macrocarpals (A and B), and cypellocarpin
(camaldulenside) (Yang & Guo 2007). The
macrocarpals and cypellocarpin have shown
antiviral activity that could be of interest for
drug development (Yang 2007). In addition, an
investigation of extracts prepared from Eucalyptus
globulus fruit has shown good antimicrobial
activity against a range of plant fungi (Alternaria,
Fusarium, Rhizoctonia and Venturia) as well as
Xanthomonas and Bacillus subtilis bacteria. The
main antimicrobial component was identified as
Medicinal Eucalypt fruits globulol (Tan 2008).
Innovative investigations
There are other compounds with equally interesting
potential. Strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
activity has been shown by globulusin A and euca
globulin from Eucalyptus globulus. These compounds
also had anti-melanogenesis (against melanoma
cancer cells) activity (Hasegawa 2008). Robustadials
from Eucalyptus robusta have shown antimalarial
properties. Japanese studies found that a macrocarpal-
Eucalyptus globulus fruits. © 2003 Curtis Clark (Creative containing extract of Eucalyptus macrocarpa and E.
globulus had antihypertensive potential.17 The extract
The fruit of the Eucalypt has probably been an was incorporated into a chewing gum for this purpose
underestimated pharmacological resource that 17 Inhibitors of ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) are used in the treatment
has, only fairly recently, been found to contain of hypertension and congestive heart failure. These drugs block the conversion of
angiotensin I to angiotensin II and thereby relax the blood vessels, modifying the
a diverse range of interesting compounds. They vasoconstrictive effects of angiotensin II. Blood pressure is further lowered due
include phenolics (ellagic acid, gallic acid, and to an effect on kidney function. ACE inhibitors can also reduce the progress of
diabetic neuropathy and diabetic renal failure.
– albeit only low levels were used and its efficacy was
debatable. Other investigations have focused on the Eucalyptus phoenicia, beautiful – and
use of macrocarpals in personal care products such as useful too …
skin creams (Foley & Lassak 2004; Michael 2000). In
addition, researchers have been interested in using the
antibacterial and preservative properties of Eucalyptus
oils in cosmetics. Eucalytus globulus oil has shown good
activity against a number of bacteria in combination
with the oils of Laurel (Laurus nobilis) or Sage (Salvia
officinalis). The synergistic effect of the essential oils
was of additional interest as this could substantially
reduce to need for conventional chemical preservatives
by a considerable amount – a factor ranging from
20-fold to 200-fold (Patrone 2010; Maccioni 2002).
These markets appear to have extensive potential.
A new class of FPCs, the sideroxylonals, has
been identified from Eucalyptus sideroxylon and E.
grandis. These chemicals have attracted substantial
interest as potent natural marine anti-fouling agents
that can remove barnacles and similar undesirable
attachments from the undersides of boats. They have
shown excellent commercial prospects – particularly
sideroxylonal A, which had a very powerful action.
FPCs that have been investigated for similar purposes
include other macrocarpals, grandinal, stilbenes and Scarlet Gum or Gnaingar
resinosides.18 Tin is the toxic component of most (Eucalyptus phoenicea).
anti-fouling formulations which needs to be replaced
wherever possible for environmental considerations The Scarlet Gum or Gnaingar (Eucalyptus
(Foley & Lassak 2004; Lassak 2002; Michael 2000). phoenicea), which is placed in the informal subgenus
In addition, preliminary studies have indicated that the Eudesmia, is rich in euglobals. This distinctive
macrocarpals A, B, D and G can inhibit aldose-reductase tropical Eucalypt is found in the northern regions
(Michael 2000). This type of study has been used to help of Western Australia and the Northern Territory.
determine compounds with potential for preventing There is also a small Queensland population,
the complications of diabetes – notably retinopathy (eye restricted to a site near Cooktown. The Scarlet Gum
damage, e.g. cataracts) and neuropathy (nerve damage). is distinguished by an unusual rough, papery type
High levels of sideroxylonal (9% of the dry leaf mass) of bark and brilliant orange flowers. The species
were present in a West Australian mallee, the York Gum epithet phoenicea reflects a fancied resemblance
(Eucalyptus loxophleba). This oil-yielding species also has a of the attractive filamentous flowers to the fiery
high cineole content. A number of other species contain plumage of the Phoenix – a comparison that does
good levels of sideroxylonal: Eucalyptus cinerea, E. mannifera not seem unjustified when one views the stunning
and E. pulverulenta. Interesting candidates with good levels profusion of blossoms on the tree. In the Northern
of macrocarpals include Eucalyptus brookeriana, E. cornuta, Territory the stems have been harvested for making
E. leptopoda, E. myriadena, E. tricarpa, E. pulverulenta, E. didgeridoos. However, the tree has been collected
kartzoffiana and E. viminalis. Some of these species have illegally from some Aboriginal lands and concerns
been proposed as potential crops for low rainfall areas (Foley have been expressed regarding the sustainability of
& Lassak 2004). this type of pilfering.
18 Grandinal was originally isolated from Eucalyptus grandis, stilbenes from
E. rubida, and resinosides from E. resinifera (Michael 2000).
Intriguing essential oil studies Eucalyptus sideroxylon and E. torquata were prepared
from the flowers and stem, as well as the leaf. Most
of the preparations had good antibacterial activity
against gram-positive bacteria – which ranged from
moderate to high when compared to the antibiotic
norfloxacin. Gram-negative bacteria tended to be
resistant to the Eucalypt oils, with one exception
– Escherichia coli. Eucalyptus sideroxylon (aqueous
extracts) and E. torquata (methanolic extracts) showed
strong inhibitory activity. In addition, the essential
oils (leaf, stem and flower) showed antifungal activity
against Candida albicans, Aspergillus flavus and A.
niger.19 The oils also had variable levels of cytotoxic
activity (Ashour 2008). Eucalyptus globulus oil has
Flowers of Eucalyptus likewise shown good anti-Candida activity that was
sideroxylon. (Courtesy: superior to the antifungal drug fluconazole (Agarwal
Robert Myers, Wikimedia
Commons Project) 2008).
For commercial purposes there is the problem of
standardisation of the oils or extracts due to the fact that
there can be substantial variation in their components.
For instance, analysis of Eucalyptus sideroxylon oil has
shown 1,8-cineole (60%) predominated, with smaller
Left: Eucalyptus sideroxylon. amounts of α-pinene (14%) and bicyclogermacrene
(Courtesy: HelloMojo, (5%). Another study found that, in addition to
Wikimedia Commons cineole, the constituents were α-terpinyl acetate,
Project)
globulol and eudesmol. Eucalyptus torquata essential
oil differs considerably. It contains high levels of the
ketone torquatone (41%), as well as α-pinene (19%)
and β-eudesmol (10%) (Brophy & Southwell 2002).
19 There was one exception. The flower oil of Eucalyptus sideroxylon was not
active against Aspergillus niger – although the leaf oil was very active, being
superior to the antifungal drug fluconazole (Ashour 2008).
Oils of the Snow Gum

The Snow Gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora) is a cold-
tolerant species that is found in the mountainous
regions of the east coast (predominantly New South
Eucalyptus torquata. (Courtesy: Warren & Gloria Sheather, Wales, Victoria and Tasmania). An evaluation
www.yallaroo.com.au) of the antifungal activity of the oil has shown
interesting activity against Tinea infections. Local
Most investigations of the antibacterial properties application twice daily of a herbal preparation
of the Eucalypts have concentrated on leaf essential incorporating 1 per cent Eucalyptus pauciflora oil
oils. However, a recent Egyptian investigation has as the active component gave very good results.
highlighted the fact that substantial variation of There was a success rate of 60 per cent, with the
activity can occur in extracts from different parts of remaining 40 per cent showing improvement.
the tree, as well as different types of preparations. There was no relapse among the cases who recovered.
Extracts (aqueous, methanolic and essential oils) from Preparations with an increased concentration (5%) were
Snow-covered Snow Gum, Eucalyptus pauciflora.

(Courtesy: Haymanj, Wikimedia Commons Project)
also studied and showed
no adverse reactions Eucalyptus olida, juvenile foliage. (Courtesy: John Moss,
(Shahi 2000). The Wikimedia Commons Project)
oil is unusual in that
can contain fairly
good amounts of
sesquiterpenes (glob-
ulol 12.6%, viridiflorol
14.1%, spathulenol
18.1%), and low levels
of 1,8-cineole and
pinene (Elaissi 2010).
However, some samples
Colourful trunk of the Snow Gum, have shown particul-
Eucalyptus pauciflora. (Courtesy: arly high eud-esmol
Sterry 2607, Wikimedia levels (40–71%).
Commons Project) The oils of the three Eucalyptus olida woodland. (Courtesy: John Moss,
subspecies each have quite different characteristics Wikimedia Commons Project)
(Brophy & Southwell 2002):
• E. pauciflora subsp. debeuzevillei oil contains
eudesmols (60%) and elemol (16%)
• E. pauciflora subsp. niphophila (syn. E.
niphophila) is characterised by menth-2-en-
1-ol (30%) and piperitol (20%); or eudesmol
(55%), elemol (9%) and piperitone (6%)
• E. pauciflora subsp. pauciflora contains
eudesmols (42%) and piperitone (14%)
Bush spice from the Forest Berry

The Strawberry Gum (Eucalyptus olida), which has
a restricted distribution on the Northern Tablelands
of New South Wales, is now threatened in the wild.
The use of its aromatic leaves as a bush spice accounts
for its other common name of Forest Berry and has Eucalyptus olida leaves collected for distillation. (Courtesy:
prompted interest in the tree’s cultivation. In addition, Zaareo, Wikimedia Commons Project)
The Bell-fruited or
the oil has an extremely high content of methyl- Large-fruited Mallee,
cinnamate – a flavouring compound that can provide Eucalyptus preissiana,
an alternative to basil, as well as having value for the is one of the truly
perfumery trade (Southwell 2005). Leaf extracts decorative species of
Eucalypts found along
contain high levels of phenolics (95.9%), which the coast of southern
have a high antioxidant activity as well as moderate Western Australia.
free radical scavenging properties. However, the level The term ‘mallee’
of antibacterial and anti-yeast activity is fairly low characteristically refers
(Zhao & Agboola 2007). While the extract would to species that have a
number of trunks that
not be a good candidate for use as an antibacterial arise from a lignotuber.
food preservative, its antioxidant and flavouring (Courtesy: Melburnian,
values could be of serious interest. Wikimedia Commons
Project)
The oil of the Bell-fruited Mallee (Eucalyptus The Queensland Messmate or Dead Finish
(Eucalyptus cloeziana) yields a tasmanone-rich oil, as
preissiana) is 1,8-cineole-based (54%) and contains
well as a pinene-rich form (α-pinene 78%, with some
eudesmol. The subspecies lobata, which has a lower
β-pinene) that also contains limonene, terpineol and
level of cineole (38%) also contains viridiflorene
glob-ulol (Brophy & Southwell 2002). This species
(10%) (Bignell 1997). Viridiflorene is present in the
is found along the Queensland coast, ranging from
Yellow Tingle (Eucalyptus guilfoylei) in substantial
amounts (30%) (Brophy & Southwell 2002). This Brisbane to Cape York.
compound has been important for the manufacture of In addition to the compounds discussed here,
flavours and fragrances. several Eucalyptus species contain high levels of
unusual components that could be of interest to
researchers, summarised in
Table 5.1 Additional compounds of interest from the Table 5.1. The pharmacological
genus Eucalyptus properties of a number have
yet to be investigated – they
include agglomerone, cryptone,
Compound Species (levels of compound present) tasmanone and torquatone.
Agglomerone Eucalyptus bensonii (72%)
Cryptone Eucalyptus camaldulensis (14%)

Eucalyptus gracilis (10%)
Eucalyptus moluccana (10%)
Eucalyptus tereticornis (15%)
Isobicyclogermacral Eucalyptus dawsonii (28–44%)

Eucalyptus gardneri subsp. gardneri (41%)
Eucalyptus gardneri subsp. ravensthorpensis (33%)
Tasmanone Eucalyptus cloeziana (96%)

Eucalyptus lateritica (37%)
Eucalyptus suberea (94%)
Torquatone Eucalyptus absita (25%)

Eucalyptus caesia subsp. caesia (18%)
Eucalyptus caesia subsp. magna (29%)
Eucalyptus torquata (41%)
Queensland Messmate, Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus stricklandii (21%)
Eucalyptus umbonata (37%) cloeziana. (Courtesy: HelloMojo,
Wildlife food preferences variations in the levels of the latter compound within
It has been of interest to researchers to find that levels a species can alter dramatically. Thus, while some
of FPCs appear to be linked to terpene concentrations individual plants may be suitable for dinner, others
in some Eucalypt species. Eucalyptus viminalis, E. are definitely not!
melliodora and E. loxophleba have shown a strong Samples of the York Gum (Eucalyptus loxophleba)
correlation between the concentrations of 1,8-cineole were found to contain 92 mg/g sideroxylonal,
and sideroxylonal – as does E. polyanthemos. This is although six other samples contained none of this
an interesting association because koalas and possums FPC. It is possible that other dietary toxins could be
use Eucalypt leaf concentrations of cineole as a clue avoided in this manner. Studies of the FPC jensenone
regarding the edibility of the foliage. High cineole- extracted from the leaves of the Ironbark Eucalyptus
containing species are, in general, avoided. Studies jensenii showed that the Common Brushtail Possum
(Trichosurus vulpecula) deliberately altered its intake
of the leaves to reduce the amount of this toxin in
their diet. Excessive intake of sideroxylonal from
Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus melliodora leaves
was similarly avoided. The Common Ringtail Possum
(Pseudocheirus peregrinus), Koala (Phascolarctos
cinereus) and Pademelon (Thylogale species) utilise
similar strategies. In addition, certain metabolic
processes in these animals can regulate the effects of
Eucalypt toxins. A dietary increase in terpenes (i.e.
1,8-cineole, p-cymene, α-pinene and limonene) can
induce a corresponding increase in detoxifying enzyme
Yellow Box, Eucalyptus melliodora. (Courtesy: P Davies,

Heathmont Honey)
showed koalas who avoided teating high-cineole-

containing leaves from Eucalyptus polyanthemos20
appeared also avoid the FPC sideroxylonal. However,
Swamp Gum, Eucalyptus ovata. (Courtesy: HelloMojo,
20 The essential oil of Eucalyptus polyanthemos has also shown considerable
antioxidant activity which was comparable to α-tocopherol (Lee 2001). Wikimedia Commons Project)
levels in the Brushtail Possum (Foley & Lassak 2004;

Stapley 2000; Lawler 1998; Southwell 1980). Studies
of salicin have shown that possums could also limit
the intake of this component in their food. It appears
that they do not like its taste (Pass & Foley 2000;
Stapley 2000; Pass 1999).
Ringtail possums that found Eucalyptus ovata21
unpalatable were deterred by macrocarpal G, a fairly
uncommon terpene which is found in the Eucalypts.
The essential oil component of the leaves did not have
any influence of the animals’ selection of leaf forage.
Studies of Eucalyptus jensenii showed that jensenone
in the leaves also had an antifeedant effect on both
Ringtail and Brushtail possums (Lawler & Foley 2002).
Another possum, the Eastern Pygmy Possum, also
favours the Eucalypt in its diet, but prefers the flowers
to the leaves. These provide a protein-rich pollen that
is an excellent source of nitrogen and amino acids (van
Tets & Hulbert 1999).
21 The essential oil of this species is chemically complex and can vary
substantially. For instance, one sample contained cineole (23%), α-pinene
(12%) and linalool (13%) were predominant, with some nerolidol (6%).
Another sample differed significantly with good levels of terpinen-4-ol (28%)
as the main constituent, as well as globulol (12%) (Brophy & Southwell 2002).
Common Brushtail Possum, Trichosurus vulpecula.

(Courtesy: JJ Harrison, Wikimedia Commons Project)
The Eastern Pygmy Possum (Cercartetus nanus), from John

Gould, Mammals of Australia, 1863.
Table 5.2 Eucalyptus-based compounds that can be utilised by the flavouring and
perfumery industries
Compound Flavouring and perfumery characteristics, and other applications
Aromadendrene Fragrance: woody – a common component of timber.

Oil resources: Eucalyptus nova-anglica (chemotype: 40%) and E. papuana vel aff. (60%).
Moderate to minor amounts in other species.
Benzaldehyde Fragrance and flavour: pleasant almond-like aroma and taste.

Other applications: has been used as an industrial solvent and in the synthesis of organic compounds
that range from pharmaceuticals to plastic additives. Also used in the preparation of some aniline dyes.
Oil resource: very high levels in Eucalyptus yarraensis (84%).
Bicyclogermacrene Flavour and fragrance: green woody aroma.

(over 30%) Oil resources: widespread in Eucalyptus species
High levels:
Eucalyptus incerata (66%)
Eucalyptus rudis (67%)
Eucalyptus sparsa (64%)
Eucalyptus varia subsp. varia (76%)
Moderate to good levels (over 30%):
Eucalyptus bleeseri (34%)
Eucalyptus caleyi (34%)
Eucalyptus coolabah subsp. microtheca (53%)
Eucalyptus ficifolia (43%)
Eucalyptus gameophylla (47%)
Eucalyptus gummifera (34%)
Eucalyptus hamersleyana (38%)
Eucalyptus lansdowneana subsp. albopurpurea (32%)
Eucalyptus melanophloia (30%)
Eucalyptus obtusiflora (30%)
Eucalyptus perangusta (30%);
Eucalyptus subangusta subsp. cerina (42%)
Eucalyptus trachyphloia (54%)
Eucalyptus varia subsp. salsuginosa (31%)
Eucalyptus watsoniana subsp. watsoniana (52%)
Cadinene Fragrance and flavouring found in wide variety of essential oils.

Other applications: pesticidal and insecticidal (antifeedant) properties.
Oil resource: Eucalyptus lenziana (δ-cadinene 20%).
Carvone Essential oil component: perfumery, flavouring, aromatherapy.

S(+)-carvone: has a caraway scent. Also found in Dill and mandarin orange peel.
R(-)-carvone: spearmint scent, particularly in spearmint oil, e.g. used for the flavouring of spearmint
gum.
Oil resources: Eucalyptus suggrandis (19% carvone).
Caryophyllene β-caryophyllene is a constituent of Lemon oil (with citral, limonene, geranyl acetate and γ-terpinene).
Caryophyllene oxide is widely used as preservative agent for food, cosmetics and drugs.
Oil resources:
Caryophyllene: Eucalyptus gillii (21%)
β-caryophyllene: Eucalyptus astringens (15%)
Caryophyllene oxide: Eucalyptus cladocalyx (14%)
Cineole (eucalyptol) Flavour and fragrance: fresh camphor-like aroma. Spicy, cooling taste.
In addition, wide use in cosmetics and toiletries.
Other applications: pesticidal with excellent effects against house dust mites.
Oil resources: widely found in Eucalyptus genus.
Citronellal and Citronellal is main component that gives a distinctive scent to Citronella oil.
citronellol Primarily valued for its insect repellent properties.
It has also been used for the manufacture of menthol.
Perfumery: citronellal is the starting material for the manufacture of hydroxy-dihydrocitronellal
(hydroxycitronellal), which is an important perfumery compound (Lassak 2002).
Oil resources: Eucalyptus citriodora – citronellal (29–90%) and citronellol (2–52%).
Farnesol Floral aroma: used to emphasise the scent of sweet floral perfumes.
Flavouring ingredient in cigarettes.
Other applications: natural pesticide for mites and is a pheromone for some other insects.
Oil resource: Eucalyptus halophila (E,E-farnesol 28%), the oils of a couple of other species contain
lesser amounts.
Geranyl acetate Floral and citrus perfumes (wide use) and fruit-flavour qualities.
Other applications: sedative properties.
Oil resource: good levels are present in Eucalyptus macarthurii (44–70%). May be of commercial
interest (Webb 2000).
Globulol Fragrance: medium floral-rose aroma.

Oil resources:
High levels:
Eucalyptus nesophila (68%)
Eucalyptus setosa (40%)
Low-moderate levels:
Eucalyptus beyeri (19% in eudesmol-rich form)
Eucalyptus dawsonii (16% in eudesmol-rich form)
Eucalyptus macrorhyncha subsp. cannonii (20%)
Eucalyptus mannifera (30%)
Eucalyptus petalophylla (15%)
Eucalyptus rhombica (15%)
Eucalyptus sclerophylla (15%)
Eucalyptus watsoniana subsp. watsoniana (15%)
Guaiol Fragrance: woody character, mild guaiac-wood tea-rose aroma.

(‘champaca Found in Guaiac oil (Guaiacum officinale) and in Cannabis sativa.
camphor’) Other applications: pesticidal properties.
Oil resource: Eucalyptus bloxsomei (15%).
Isoamyl isovalerate Fragrance: fresh, fruity, ripe apple, sweet and tropical.
Tropical fruit type food flavouring, e.g. for dairy products.
Oil resource: Eucalyptus bridgesiana (10%).
Linalool Widely used in perfumery for its floral and spicy character, e.g. for Honeysuckle, Lily of the Valley,
Magnolia fragrances.
Other applications: insecticidal for fleas, cockroaches and other pests.
Oil resources: only found in a few species and at fairly low levels.
Limonene Fragrance: strong citrus and orange scent.

D-limonene is the form favoured for flavour and fragrance applications.
L-limonene is used in the reconstitution of essential oil products.
Limonene monoxide and Limonene dioxide: used with epoxides to make metal coatings, varnishes, and
printing inks.
Limonene has solvent qualities: can be used for cleaning purposes (e.g. cleaning oil from machine parts)
or as a paint stripper. Can be used to dissolve and recycle polystyrene.
Caution: has irritant properties and can cause dermatitis.
Oil resources: fairly good levels in Eucalyptus patens (31%) and E. apodophylla (16–31%). Low levels
in other species.
Menthol Fragrance: distinctive peppermint aroma and has been known as ‘peppermint-camphor’ due to its cooling
qualities.
Perfumery: menthol is used to prepare menthyl esters to emphasise floral notes, particularly rose.
Oil resources: may be a minor constituent in a number of Eucalyptus species.
Methyl cinnamate Flavouring and perfumery: imparts strawberry and cinnamon scents.
Oil resources: Eucalyptus olida (98% E-methyl cinnamate) contains the highest known concentration in
a plant. It has potential as a Basil chemotype flavouring substitute (Southwell 2005).
Nerolidol Fragrance: woody and fresh bark aroma; used in perfumery and as a flavouring agent.
Oil resources: Eucalyptus deglupta (66%); E. nova-anglica (78%); E. whitei (55%).
Palustrol Fragrance: ‘Ledum camphor’ – balsamic, woody aroma

Oil resources: Eucalyptus coolabah subsp. coolabah (14%).
p-cymene Fragrance: intermediate for producing a musk aroma. Can be used in lemon and bergamot flavours and
fragrances.
Oil resources: High levels found in two species: Eucalyptus urophylla (75%) and E. wandoo (65%)
Phellandrene Both α-phellandrene and β-phellandrene are used in flavour and fragrance industry; β-phellandrene:
peppery-minty and slightly citrus aroma.
Oil resources:
α-phellandrene: Eucalyptus dives (chemotypes: 20–30% or 60–80%)
β-phellandrene: fairly low levels in a few Eucalyptus species
Phenylethyl Important fragrance compound: honey-like very sweet floral, balsamic aroma. Fixative base in sweet-
phenylacetate woody, oriental and tobacco character scents, as well as being supportive to musk perfumes.
A very stable compound that is suitable for use as a detergent and soap perfume.
Oil resources: β-phenylethyl phenylacetate: Eucalyptus aggregata (91%) and E. crenulata (35%)
Pinene α-pinene:
Mild aroma that is warm, resinous and piney; balsamic taste.
Used in a broad range of flavour and fragrance products. Usually synthesised from turpentine.
Note: D-α-pinene is the form favoured for the production of pharmaceutical , agricultural and fragrance
products
β-pinene:
Aroma: dry, woody or resinous-piney. Produced from turpentine for use in a broad range of products in
the flavour and fragrance industries.
Oil resources: α- and β-pinene are widely distributed in Eucalypt species.

Some species have particularly high levels of α-pinene:
Eucalyptus catenaria (80%)
Eucalyptus leichhardtii (84%)
Eucalyptus leptoloma (88%)
Eucalyptus miniata (26–85%)
Eucalyptus radiata subsp sejuncta (80%)
Eucalyptus raveretiana (84%);
Eucalyptus virens (80%)
Pinocarveol Fragrance: herbal camphor-woody-pine-balsam.

Flavouring: camphoraceous and woody pine-like, with green thymol-borneol nuance.
Oil resources: trans-pinocarveol (over 15%):
Eucalyptus capitosa (17%)
Eucalyptus diversicolor (18%)
Eucalyptus falcata (29%)
Eucalyptus quadrans (20%)
Eucalyptus robusta (27%)
Eucalyptus striaticalyx subsp. beadellii (22%)
Eucalyptus striaticalyx subsp. gypsophila (17%)
Eucalyptus uncinata (21%)
Piperitone Flavouring and aromatic qualities: peppermint scent.

l-piperitone from Eucalyptus dives leaf oil has been used as the starting point for the synthesis of
l-menthol that is used in flavourings (Lassak 2002).
Oil resources:
Eucalyptus amygdalina (63%)
Eucalyptus dives (40–56%)
Eucalyptus elata (var. A: 40–55%)
Eucalyptus piperita (40–50%)
Eucalyptus salmonophloia (42%)
Smaller amounts can be found in a number of other species
Spathulenol Fragrance: earthy herbal aroma.

Other applications: potential pheromonal activity that may be useful as insect attractant.
Oil resources (over 20%):
Eucalyptus conglobata (24%)
Eucalyptus curtipes (33%)
Eucalyptus dalrympleana (32%)
Eucalyptus dumosa (21%)
Eucalyptus elaeophloia (31%);
Eucalyptus erythronema var. marginata (20%)
Eucalyptus obtusiflora (10–30%
Eucalyptus papuana vel aff. (30%)
Eucalyptus phaenophylla (15%);
Eucalyptus phaenophylla subsp. interjacens (30%)
Eucalyptus rubida (36%)
Eucalyptus sclerophylla (28%)
Terpinene α- and γ-terpinene have been used in a wide variety of flavour and fragrance products. In particular,
α-terpinene has a refreshing lemon-citrus character.
Oil resources γ-terpinene (over 10%):
Eucalyptus aspratilis (26%)
Eucalyptus denticulata (22%)
Eucalyptus calophylla (10–12%)
Eucalyptus ficifolia (14%)
Eucalyptus georgei (26%)
Eucalyptus haematoxylon (16%)
Eucalyptus quadrangulata (19%)
Eucalyptus melanophitra (27%)
Eucalyptus normantonensis (23%)
Eucalyptus wandoo (10–12%)
Eucalyptus wetarensis (15%)
Terpineol α-terpineol:
Flavouring and fragrance for commercial use as a basic component of lilac and pine fragrances
Oil resources (over 20%)
Eucalyptus calcicola (20%)
Eucalyptus croajingolensis (30%)
Eucalyptus erythrocorys (24%)
Terpinen-4-ol Aroma: pleasant herbaceous and peppery aroma.

Used for soaps and perfumes, geranium, pepper and rose oils.
Oil resources: moderate to fairly low levels in Eucalypts (see Table 5.1 above)
Terpinyl acetate Flavouring and perfumery.

Other applications: antibacterial, pesticidal, insecticidal.
Oil resource: Eucalyptus orophila (22%).
Terpinolene Flavouring and perfumery.

Other applications: antioxidant, deodorant, fungicidal, pesticidal.
Oil resource: Eucalyptus staigeriana (10%).
Verbenone Characteristic scent for oil of Rosemary; widely used in toiletries and aromatherapy.
Verbenone can be produced from α-pinene.
Other applications: insecticidal – specifically against Pine tree beetle (Southern pine bark beetle,
Dendroctonus frontalis) in the USA.
Oil resources: Eucalyptus patellaris (10%).
Viridiflorol Fragrance: sweet green-herbal, fruity, tropical minty.

Oil resource: Eucalyptus macrorhyncha subsp. cannonii (14%).
Sources: Brophy & Southwell 2002; Webb 2000; Fulton 2000; www.thegoodscentscompany.com
Chapter 6
TANNIN AND TREES:

NATIVE FLORAL RESOURCES
The word ‘tannin’ is derived from ‘tan’, a term used
to describe a plant-derived substance that prevented
the decay of animal hides. Its use resulted in their
preservation as leather. Tans were primarily composed
of tannic acid, which had astringent and preservative
properties. The search for local tanning substances was
among the earliest enterprises undertaken in the new
Australian colony. The need for leather goods such as
saddlery and carriage harnesses would have quickly
ensured the establishment of a substantial market – as
would the necessity for items of clothing, household
goods, and protective equipment such as blacksmiths’
aprons. The native plants were quickly surveyed and
a substantial number that could provide useful raw
materials were discovered. Eucalypt and Acacia barks
were among the most accessible and readily utilised;
but other candidates for tanning agents included
mangrove tree barks, the Lillypillies (species of
Syzygium) and native almond or plum trees from the
genus Terminalia.
Black Cutch or Catechu (from Acacia catechu), was
one of the more familiar tanning agents in Asia. Preparing
the extract was a painstaking task. The heartwood was
ground and decocted for twelve hours, then the residue
was discarded and the extract steamed to form a syrup-
Acacia catechu (Black Cutch or Catechu), from Köhler’s
like consistency. This was left to cool and harden in Medicinal Plants, 1887.
moulds. The result was a shiny black tannin-rich ‘resin’
that was sold simply broken into pieces.
Studies of Acacia catechu extracts have shown them
to have moderate antibacterial properties (Rani &
Khullar 2004; Voravuthikunchai 2004).
Acacia catechu has been found in the Northern Territory
as a weedy visitor – having escaped from the Darwin
Botanic Gardens into a neighbouring schoolyard. Although
it was eradicated fairly quickly there is the worry that, in
the future, this weed could make a comeback (CRC Weed
Management Guide 2003). Catechu lozenges, British Pharmacopoeia 1867.
177
settlers in this country speedily discovered that many of

The search for native ‘tan-barks’ the indigenous plants were rich in tanning substances.
Much research has been conducted to investigate the
Tannin-rich barks were primarily sources from the tanning potentialities of the local flora, the result
genus Acacia, although Mangroves were also a good of which has been to show that the list of potential
source. Acacia bark often has a rough character, tan-producing species is very large. However, this
although some types may be smooth or tessellated. list is very considerably reduced when the following
These may not be very distinctive for identification qualifications are applied: the tanning substances
purposes, although the deeply furrowed character of present must produce a satisfactory leather, and the
some had led to the name ‘Ironbark’. Others have species in question must be sufficiently abundant
more distinctive characteristics. For instance, there and accessible to allow economic exploitation’. He
are barks that curl away from the trunk in small categorised the native tanning materials in two classes:
pieces (minni-ritchi or cat-scratch bark), while
others have a cork-like appearance. • Species with high tan content in the bark. These
could be collected and used directly for tanning
purposes; and
• Species that had desirable tanning qualities, but
the wood or bark contained low concentrations.
This made it necessary to prepare them as an
extract.
McKern continued: ‘The principal tanning materials
of the first category are the barks of various species
of Acacia (“wattle-bark”) and of several species of
West Australian Eucalypt (“mallet bark”). The chief
Acacia species exploited are A. mollissima Willd. in
New South Wales and Victoria, and A. pycnantha in
South Australia (“Adelaide Bark”).1 Acacias are quick
Two views of Acacia crassicarpa bark. growing trees, and 6–8 years growth is usually ample
to give sufficient bark. The bark is sold either chopped
into short lengths or ground. The tannin content of
these barks is of the order of 30 to over 50%, averaging
about 40%.’
Joseph Maiden specifically mentioned Acacia pycnantha,
which was:
one of the richest tanning barks in the world; a richer may

exist, but I do not know of it. A sample of this bark was
received by me in 1883 from Messrs. F. Pflaum & Co., of
Blumberg, South Australia, with the note ‘contains 33.5
per cent of tannin, according to Mr. Thomas, of Adelaide’.
I analysed the sample in April, 1890, and obtained the
following extraordinary result by Löwenthal’s improved
process – the process I always adopt, viz.:
Acacia bark. Split tree showing wattle Tannic acid 46.47 per cent
bark and heartwood. Extract 74.7 per cent
This has been stored seven years in the Museum, and has
In 1960 Professor H.H.G. McKern, in a review of the 1 The closely related species Acacia mollissima and A. decurrens were difficult
to tell apart. Indeed, Acacia mollissima was once considered to be the variety A.
Australian natural plant products industry, mentioned decurrens var. mollis. The latter is now known as Acacia dealbata. Just to add to
the history of the local tanning industry: ‘The earliest the confusion, the name Acacia mollissima has also been used for A. mearnsii.
Chapter 6 TANNIN AND TREES: NATIVE FLORAL RESOURCES 179
doubtless increased in percentage of tannic acid during be used for making posts or poles, as well as firewood.
that period. Nevertheless it is the grandest specimen of It is suitable for urban planting as a shade and shelter
wattle-bark I have ever examined. It is smooth, a model of tree, and is useful for soil conservations purposes on
compactness, contains a minimum of fibre, and therefore steep sloping sites. It is a species with a pioneering
powders splendidly, is of good colour, and an excellent
habit that can regenerate quickly, which does give it
bark in every way. South Australia has practically the
the potential to develop a weedy habit if planted in the
monopoly of this bark, and it is a grand heritage, – the
envy of the eastern colonies (Maiden 1890). wrong environment.
‘Seen here is tons of Acacia pycnantha bark being collected

for export or use in the tanning industry from the Mt
Lofty ranges SA, in some parts this along with general
deforestation led to once tree covered hills becoming brown
bare grasslands, as many still are today in some parts of SA.’
Exploitation versus conservation

The discovery that some Australian Acacia species
Seed pods of the Sydney Green Wattle (Acacia irrorata).
were excellent tannin resources led to an early
environmental crisis. The search for good quality tan-
barks resulted in indiscriminate harvesting from large
tracts of land. In an 1890 review of New South Wales
Wattles, Joseph Maiden recorded:
Throughout Australia the species of wattle richest in tannic

acid are becoming seriously diminished, and there is a
consensus of opinion amongst persons interested in the
matter that the various Governments should encourage
the replanting of them. At the same time there are some
species of wattle which tanners despise (partly because the
introduction of them would disturb the routine of their
operations), which are even richer than some of the tan-
barks in common use in Europe and elsewhere, and there
is no doubt that, sooner or later, our local tanners will
have to fall back upon these second-grade wattle-barks,
Acacia irrorata. (Courtesy: Keith AW Williams, Native unless the cultivation of good wattles is actively entered
Plants of Queensland, Vol. 1) upon.
The situation in Tasmania with regard to Acacia

McKern mentioned that the Sydney Green Wattle
mollissima (now A. mearnsii) was similar: ‘In regard
(Acacia irrorata) was used locally in the New England
to Tasmania, which has hitherto supplied so large
Tableland as a tan-bark resource. The timber can also
a quantity of good wattle-bark, Mr. F. Abbott,
Superintendent of the Botanical Gardens, Hobart,

says:– “We have so many wattle trees growing
naturally, that we have had no need to cultivate
them in Tasmania, but the destruction is so great
we shall have to do it before long.”’ Two other
species were popular as tannin resources: the South
Australian Broad-leaved Wattle (Acacia pycnantha)
and the Sydney Black Wattle (A. decurrens).
Acacia decurrens. The flavonoid rutin (discussed in detail

under Eucalyptus macrorhyncha in chapter 5), which has
capillary strengthening properties, has been isolated from
Acacia decurrens var. dealbata (now A. decurrens): flowers
contain 5.2–5.9%, and a lower level in the leaves, 2.1–2.8%
(Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). (Image courtesy: KAW
cultivation of wattles is not a theoretical matter; it is
easy, remunerative, and has already entered the domain
of practical farming. Australia is the native country
of wattles; they grow in the poorest soil, and require
only a moderate rainfall. Their cultivation is strongly
recommended to farmers who have a patch of poor
soil which they cannot otherwise profitably utilize. The
return is in about five to seven years, and attention to
the wattle plantation can be chiefly given in the spare
hours which are available on every farm. Farmers in some
districts could be recommended to put as much land as
possible under wattle, provided they had the means to
wait (Maiden 1890).
Acacia decurrens (Green Wattle), from JH Maiden, The
Flowering Plants and Ferns of New South Wales, 1896,
illustration by Edward Minchen. He considered that many wattle species deserved
evaluation and that ‘further experience may show that
Joseph Maiden was a staunch supporter of the
some are even worthy of local cultivation’.
conservation and cultivation of the native wattle. He
The commercial exploitation of Eucalypt tans
stressed that good conservation ethics could give the
was also a point of conservation concern. Professor
industry a bright future:
Rennie reported that in 1925 about 3700 tons of
The demand for good wattle-bark becomes greater tanning bark was exported from Western Australia.
every year, while the supply does not cope with it. The Once again, the harvesting practices were not above
serious criticism: ‘It may be noted that in one case at
or wattling of the supple twigs for reception of the

plaster in the partitions of houses; for, after the bush
has been cleared, it is seen to spring up in all directions.
The Black Wattle seldom lasts more than five or six
years; it yields a very large quantity of gum-arabic.’
This is a fairly widespread native tree that ranges from
the east coast of New South Wales and Victoria, to
South Australia, Tasmania and Western Australia
(southwest). The bark was stripped from trees around
seven years old and stored for a year before use. Its
popularity as a tanning agent led to its cultivation
overseas in South Africa, India and Madagascar.
In the mid-1900s the Green or Black Wattle, Acacia
decurrens var. mollis (now A. dealbata), was considered
to have the best potential for large tannin harvests
with yields that ranged from 22.9–51.5 per cent.
Some South African resources were noted to average
around 30–45 per cent. Acacia pycnantha (which has
a similar distribution) was another fairly rich tannin
The strikingly different textures of a smooth-barked Eucalypt
resource. Average levels were around 18.25–26.04
and a rough-barked Acacia.
per cent – although some estimates proposed levels
least [of Eucalyptus] the bark of which contains from as high as 36 per cent and 49.76 per cent. It was an
40–57% of tannin, the Conservator of Forests reports extremely effective astringent for treating diarrhoea
that the tree has been ruthlessly exploited.’ The resin (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
of the Desert Bloodwood (Corymbia terminalis, syns
Eucalyptus opaca, E. terminalis, E. dichromophloia)2
was traditionally utilised as a local tanning agent by The Florists’ Mimosa
Aboriginal people. Animal skins were repeatedly The Mimosa or Silver Wattle (Acacia dealbata) is a
soaked in diluted Bloodwood sap for a few days fairly widespread drought-tolerant species that is
until the process was complete. In Central Australia, native to south-east Australia (New South Wales,
kangaroo-skin waterbags were preserved by filling Victoria, Tasmania). In some parts of the country
them with the sap solution for two to three days. This it has escaped cultivation and is considered to
was then discarded and refilled. It took a week for the be aweed, notably on Norfolk Island and in
leather to become thoroughly tanned. The kino itself Western Australia (south-western region), and
was highly valued as an antiseptic and healing agent.
A solution was used for treating wounds, burns, sores
and even sore eyes and lips (Latz 1996).
Wattle and Mallett barks

The Black Wattle (Acacia decurrens) was perhaps the
most familiar and widely utilised of the Acacia tanning
resources in Australia. Dr George Bennett (1860)
provided information on the subject: ‘This, like all the
Wattles, is of very quick growth, and rapid in decay.
These trees were termed “Wattles”, from being used,
in the early days of the colony, for forming a network
Flowers of Acacia dealbata. (Courtesy: Alberto Salguero
2 The number of different botanical names this species acquired over time Quiles, Wikispecies)
was due to variations in its appearance over a diverse geographical range.
is also considered 1 inch in diameter of stem annually. It is content with

to be a nuisance in the poorest and driest, or sandy soils, although in more
the Mediterranean, fertile ground its growth is more rapid (Mueller, Select
South Africa and Extra-tropical Plants.) … I have examined a sample of
California. Acacia
dealbata is the source
of the ornamental
‘mimosa’ used by
florists.
Mimosa or Silver
Wattle, Acacia dealbata).
The Black Wattle tan-barks Flowers of the Black Wattle, Acacia mearnsii. (Courtesy:
Joseph Maiden provided details of the importance Kim & Forest Starr)
of the Green or Black Wattle, Acacia mollissima
(syn A. decurrens var mollis, now A. dealbata), as a
tan-bark resource:
The bark, rich in tannin, renders this tree highly

important. It varies, so far as my experiments have
shown, in its tannin, from 30 to 54 per cent. in bark
artificially dried. In commercial bark the percentage
is somewhat less, according to the state of its dryness
-it retains about 10 per cent. of moisture. 1½lb. of
black-wattle bark gives 1lb. of leather, whereas 5lb. of
English oak bark are requisite for the same results; but
the tanning principle of both is not absolutely identical.
Melbourne tanners consider a ton of black wattle-
bark sufficient to tan twenty-five to thirty hides; it is
best adapted for sole leather, and other so-called heavy
goods. The leather is fully as durable as that tanned with
oak bark, and nearly as good in colour. Bark carefully
stored for a season improves in tanning power 10 to
15 per cent. From experiments made it appears that no
appreciable difference exists in the percentage of tannin
in wattle-barks, whether obtained in the dry or in the
wet season. Full-grown trees, which supply also the best
quality, yield as much as 1 cwt. of bark. Mr. Dickinson
Black Wattle, Acacia mearnsii, Hawaii. (Courtesy: Kim
states that he has seen 10 cwt. of bark obtained from & Forest Starr)
a single tree of gigantic dimensions at Southport,
Queensland. A quarter of a ton of bark was obtained
from one tree at Tambo, Queensland, without stripping bark of this species, called ‘Green Wattle’, from Bell’s
all the limbs. The height of this tree was 60 feet, and Creek, Araluen, New South Wales. It was from trees 25
the stem 2 feet in diameter. The rate of growth is about to 30 feet high, with diameters from 6 to 18 inches, was
grown on granite soil, and was collected in November,

1888. In April, 1890, it was analysed with the following
result:– Tannic acid 31.23 per cent., extract 64.15
per cent. It is a smooth compact bark, yields a light-
coloured powder with some fibre, is a quarter of an inch
thick, and is to be ranked with the best of our New
South Wales barks (Maiden 1890).
Brown Mallet (Eucalyptus astringens) plantation in the

Dryandra Woodlands, around 160 kilometres south of
Perth, Western Australia. This is a revegetation venture
managed by the Western Australian Department of
Environment and Conservation. Seventeen plantation sites,
which are separated by agricultural land, are spread over
approximately 50 kilometres. The region is considered to be
one of the state’s major conservation areas, although it is far
from pristine due to a history of logging. (Image courtesy:
Acacia pycnantha and A. mearnsii are still used in a

small way as tannin resources. Despite their excellent
potential for supplying the domestic market, however,
Australia imports its tannin requirements from
overseas, worth around $6.5 million per annum.3
In addition, Wattle gum adhesives have excellent
binding attributes that are particularly useful for
making reconstituted wood products. This industry,
Eucalyptus wandoo. (Courtesy: Gnangarra, Wikimedia
which has good commercial prospects, could easily
Commons Project).
utilise Australian species such as Acacia falciformis,
A. parramattensis and A. mearnsii. Another point of With regard to Eucalypt-sourced tannin, Professor
interest is that recent research has established that the McKern (1960) noted that the major tan-bark of
bark of the latter contains an anti-corrosive agent with Western Australia was the Brown Mallet (Eucalyptus
development potential (Maslin & McDonald 2004). astringens): ‘It has the highest tannin content of
all commercial tan-barks, varying from 40–57%,
3 Commercial sources of tannin include Quebracho (Schinopsis lorentzii and but usually averaging 45%. The tanning material
S. balansae, family: Anacardiaceae) from Argentina, Paraguay and Bolivia – is easily removed with cold water, about 90–95%
although over-harvesting has seriously threatened wild populations of these
trees. being extracted, which is large in comparison with
other commercial tan-barks. Something like 1500 course they are likely always to produce the great bulk of
tons of “mallet bark” are used per annum in Western our tan material from wild or cultivated trees. In Tasmania
Australia.’ Among the tanning substances that were where Wattle-bark has for many years proved so valuable
prepared as extracts, the West Australian Wandoo an article of export, the necessity has already arisen for
(Eucalyptus wandoo) gave a relatively high yield falling back on the barks of other of our native trees, and
Myrtle bark (Fagus) has met with much acceptance. And
from the wood (around 8%) with the advantage
in different parts of the colonies different tan-barks are
that the foliage could also be harvested to prepare used locally, the choice of which has not always been
a concentrated tannin extract.4 McKern continued: made with discrimination, for it requires much practice
Production commenced on a semi-commercial scale in 1934 to gauge the value of tan-bark. Some few years ago I
and growth since that time has been steady, until at the drew public attention to the value of Lilly Pilly bark for
present time hundreds of tons of ‘wandoo’ wood are treated tanning, and the matter is well worthy of note. The trees
per day in four factories. The logs are reduced to chips before attain a large size; they are often abundant, while the
the leaching out of the tannins in autoclaves. The resulting bark is of fair thickness. Most of the barks examined by
liquor is fed to triple-effect evaporators where the product me contained under 20% tannic acid, but one from the
is concentrated to a viscous liquid of 50% solids content. Shoalhaven River yielded the respectable result of 28.6%
Further reduction of moisture to 18–20% in Calandria tannic acid. This result having been once reached can
finishes5 results in a glassy-looking, friable deep-red solid be attained again, and there are doubtless thousands of
marketed as ‘Myrtan’. Some 12,000 tons of this extract tons of Lilly Pilly bark in New South Wales containing
are produced annually, of which about 1000 tons are used nearly 30% of tannic acid, but not in any way utilized.
domestically, the remainder being exported. This product Experiments such as these throw a little sidelight on the
contains about 60–62% tannins, 18–20% non-tannins, marvellous unused and unappreciated wealth produced
18–20% moisture. Of the tannins, 60–65% is of pyrogallol by the indigenous plants of New South Wales. Sooner or
and 35–40% of the catechol type (McKern 1960). later this wealth will be utilised.
Another tannin-containing species, Eucalyptus sieberiana
(now E. sieberi), also had good potential – although it While many garden examples of the Lillypilly tend
was more valuable as a paper-pulp resource. to be slender shrubs, with wonderful flower displays,
a number of rainforest species of both Syzygium and
Acmena grow to impressive proportions.
Lillypilly tans Subsequent to the publication of Maiden’s letter, a Mr
The genus Syzygium, many of whose members are
Thomas Shepherd undertook a comparison of Wattle and
known by the wonderful common name ‘Lillypilly’
Syzygium tan-barks. The results were impressive. It was
(as are a number of closely related Acmena species),
also contains species that have tannin-containing
barks – although it does not appear that much use was
ever made of this resource. The popular Wattles were
a more reliable and easily accessible form of tanbark.
However, Joseph Maiden made the point, quite
vocally, that Lillipilly tans deserved consideration.
In the Sydney Mail of 10 January 1892 the following
missive appeared:
In the colonies it is usually supposed that no trees produce

tan-barks except Wattles, and that no Wattle-barks are Bumpy Satinash (Syzygium
worthy of attention except two or three of the best. I do cormiflorum). Satinash burls
not wish to underrate the importance of Wattles, and of are valued in woodwork
because they take a good Buttress roots of the River
4 Wandoo timber has a reputation for being very hard and strong. This has
led to its widespread use in heavy construction enterprises – as well as for polish and have been Cherry or Creek Satinash
making durable timber items such as sleepers, poles, and flooring. used for making highly (Syzygium tierneyanum). This
5 Calandria refers to a method of evaporation that is used on surfaces (often decorative bowls and species was formerly used as
timber products) to clean them up by removing excess oils, etc., resulting in platters. Burls of this size are a timber tree, marketed as
a clear finish. ‘Bamaga Satinash’
fairly uncommon.
Mangrove tan-bark resources
Buttress roots of the

Bark of the Cassowary Cassowary Satinash (Acmena Beach and fringing Mangroves, Cow Bay, North
Satinash. graveolens). This impressive Queensland.
rainforest species has been
reported that Syzygium- harvested as a timber
derived tans produced resource that was useful
one of the softest leathers for general construction
he had seen – which was purposes.
very easy to work with:
It will be observed that the chief objection to it lies in the
colour of the leather, but the leather is superior to Wattle
leather both in texture and strength. Surely this is most
encouraging. As far as I know, Lilly Pilly bark has not
been utilised on a commercial scale hitherto. If it be still
unutilised, neglect of it will mean the waste of thousands
of tons of a useful, cheap and readily available bark. It
is true that Wattle bark is comparatively low at present,
but it has crept up and up in price during the last few
years, and the demand even exceeds supply, and leaves
no margin for export. The use of Lilly Pilly bark should Mangrove prop-roots Tree bark resource in
reflected in the water. Mangrove swamp.
render some of our choice Wattle bark available for export
… the very important fact that we have other valuable Tannin-rich ‘mangrove bark’ has a number of
tan-barks as well. In fact, the coast forests of New South botanical sources from the Rhizophoraceae
Wales are teeming with wealth, not only in timber, but
family – mainly the genera Rhizophora, Bruguiera,
in bark; and it is a favourable sign that people engaged
in local industries are seriously turning their attention
Aicennia and Ceriops. The tannin content of
to this vegetable wealth. The exploitation of it will yield mangrove bark could vary substantially – ranging
steady and satisfactory results, neither as brilliant nor as from 10–40 per cent. The level depended on
disappointing as many mining ventures. the species from which the bark was collected,
as well as the growing conditions and harvesting
However, there was another drawback to the use of the tan: practices. Professor McKern (1960) noted that:
The tan, or rather stain, I should call it, from its action ‘Mangrove bark is rich in tannins and has been
upon the hands, has this objection. It stains them just used in the past, but has fallen from favour
as fast as if they were immersed in lime and then in tan because of undesirable colour and harshness
liquour, and the stain can only be removed with pumice- imparted to the leather. The potential supply of
stone. Several times during the day I had to wash my mangrove bark in Australia is enormous, but the
hands in a strong solution of sulphuric acid to remove
difficulty of collection and stripping in the tidal
a hard, gummy feeling from them in order that I might
retain a firm hold upon the knife used in shaving the
mud-flats of salt-water estuaries has limited its
hides. I am of the opinion that Lilly Pilly is a very fine tan use to minor local purposes.’ The reddish colour
for light-dressed leather, being soft, and well filled and that the leather acquired during the process
should wear well.
of “tannin” are to be found in different plants. The

was said to be its main disadvantage. However, leaves and bark of various species of Acacia give yields
this could easily be corrected by the addition of up to about 30% of catechu tannin as a maximum,
other tanning substances. The tendency for the and large quantities are obtained from this source in
leather to have a harsh, thick-grained character South Australia and the eastern states. In Western
could likewise be altered by the use of additives. Australia a systematic investigation of the various
Today, harvests for tannin extraction continue sources of tannin has been made in the Forest
to be undertaken in the mangroves of Indonesia, Products Laboratory with the result that over 200 are
Central America and West Africa. Many of these now known.’
environments rate serious conservation concern Despite this chemical complexity, for the better
and tan-bark harvests have become a matter of part of the twentieth century investigators virtually
some controversy. Certainly, sustainable harvesting ignored the pharmacological potential of tanning
practices and the cultivation of suitable resources substances. Chemically the term ‘tannin’ refers to a
need to take priority. fairly broad range of polyphenol-based compounds
that are naturally found in many types of chemical
combinations. This is an important point. Later in the
twentieth century, investigations were to determine
Tannin chemistry that the term actually referred to a very complex
category of chemicals. The phenolic constituents
in ‘tannic acid’ (tannin) could vary substantially,
although gallic acid was commonly present. Studies
were seriously hampered by the fact that the individual
components of a tannin extract were difficult to
isolate. The polyphenolic constituents did not separate
from each other easily. In particular, they did not
crystallise. A comment in a review of the chemistry
and biological activity of tannins in medicinal plants
by Takuo Okuda summarised the situation quite well:
‘In the days before the many polyphenolic compounds
responsible for the tannin ability of each plant extract
had been isolated, intractable mixtures obtained by
fractionation of plant extracts and having positive
colour reaction with ferric ion were often called
Tannic acid lozenges, from The British Pharmacopoeia, 1867. tannins with no further chemical characterization’
(Okuda 1991).
The discovery of the properties of the individual
Historically, tanning agents were primarily regarded as
polyphenolic constituents of a tannin complex was
astringent substances and, for a long time, did not rate
to contribute significantly to understanding the value
any great interest from the scientific world. During
of many herbal medicines. Basically, tannins either
most of the nineteenth century, as far as chemical
precipitate proteins from a solution or they will
analysis was concerned, they were merely considered
react with them – a characteristic that resulted in an
to be useful for leatherwork. This neglect was quite
astringent effect. However the effects of many tannin-
undeserved. Later investigators were to discover that
containing plants could not be simply explained by
these substances were far more complex entities than
this astringency. Without a ready explanation for their
the early descriptions had allowed for. Professor E.H.
actions, decades passed where herbs with a complex
Rennie in 1926 hinted at their substantial potential:
therapeutic activity were simply ignored by chemical
‘The celebrated German chemist Emil Fischer, has
science. Okuda explained:
shown that ordinary “tannin” is really a very complex
glucoside, but there is little doubt that many varieties The present-day image of tannins is also different from
the old one. It is understandable that the early image of

tannin in foods was not a favourable one, as a decrease
in the astringent taste usually accompanies improvement
in the taste of fruit, vegetables and other food. However
this is not always true since tannins are also important to
the taste of some foods and drinks such as tea and several
other beverages. Confusion has also arisen due to the
lack of data on compounds contained in plants that are
regarded to be rich in tannins. The toxicity of such plants
was sometimes attributed to tannin without isolation or
characterization of individual components of the plant.
However, the opinions about the tannins contained in
medicinal plants differ between workers in different parts
of the world, since tannins are regarded as the active Phlorotannins are found primarily in seaweeds. In the
components of many medicinal plants found in different past, because these compounds were not considered useful
for tanning processes, a comprehensive analysis was not
parts of the world, including Asia (Okuda 1991).
considered relevant. In more recent times, interest has been
directed toward a more in-depth evaluation of phlorotannin
Only when sophisticated analytical processes were resources.
developed could a detailed investigation of their
alkaloids or heavy metals can also be important for
medicinal value become reality. Ultimately, the
removing toxins from the body. In addition, tannin
clarification of individual polyphenolic components
complexes can have a diverse range of therapeutic
led to investigations into their pharmacological
properties: antiviral, immunomodulatory, radical-
effects. This was an essential step toward solving the
scavenging, antioxidant and anticancer activities have
intricate biochemical puzzles that were associated with
been discovered. Investigations into the nature of
the therapeutic use of many herbs.
tannin (polyphenol) chemistry have begun to provide
Tannin chemistry is a complicated subject. Even
revealing insights into the therapeutic potential of
so, a simplified classification, as outlined in Table 6.1,
various dietary items. This includes the anticancer
can be adopted, despite the rather complex nature of
effects of green tea, and the cholesterol-reducing
polyphenol-containing natural products. There can
and cardioprotective properties of red wine (Lassak
be different polyphenolic compounds present in a
& McCarthy 1992; Okuda 1991, 1988). These
single product – for example ellagitannins, condensed
pharmacological discoveries were barely hinted at by
tannins and catechin are all found in Eucalyptus kino.
chemical studies a century ago.
Condensed tannins are found in many medicinal
Current research efforts have taken a particular
bark products and common beverages such as tea and
interest in the effects of ellagitannins from dietary
cocoa (Evans 1989 & 2002). In addition to condensed
sources. In particular, their anticancer (cancer
and hydrolysable tannins, there is a diverse range of
preventive, antimutagenic, and cancer cell destroying)
polyphenolics that can be broadly classified within
attributes, as well as antibacterial and antiviral potential
the ‘tannin’ category. They include phenolic acids,
appear to have clinical significance. Some studies
phlorotannins, flavonoids, stilbenes and lignans.
have shown a protective effect against cancer-causing
environmental toxins. Early investigations were
Polyphenolics: an era of discovery undertaken with ellagic acid,6 although later clinical
Only relatively recently has the expanded knowledge studies focused on whole ellagitannin complexes.
of the qualities of polyphenol-derived compounds In addition to their specific phenolic constituents,
contributed toward understanding the workings of the complexes contain other components – many of
medicinal plants. The strong astringent effect of many which make unknown contributions to the dietary
herbs is linked to the fundamental protein-binding effect of various foods.
effect of tannins. This has been responsible for their
6 Ellagic acid is not very bioavailable in the body. It is only formed during the
gastroprotective, antidiarrhoeic and antihaemorrhagic digestive process and is therefore not present in its pure form in plants – albeit
properties. The ability of polyphenols to precipitate this is the form that has often been used in experimental studies.
Table 6.1 Tannin categories

Category Components Natural sources Examples and notes
Hydrolysable 1. Gallotannins are Gallic acid (the parent compound Dietary products: numerous fruits
tannins: composed of gallic acid of gallotannins) is a widespread (e.g. guava and grapes), vegetables
These can be and glucose. constituent in many tannin- (rhubarb), spices (cloves).
broken down into containing herbal medicines. Medicinal: Turkish or Chinese galls.
their polyphenolic
constituents 2. Ellagitannins are Eucalyptus (leaves), Eucalypt kino. Dietary: raspberries (particularly the
composed of ellagic acid seeds).
and glucose (ellagic acid Medicinal: Pomegranate (rind and
is derived from gallic bark), Chestnut and Oak barks.
acid).
Condensed These are insoluble Catechins are found in products Diverse medicinal plants fall into this
tannins: compounds that are such as catechu (Acacia catechu), category:
proanthocyanidins composed of flavan units other Acacia-based extracts and Barks: Cinnamon, Wild Cherry.
(catechin, epicatechin Eucalypt kinos. Cinchona, Willow, Acacia, Oak,
or their analogues), e.g. Various astringent sap and juice Witchhazel (Hamamelis)
leucoanthocyanidins, extracts can have high levels, Roots and Rhizomes: Krameria
oligmeric e.g. Acacia and Mangrove cutch (rhatany), Male Fern.
proanthocyanidins, (catechu). Flowers: Lime, Hawthorn
pycnogenols Seeds: Cocoa, Guarana, Kola, Areca.
Kino: Fruits: Cranberry, Grape, Hawthorn.
Eucalypt kino, East Indian Leaves: Hamamelis, Hawthorn, Tea.
(Pterocarpus) kino, Butea Gum.
Individual 1. Phenolic acids: Chlorogenic acid: present in many Predominates in coffee (a cup of
phenolic numerous types are often herbs instant coffee contains 50–150mg of
compounds: important components chlorogenic acid)
This is a of medicinal herbs and
particularly foods of therapeutic Ipecacuanhic acid Specific to Ipecacuanha, an emetic
complex interest (nutraceuticals) medicinal plant
category and
several thousand Ferulic acid Wheat bran (major source)
polyphenolic
compounds have
been identified Rosmarinic acid: present in many Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)
aromatic herbs
2. Phlorotannins Fucols, phlorethols, fucophlorethols, Seaweeds

fuhalols.
3. Flavonoids: abundant Several categories – flavones, (see discussion in text)
in the diet (over 5000 flavonols, isoflavones, anthocyanins,
have been identified). flavanols, anthocyanidins,
flavanones.
4. Stilbenes Resveratrol Red Wine, Polygonatum multiflorum

(medicinal herb).
5. Lignans Minor components of various Flaxseed oil

medicinal plants.
Red rasberry with preventing the development of cancer cells –

The dietary benefits of polyphenolic components is this includes breast, pancreatic, oesophageal, skin
a complex subject that could have interesting health (melanoma), prostate and colon cancer cells, as well
implications – a topic that is only beginning to be as promoting the breakdown of leukaemia cells. In
understood. One example involves red raspberries. addition, the incorporation of red raspberries into
Around 40mg (a cupful) per day has been linked the diet may promote wound healing, support liver
Raspberries (Rubus species) contain polyphenolic

components that have shown interesting health benefits.
function, have an antidiabetic effect and prevent
some birth defects. Cardiovascular function may
also benefit from the natural salicylates that these
fruits contain.
Gallic acid has demonstrated a remarkable range
of activity, including antibacterial, antiviral and
antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumour,
anti-anaphylactic, antimutagenic, choleretic and
bronchodilatory properties. In addition, gallic acid
can inhibit insulin degradation and act as a muscle
relaxant. It was once widely used as an astringent, and
as a styptic to stop bleeding. In veterinary practice
it has been employed as an intestinal astringent.
An unusual property of gallic acid is that it has the
ability to inhibit flowering in some plants. Ellagic acid
(which is derived from gallic acid) has a haemostatic
activity that has long been recognised medicinal circles
(Harborne & Baxter 1993).
This complexity is important because it helps to

explain why, even today, the pharmacological value
Gallic acid, from J McGregor-Robertson, The Household of tannin-rich genera Acacia and Eucalyptus remains
Physician, Vol II, 1908.
largely unexplored. Eucalypt derived polyphenols with a range of pharmacological actions: anti-
can provide an interesting insight into the intricacies inflammatory, anti-hyperglycaemic, anti-mutagenic
of tannin-based natural product research. Over 30 and antiviral. Epicatechin is found in diverse fruits
tannin-based compounds have been isolated from and nuts – including apples (Malus sylvestris),
Eucalyptus nitens wood. They include gallotannins, almonds (Prunus dulcis), berry fruits (strawberries,
ellagitannins (pedunculagin, tellimagrandins I and II, raspberries, blackberries), cocoa (Theobroma cacao)
casuarinin, casuarictin) and phenols (gallic acid, ellagic and grapes (Vitis vinifera). Grape seed extracts, which
acid, catechin). Ellagitannins such as pedunculagin contain leucoanthocyanidins, have antioxidant and
appear to contribute to the antimicrobial activities anti-inflammatory effects. The Maritime Pine (Pinus
of sapwood extracts. The polyphenol components of pinaster) is another leucoanthocyanidin-containing
Eucalyptus globulus likewise include gallic acid and tree with potential for improving circulatory function
catechin, as well as ellagitannins such as tellimagrandin and for treating inflammatory disorders (Evans 2002).
I and eucalbanin (Barry 2001; Hou 2000).
Studies of these compounds have shown Pioneering studies on leucoanthocyanidins
interesting pharmacological potential. Casuarictin and
tellimagrandins I and II have anti-tumour properties.
Tellimagrandin I demonstrated antibacterial activity
against Helicobacter pylori and potential against
antibiotic-resistant bacteria (MRSA). Casuarinin
had antioxidant effects, while casuarictin showed
antiviral attributes. These ellagitannins also illustrate
the interesting chemical links that occur between
medicinal plants (Funatogawa 2004; Morita 2004;
Miyamoto 1993; Okuda 1983):
• pedunculagin is present in Lady’s Mantle
(Alchemilla xanthochlora)
• casuarinin is present in Arjuna (Terminalia
arjuna)
• casuarictin is present in Hazelnut leaves (Corylus Young, unripe grapes forming bunches on a cultivar of the
heterophylla) and Eugenia caryophylla. grape vine (Vitis vinifera). Grape juice was the first known
source of leucoanthocyanidin.
Eugenia caryophylla contains tellimagrandins, which
were also isolated from medicinal herbs such as Oak
Bark (Quercus spp.), Meadowsweet (Filipendula
ulmaria), the Apothecary’s Rose (Rosa canina), some
species of Casuarina (e.g. Casuarina stricta) and
Stachyurus (Stachyurus praecox). In addition, the
last two species (C. stricta and S. praecox) contain
casuarinin and casuarictin, as well as pedunculagin
Modern pharmacological investigations have
directed particular interest toward herbs that are
rich in ‘condensed tannins’. This type of tannin,
which is composed of diverse constituents (e.g.
leucoanthocyanidins, oligmeric proanthocyanidins
The flower of the Beach Barringtonia (Barringtonia asiatica).
and pycnogenols), can be found in substantial Gallic acid is a common component of many plants. This
amounts in some common dietary items. Epicatechin attractive mangrove, and the related species Barringtonia
is a condensed tannin of considerable importance racemosa, contain tannin complexes that include gallic acid.
These trees been known as Fish Poison Trees, due to their
widespread use as piscicidal agents.
Leucoanthocyanidin was originally isolated from

the grape in 1920 but it took more than thirty years during the war, RAF
before its exact chemical structure was determined, pilots accidentally
in 1954. Leucoanthocyanidin was later found in the discovered that the
heartwood of the Blackwood, Acacia melanoxylon – herb helped their
a species found along the south-eastern Australian night vision. Medical
coast, ranging from Tasmania to New South Wales interest was aroused
and South Australia. Related compounds have been and Bilberry was
identified in the heartwoods of other Acacia species. found beneficial for
These early chemical discoveries were to have some night blindness. this
interesting scientific consequences. Professor Len led to the discovery
Webb commented on their importance: ‘This that the herb was also
work stimulated related chemical research in many an effective treatment
laboratories throughout the world, and hundreds of for eye-strain (long
scientific papers have resulted directly or indirectly hours reading, or
from it. The work on leucoanthocyanidin is significant Fruit of the Bilberry or Blueberry working in dim
because it materially helped in the solution of a long- (Vaccinium myrtillus). light), nearsightedness
standing chemical problem and because it laid a firm (myopia) and disturb-
foundation for understanding their biological role. Thus our ances of the retinal vascular integrity (including the
native wattles can lay claim to great prestige in this field of treatment of retinal haemorrhage). Interestingly,
organic chemistry, though in a more obscure way than our no other species in the Vaccinium genus have the
sportsmen and other heroes enjoy prestige’ (Webb 1969). eyesight-improving properties for which Bilberry
A measure of familiarity with the classification of has become famous. The active compounds were
polyphenolics is essential for an appreciation of isolated from the blue pigment of the fruit and
their dietary diversity. In addition to gallotannins identified as anthocyanosides (a group of flavonoid
or ellagitannins such as those found in berry fruits glycosides) with potent antioxidant attributes. In
(blackberry, raspberry, strawberry), phenolic acids addition, the herb had a good reputation as a herbal
are widespread in food resources. Caffeic acid, medicine. It could help reduce capillary fragility in
which is among the most abundant (mainly found a range of arterial and venous problems. The leaves
as the derivative chlorogenic acid) is a component of were utilised as an anti-diabetic medicine, and
innumerable fruits, vegetables and coffee. Stilbenes for treating respiratory, renal and gastrointestinal
and lignans are less common classes of polyphenols of complaints. Other conditions such as rheumatism,
pharmacological interest. The potential of the stilbene gout, skin diseases, haemorrhoidal problems,
resveratrol attracted enormous attention due to its circulatory and heart complaints have been
anti-carcinogenic activity – particularly when it was traditionally treated with Bilberry leaves.
found in wine (albeit in low concentrations). Lignans,
which are equally uncommon, have only been found Flavonoids are the most abundant class of polyphenols
in reasonable quantities in Flaxseed and Flaxseed oil. in the diet and more than 5000 have been identified.
Other dietary polyphenols formed during oxidative They are classified in several categories – flavones,
processes such as fruit ripening or food processing flavonols, isoflavones, anthocyanins, flavanols,
(fermentation and cooking) include those present in anthocyanidins and flavanones. Important flavonoids
black tea and aged wines (Scalbert & Williamson 2000). can be specific to certain foods, such as the soy
isoflavones genistein and daidzein. These compounds
Bilberries and eyesight have received substantial attention as oestrogenic-
In the Second World War Bilberry fruits gained balancing agents with potential for treating
a reputation for their ability to improve eyesight. menopausal complaints, as well as for the prevention
They were traditionally used as a jam in Europe and, of breast cancer or osteoporosis. Citrus fruits are the
primary food source of flavanones – for example,

hesperidin from oranges, and naringin from grapefruit
juice. The flavonol quercetin is widely found in fruits
and vegetables, notably onions and tea. Flavones are
less common – for example, luteolin from sweet red
peppers (capsicums), and apigenin from celery. The
main flavanols are catechins, which are particularly
abundant in tea. Infusions of green tea contain around
1g/litre of catechins. Only half this amount is present
in black tea, the content being reduced due to oxidation
during fermentation and the consequent development
of other polyphenol complexes. Proanthocyanidins
are flavanols (usually present in combination with
flavanol catechins) that give an astringent property to
many foods and herbs – for example, apples, pears,
grapes, red wine, tea and chocolate. Anthocyanins
are red fruit pigments (cherries, grapes, blackberries,
strawberries, etc.) that attracted substantial interest
when their levels in red wine were found to be quite
high (i.e. 26mg/ml) when compared to strawberries
(0.15 mg/gm) or cherries (4.5mg/gm) (Scalbert &
Williamson 2000).
Terminalia tannins
There are a number of tannin-based remedies from
the Australian flora of therapeutic interest that have
benefited from advances in polyphenolic chemistry. The Wild Peach, Terminalia carpentariae. (Courtesy: Anja
The tropical genus Terminalia, which contains around Toms, Top End Explorer Tours).
thirty native species, provides a good example. The
bark, resin and fruits of some species contain fairly to leprosy sores and to treat blotchy skin problems
good levels of tannin, although little appears to (Isaacs 1994; Barr 1993; Wightman & Smith 1989).
be known about the pharmacological potential of A decoction of the leaves and branches of Terminalia
many Australian species. Their use as Aboriginal arostrata (boiled until the liquid turned a deep brown)
remedies tends to suggest their value could be was similarly employed to heal skin infections such as
very similar to that of species utilised overseas. boils – and as a body wash to ease fevers. Its use could
The use of the genus as astringent, antibacterial bring down the temperature during influenzal episodes
and anti-inflammatory agents has been accepted and it was regarded as being a useful treatment for general
into a number of important medical traditions sickness. The remedy, however, was not taken internally
In the Northern Territory the red sap of the inner (Barr 1993; Smith 1993).
bark of the Wild Peach (Terminalia carpenteriae), The Kakadu Plum (Terminalia ferdinandiana) is a
which was rubbed over the body for the relief of fatigue native species found in the Northern Territory and the
and tiredness, was said to improve the general sense of Kimberley region in Western Australia. It is also known
wellbeing. The remedy was believed to strengthen the as the Salty, Bush or Billygoat Plum. The fruit is high in
skin and muscle tone, and could ease the discomfort vitamin C. This tree has an interesting botanical history.
of tired, swollen feet. Wild Peach was also reputed to It was originally listed as Terminalia edulis in 1860 by
have antipruritic and healing properties that were useful Ferdinand von Mueller, and its true distribution was
for easing itching skin conditions and treating skin somewhat difficult to determine because there are a
ulceration. The sticky inner bark was applied directly number of natural hybrid species. The Kakadu Plum
Terminalia ferdinandiana. (Courtesy: Anja Toms, Top End

Explorer Tours) Terminalia flowers are highly fragrant – although some
was later found to be have a more odoriferous reputation than others. A couple
closely allied to Terminalia of species have even been called the ‘Dead Dog tree’ (or
similarly unflattering names) as they emit a ‘sweetly putrid’
carpentariae, T. hadleyana fragrance with an aroma of rotting meat. This is designed to
and T. latipes. act as an attractant for flies and beetles. Some individuals
The Kakadu Plum can suffer severe allergic reactions to the flowering tree.
is of particular interest The Rainforest Damson (Terminalia microcarpa, formerly
due to its reputation as a T. sericocarpa) appears to be the main offender. The Beach
Almond (Terminalia catappa), pictured here, has a similar
very potent and effective reputation.
healing medicine. The or vitiligo), which is notoriously difficult to treat,
bark was chipped off the incorporated the related species Terminalia chebula
tree and left for a day to (Karnick & Kulkarni 1990).8
‘settle’. It was then boiled
to make a wash that was The Rainforest Damson
applied locally to treat
scabies, skin infections
and cuts. Some caution accompanied its use, as it was
regarded as being ‘too strong’ to leave on the skin, and
was therefore rinsed off after use (Lindsay 2001).
The leaf decoction of Terminalia grandiflora was
used as a medicinal wash to cure headaches, which
tends to suggest sedative or analgesic activity. A more
unusual remedy involved the use of the bark, which
contains a dye.7 The infusion was rubbed over fair-
skinned babies to make their skin darker (Yunupinu
1995; Wightman 1992). While its use as a skin-
tanning agent may appear to be easily attributed to
the dye component, there could be other aspects of Rainforest Damson
interest linked to the use of this remedy. Studies of (Terminalia microcarpa) in
full leaf and leafless post-
an Ayurvedic formulation that gave good results flowering state.
for treating leucoderma (white patches on the skin,
7 Overseas dye, ink and tanning products have been sourced from various
Terminalia species, e.g. T. belerica and T. chebula in Southeast Asia and India. The Rainforest Damson
The leaf and bark of the Beach Almond (T. catappa) also yields a black dye
(Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). can grow into a massive
8 In addition to sulphur, the other herbal ingredients were Babchi (Psoralea tree in the rainforest,
corylifolia), Ginger (Zingiber officinale), Bhringraj (Eclipta alba) and and the flowers are an
Pomegranate (Punica granatum) (Karnick & Kulkarni 1990).
the native species appear to have been undertaken.

Certainly, the development of the Kakadu Plum, in
combination with the Macadamia nut, as a body
cleansing lotion suggests new markets are possible
for Australian products.
Mueller’s Terminalia
The fruit of Terminalia sericocarpa is known as a ‘damson’

(in reference to the small sour plum of certain Prunus
cultivars). It is edible – the thin flesh is sucked from the
seed, which is then discarded.
important source of nectar for insects, birds and

flying foxes. The distinctive layered branches give
the larger birds and bats easy access to the blossoms.
It can be distinguished from the other trees in the
canopy when it loses its leaves after flowering during
early September, after which the leaf buds reappear Mueller’s Terminalia (Terminalia muelleri): bark, fruit and
in early October. It has also been called ‘Sovereign flowers.
wood’; while the timber is not particularly durable
it is suitable for indoor projects such as framing,
windows and door sills. This species is often listed
as Terminalia sericocarpa, although it has been
reclassified as T. microcarpa.9
The root of an African relative with a similar
species name, Terminalia sericea, the Silver
Terminalia, contains a triterpene called sericoside
that has been of substantial interest to the cosmetic
industry.10 Sericoside has anti-inflammatory,
anti-oedema, capillary
protective and healing
The heavy sweet fragrance of Mueller’s Terminalia
attributes. It has been
(Terminalia muelleri) in flower has been reported
employed as a non-
to cause allergic asthmatic reactions. This is one of
irritant component of
the species that has been planted as an ornamental
anti-wrinkle creams,
in Florida in the United States (Morton 1982).
and in formulations
Mueller’s Terminalia is native to the Queensland
for the treatment of
coast, ranging from Cape York Peninsula to
cellulitis (Rode 2003).
Rockhampton. The leaves, which are rich in ellagic
Similar compounds
Yiyangu Kakadu Plum
could be present in
and Macadamia Nut Body 9 Terminalia microcarpa is also found in Malaysia.
Cleanser. (Courtesy: Aaron Australian Terminalia – 10 In traditional medicine the plant has been employed for treating bacterial
Long, Lenan Corporation; although to this point infections, diarrhoea and diabetes. Extracts have shown antimicrobial
(antibacterial and antifungal) activity (Masoko 2005; Moshi & Mbwambo
artwork by Kelly Roach) few chemical studies of 2005).
11 Triphala has a higher tannin content than extracts of the Beach Almond.
acid, have shown high antioxidant activity (Bajpai

2005). In Northern Queensland, sap from the
crushed leaves of the Mipa or Crow Fruit (other
names for this species) was utilised as a healing agent.
This juice, mixed with a small amount of water, was
applied to sores, which dried up and healed very
quickly. The remedy was particularly recommended
for the treatment of infected scabies (Kyrizis nd).
The therapeutic Beach Almond The Beach Almond (Terminalia catappa). The shiny leaves
The Beach Almond (Terminalia catappa) is a notable are huge, up to 30 cm long, and turn bright red before
native species with a significant medicinal reputation. falling.
This widespread tropical tree features along Australia’s
northern coastal beaches. Its distribution extends to
Southeast Asia and throughout Polynesia, where it has
diverse therapeutic uses. The bark has been valued as
an antidiarrhoeal, antidysenteric, wound-healing and
antibacterial remedy. The tree can yield a fair amount
of tannin – bark: 6–12 per cent and fruit: 6–20 per
cent (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). On Cape
York, Aboriginal people utilised the Beach Almond for
treating mouth infections and a sore throat – the bark
was simply chewed, the juice swallowed and the fibre
spat out. The juice from the chewed bark could also be
put in an infants’ mouth to treat thrush (oral candida).
The young green fruit (chewed and eaten) was similarly
recommended (Kyriazis nd). The use of the remedy in
other countries, particularly the Oceanic islands, has
been remarkably similar, as Table 6.2 indicates.
Terminalia: investigations of a
traditional medicine
In addition to the uses for Terminalia catappa listed
in Table 6.1, it is worth mentioning Myrobalans,
which have been popular remedies in Southeast
Asian, Chinese and Indian traditions. They are
tannin-based preparations, sourced from Terminalia
bellerica (Belleric Myrobalan), Terminalia chebula
(Chebulic Myrobalan) and Emblica officinalis (Emblic Flowers and young green fruit of the Beach Almond
Myrobalan). The astringent, anti-inflammatory and (Terminalia catappa).
antidiarrhoeal effect of Myrobalans are linked to the for constipation and haemorrhoids. It has also been
presence of ellagitannins that are characteristic of the employed for treating headaches, digestive problems
Terminalia genus. In particular, a combination herbal (biliousness, dyspepsia), eye disorders (conjunctivitis,
product known as Triphala (which incorporates all myopia, glaucoma, cataract), liver enlargement
three Myrobalans)11 has been valued as a laxative and (hepatomegaly) and ascites (abdominal fluid
cleansing remedy that has been highly recommended retention) (Kapoor 1990).
Table 6.2 Medicinal uses of the Beach Almond, Terminalia catappa
Country Remedy and preparation Reference
American Samoa Bark infusion taken for intestinal problems in children (similar uses reported for Whistler
Philippines and Indonesia) 1992a, 1992b
Cook Islands Crushed leaves incorporated into a herbal mixture with coconut cream or oil for
treating sprains, fractures and muscle pain
Polynesia (Samoa, Tannin-rich inner bark infusion, or juice extracted from bark, used for treating thrush
Tonga, Futuna, Niue) and other mouth infections in infants.
Note: Sometimes it was noted to have emetic actions in children, but not in adults.
Fiji Decoction of leaves to treat indigestion and ‘furred tongue’.
Leaf juice sniffed for treating one-sided headache or migraine.
Leaves chewed to relieve coughing. Weiner
Tahiti Leaves used in remedies for respiratory disorders (bronchitis, tuberculosis). Whistler
1992a, 1992b
Tonga Juice from the bark and leaves (pounded to a mash) applied to sores of the tongue
and gums.
Bark tea taken as a treatment for stomach ache. Weiner.
Solomon Islands Leaves are used to treat yaws (possibly the bark and fruits were used more often). Perry &
Metzger 1981
Bark and root bark useful for bilious fevers, diarrhoea, dysentery, thrush, and to treat
sores.
New Guinea PNG: flower crushed and mixed with water. This was drunk to induce sterility Woodley 1991
(In botanical circles (Nasingalatu).
New Guinea refers to
the whole island.) PNG: sap of white stem pith squeezed and drunk to relieve cough and juice of
The island of New squeezed leaves applied to sores (Karkar Island).
Guinea is composed
of two separate PNG: external use:
countries: West Papua Bark applied to sores (Bougainville).
(under Indonesian Leaves heated and placed on pimples (Bougainville).
control) and Papua
New Guinea (PNG: an Irian Jaya: leaves applied to wounds and burns
independent country
that includes some PNG: infusion of old yellowed leaves taken to soothe a sore throat (New Britain). Woodley 1991;
offshore island states). Holdsworth
Irian Jaya is a province 1993
in West Papua.
PNG: flowers wrapped in a leaf and cooked over a fire. This was eaten on several Holdsworth &
occasions to make a woman sterile. Damas 1996
PNG: sap of young leaves and shoots used as growth stimulant for babies. Saulei &
Aruga 1994
Philippine Islands Red leaves: used as a vermifuge (to expel worms). Perry &
Fruit: said to contain purgative substances. Metzger 1981;
Quisumbing
Sap of young leaves cooked with kernel oil. This was regarded as being a specific 1951
treatment for leprosy.
Astringent bark: used against gastric fevers and bilious diarrhoea, and as antidysenteric
(roots and bark were similarly used in Brazil).
Leaves: applied externally as a refreshing sudorific useful for pain (e.g. headache)
and swollen joints.
Leaves mixed with oil: rubbed on the breast to cure pain

Heated leaves: applied to rheumatic and numb parts of the body
Indonesia Java: bark recommended as mild laxative and a galactagogue for women, although too Perry &
frequent use caused diarrhoea. Metzger 1981
Leaves: used as dressing for swollen rheumatic joints.

Bark: used for thrush (Dutch Indies). Burkill 1935
Malay Peninsula Tannin-containing bark: used as astringent in dysentery.

(Similar use: India, throughout Dutch Indies and the Philippines.) Burkill 1935;
Leaves applied to rheumatic joints and used for dysentery. Perry &
Metzger 1981
Indo-China region Indo-China: kernel of fruit mixed with beeswax, stops putrid exudation and bloody Perry &
This region is in faeces. Metzger 1981
Southeast Asia:
Cambodia, Laos and Sino-Annamites: to relieve stomach cramps. Quisumbing
Vietnam were the 1951
former French Indo-
China. Peninsular Juice of young leaves: used internally for headache and colic. Burkill 1935
Malaysia, Thailand, Leaves: used externally in various disorders.
Myanmar (Burma)
and Singapore are
now also included in
the description.
East and West Indies Used for catarrh, diarrhoea, dysentery. Watt & Breyer-
Applied externally in skin diseases. Brandwijk
1962
Nigeria Leaves: macerated in palm oil and used as a remedy for tonsillitis. Burkill 1985
India Juice of young leaves incorporated into an ointment for treating scabies, leprosy and Quisumbing
other skin disorders. 1951
Bark: recommended for internal administration in the form of a decoction as a remedy

for gonorrhoea and leucorrhoea.
Leaf juice: taken internally for colic.
Leaf juice: applied directly on the forehead for headache.

Leaves: applied locally for arthritic pain.
Emblic Myrobalan was employed externally for eye inflammation

(conjunctivitis) – an exudation was harvested from
incisions into the skin of the fruit. The flowers also
have cooling and aperient attributes (Kapoor 1990).
The fruit, which has gained a reputation as an effective
anti-diabetic remedy, has shown potential for the
prevention of neurological complications and diabetic
cataract (Kumar 2009; Patel 2009; Suryanarayana
2007). Other investigations have supported its anti-
diabetic properties, as well as showing hypolipidaemic,
antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-ulcerogenic, wound
healing, hepatoprotective, gastroprotective and
Indian Gooseberry, Phyllanthus emblica (syn. Emblica
officinalis). (Courtesy: L Shyamal, Wikimedia Commons chemopreventive properties.
Project) Research has tended to support the majority
of these recommendations for Myrolabans. In
addition, pharmacological investigations clearly
indicate the diverse potential of phenolic-based
remedies. Terminalia chebula, T. belerica and T.
arjuna have substantial antibacterial activity – as well
as clinically useful antifungal, anti-inflammatory,
and hepatoprotective properties. Gallic acid and
ethylgallate appear to be fairly common constituents
with numerous pharmacological attributes.
Considerable resources have been directed toward
evaluating the antioxidant, antiviral, antidiabetic,
cholesterol-lowering, anticancer and cellular protective
effects of these herbs. Triphala has demonstrated
Bark of the Indian Gooseberry, Phyllanthus emblica. strong antimutagenic and anticancer activity that has
(Courtesy: JM Garg, Wikimedia Commons Project)
been linked to its gallic acid component (Saravanan
The deciduous tree Indian Gooseberry or Amla 2007; Srikumar 2007; Deep 2005; Kaur 2005;
(Phyllanthus emblica, syn. Emblica officinalis) is the
source of Emblic Myrobalan, a traditional Indian
remedy of high esteem, particularly for digestive
disorders and dysentery. A syrup preparation
of Amla, combined with lemon juice, has been
regarded as an effective treatment for acute bacillary
dysentery. The fresh fruit is said to have cooling,
diuretic, laxative and stomachic properties, while
the root and bark are astringent. A juice from the
bark, combined with honey and turmeric, was
noted to be a good remedy for gonorrhoea. Dried,
the fruit has also provided an astringent remedy for
haemorrhage, diarrhoea and dysentery. Amla has
also been employed for respiratory disorders – lung
inflammation (fruit), asthma and bronchitis (seeds). Terminalia chebula at Jayanti, Buxa Tiger Reserve, West
Bengal, India. (Courtesy: JM Garg, Wikimedia Commons
The fruit, which has shown antibacterial properties, Project)
Sabu & Kuttan 2002; Shaila 1988). Interestingly,

Triphala extracts have shown substantial antioxidant
protection against radiation damage. While gallic acid
levels (33–44%) made a major contribution to this
activity, the three Myrobalan components exhibited
slightly different, albeit complementary, properties
that were linked to their polyphenolic constituents
(Naik 2005; Gandhi & Nair 2005; Jagetia 2002). This
is an important point because it means that while the
overall effects of these remedies can be very similar,
individual herbs have benefits that are not shared by
the other species.
The antibacterial properties of some Terminalia-
based tannin components appear to contribute
substantially to the process of wound healing. Studies Yellow semi-ripe fruit and red ripe fruit of the Beach
Almond (Terminalia catappa). The single seed within the
of Triphala and its individual constituents have fruit is very oil-rich (51.2–63.4%). The oil, which has a
confirmed this. Beach Almond (Terminalia catappa) fatty acid composition very similar to conventional oils, has
extracts have demonstrated a broad spectrum of been said to resemble almond oil. Interestingly, the refined
antibacterial activity (Kloucek 2005; Goun 2003; oil has potential uses for pharmaceutical purposes and as a
Pawar & Pal 2002). The Beach Almond is among biodiesel resource (Dos Santos 2008; Omeje 2008; Watt &
Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Gum exudates from the plant have
a number of Terminalia species that been used for also been examined for use in drug formulations that require
treating gonorrhoea (Quisumbing 1951). Studies a sustained chemical-release strategy (Kumar 2008).
have shown that Terminalia arjuna contains luteolin,
fluid pressed from the bark of the Beach Almond was
which has shown specific antibacterial activity
utilised as a diabetes treatment. This is interesting
against the causative agent for gonorrhoea, Neisseria
because there are several investigations that support
gonorrhoeae (Dwivedi 2007). Terminalia macroptera
the antidiabetic activity of Terminalia catappa fruit
roots, which are used in West Africa for the treatment
extracts. There are also a number of Asian species that
of infective disorders such as gonorrhoea, have
have been traditionally utilised to treat this condition,
similar antimicrobial activity. Ellagic acid, gallic acid,
among them Terminalia chebula and T. arjuna – and
punicalagin and terchebulin were among the active
the African species T. superba (Gao 2008; Murali
constituents (Silva 2000).
2007; Kamtchouing 2006; Raghavan & Kumari
There is support for the practical deployment of
2006; Rao & Nammi 2006; Nagappa 2003).
the antifungal and anticandidal effects of the Beach
In Asia the Beach Almond has been used as a
Almond from overseas studies of related species.
remedy for inflammatory disorders such as dermatitis
Triphala has been used with clinical success for the
and hepatitis, and for the prevention of hepatic
treatment of vaginal candidiasis. Terminalia chebula
tumours (hepatoma). These uses may also have valid
has shown effective antifungal activity against skin
phytochemical foundations. Numerous studies have
dermatophytes and strong anti-candidal properties
established that Terminalia catappa leaf extracts
(Kumar 2008; Chaudhari & Mengi 2006; Bonjar
have substantial antioxidant, anti-inflammatory,
2004; Rane & Mengi 2003; Vonshak 2003; Suguna
antimutagenic and hepatoprotective properties. This
2002; Singh & Lodhe 1993). A number of South
has been linked to polyphenolic components (notably
African Terminalia species have equally potent
ellagic acid, corilagin, punicalagin and punicalin) and
antifungal properties (Masoko 2005). Certainly this
triterpenes (ursolic acid and asiatic acid). Punicalagin
tends to suggest that more attention should be paid to
has also been of interest due to its anti-genotoxic
the practical clinical potential of Terminalia catappa –
properties (Kinoshita 2007; Chen & Li 2006; Gao
particularly in remote Australian communities.
2004, 2006; Fan 2004; Tang 2003, 2004, 2006; Ko
There are a few additional intriguing reports of
2003; Lin 2001; Chen 2000; Masuda 1999). However,
the medicinal use of the Terminalia genus. In Fiji a
high doses of punicalin showed the potential to cause
Table 6.3 Traditional medicinal uses of Terminalia species
Terminalia Medicinal use Chemical constituents and studies

species
Arjuna Kapoor (1990): Kuo (2005); Chen (2004):
( Te r m i n a l i a Arjuna bark has been employed in Indian Casuarinin from the bark of Terminalia arjuna is an anticancer
arjuna) Ayurvedic medicine for centuries as an (apoptosis-inducing) component with activity in breast and
extremely effective cardiac tonic.a lung cancer cells’
It was also used to treat diarrhoea, dysentery,
oedema (diuretic properties) and bilious Pettit (1996):
disorders. The antimutagenic and anticancer potential of Arjuna has been
It has also been recommended as a poison linked to the presence of gallic acid, ethyl gallate and luteolin.
antidote.
Pettit (1996); Dwivedi (2007): Manna (2006):
The remedy has shown clinical benefits in the Terminalia arjuna showed effective protective activity against
treatment of coronary artery disease and heart liver and kidney damage due to carbon tetrachloride poisoning.
failure. It has good hypotensive, anti-anginal,
and cholesterol-lowering properties. Cheng (2002):
Casuarinin, a hydrolysable tannin from the bark of Terminalia
arjuna, has shown experimental antiviral (anti-Herpes
simplex-2) activity.
B e l e r i c Trivedi (1982); Gilani (2008): Jandon (2007); Anand (1997):

Myrobalans Terminalia belerica is clinically useful for the Gallic acid, as well as extracts of Terminalia belerica, has
( Te r m i n a l i a treatment of asthma due to its antispasmodic shown effective protective activity against liver and kidney
belerica) and bronchodilatory activity. damage due to carbon tetrachloride poisoning.
Kapoor (1990):
Traditionally used as a cough remedy, for
hoarseness and eye disorders.
Unripe fruit is purgative, while the dried
product has astringent properties useful for
diarrhoea, haemorrhoids and fluid retention
(dropsy).
C h e b u l i c Kapoor (1990): Lee (2007); Tasduq (2006); Lee (2005); Naik (2004):
Myrobalans The tannin-rich fruit is listed in herbal texts as Fruit extracts showed hepatoprotective activity for protecting
( Te r m i n a l i a a useful astringent and antibacterial agent. It against the liver damage that can be a side effect of numerous
chebula) is specifically used for treating diarrhoeic and conventional drug treatments. Chebulic acid (around 30%)
dysenteric problems. was identified as a major hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory,
It is also a remedy for liver disorders, antioxidant and radioprotective component in the fruit.
feverish complaints, coughing, asthma,
urinary disorders, haemorrhoids and worm Saleem (2002):
infestations. In addition to gallic acid, other anticancer phenolics have been
The gargle has been used as a remedy for identified in Terminalia chebula, i.e. ethyl gallate, chebulinic
swollen and inflamed and ulcerated gums. acid, luteolin and tannic acid.
Kim (2006); Aqil (2005); Sato (1997):

Gallic acid and ethylgallate were identified as the antimicrobial
constituents of Terminalia chebula extracts that were active
against the bacteria that cause food poisoning (i.e. Clostridium
perfringens and Escherichia coli), as well as methicillin-
resistant Staphylococcus aureus.
Martino (2004); Ahn (2002): Terminalia chebula and

Terminalia triflora have demonstrated anti-HIV properties
that were linked to their phenolic constituents.
Note: a The Beach Almond (Terminalia catappa) has also shown antihypertensive potential (Braga 2007).
cell damage, which suggested that the use of small doses

would be advisable (Lin 1999, 1998). Studies of the
anticancer properties of Terminalia catappa have shown 
an inhibitory effect on colon cancer and anti-metastatic
activity in lung and oral cancer cells (Yang 2010; Chu In the early days of European exploration, tannin-
2007; Morioka 2005). The anticancer, antioxidant based herbal medicines were found across the
and anti-inflammatory properties of gallic acid-derived globe. They were used in innumerable medicinal
components certainly tend to support these findings. traditions and, surprisingly enough, with fairly similar
recommendations. Through the early use of tannin-
containing plants as ‘medical astringents’ many of
The antioxidant squalene these plants became familiar in the medicine chest.
Squalene has been identified as a potent antioxidant In Australia, where the Eucalypts and Acacias tended
component of leaf and seed extracts of the Beach to predominate, the latter were found in such great
Almond (Ko 2002). This compound has been diversity that these trees became familiar floral icons
primarily obtained from shark liver oil, although throughout the continent. In particular, the wonderful
there are a few plant-based sources – Amaranth golden-flowering species had a unique attraction as the
seeds, rice bran, wheat germ and olives. Squalene enchanting ‘Golden Wattles’ of Australia. The fact that
has shown excellent penetration and moisturising they had substantial potential as medicinal plants only
properties on the skin and blends readily with oils served to enhance their appeal. Certainly, their value
and vitamins, which has led to its use in numerous had long been recognised by Aboriginal people. While
cosmetic formulations. It is also a precursor for a many native species had similar medicinal attributes,
range of steroid compounds. While shark-derived there were also those with a more specific therapeutic
squalene continues to be marketed, botanical sources repertoire. An appreciation of these plants permeated
have a good commercial future, particularly as all walks of life – not only for the leatherwork trade.
environmental considerations have become a matter The Acacia had vastly different levels of appeal – to
of increased community concern. Many shark the early explorers, botanists, medical professionals,
species are now protected in Australian waters. chemical researchers and to the horticulture trade. The
The different qualities of medicinal Terminalia study of this diverse and remarkably interesting genus
species, which clearly illustrate the diverse potential in Australia was ultimately to change the botanical
of the genus and their polyphenolic constituents, are classification of these plants on an international scale.
summarised in Table 6.3.
Chapter 7
WATTLE: TALES OF AN AUSTRALIAN

ICON
The native Wattles are an iconic feature of the landscape

that many Australians take for granted. These plants
play a remarkable environmental role. They have been
widely utilised in revegetation programs, and have
been a commercial success in timber plantations, in
many countries around the world. They are probably
more famous as an emblem of this country than most
of us realise. Joseph Maiden wrote proudly:
I want to speak to you of an emblem of peace, one which

I trust will never be used as the emblem of a party in time
of war. I allude to a flower, a beautiful Australian flower,
called the Wattle. Four years ago to-day [1906], in this
very room, I suggested the wattle as an Australian national
emblem, and, the matter having been taken up, we last
year formed the Wattle Day League, and our object is to
stimulate Australian national sentiment by means of this
flower. Let the Australian wattle have a place beside the
rose of England, the thistle of Scotland, and shamrock of
Ireland … (Maiden 1906).
Acacia leptocarpa, a tropical species, in the Cairns Cemetery.
The Genus Acacia

The genus Acacia, which is the ubiquitous native
‘Wattle’ of Australia, is also known in other parts
of the world as Mimosa. These plants range from
northern Africa to India, through Southeast Asia and
Oceania, to South America. In total there are around
1350 species, favouring both tropical and subtropical
climates. However, the genus is at its most prolific and
diverse in Australia, with around 1000 native species
(possibly more). Here the Mulga and Brigalow scrubs,
which are named for their preponderance of particular
Acacia species, are an integral part of the landscape.
The Cootamundra Wattle, Acacia baileyana. (Courtesy:
Even early estimates of species numbers, before the
OpenCage, Wikimedia Commons Project)
202
Chapter 7 WATTLE: TALES OF AN AUSTRALIAN ICON 203
divided so as to be almost fern-like, consists of true leaves;

but most of our Wattles have ‘leaves’ which, structurally,
are only leaf-stalks or petioles flattened out, forming what
are known as ‘phyllodia’. Many of these phyllodia look like
the leaves of other trees, Gum-trees for instance, others are
long and narrow like a tape, while a number are thin and
pungent-pointed, like needles. Most are quite green, but
others look as if they had been dusted over with flour. In a
word, it may be said that the shape, texture, markings, and
other characteristics of these phyllodia, present an almost
endless diversity of appearance (Maiden 1890).
Acacia trees in the Serengeti, Tanzania. Although the Left: The juvenile leaves
greatest diversity of Acacia is found in Australia, the genus and developing phyllodes
has an international distribution. Numerous species are of of the Blackwood or Black
African origins (including Madagascar) – while a few can Wattle (Acacia melanoxylon).
be found throughout the Asia-Pacific region. The genus also This tree can be found
extends to the Americas. The genus has some remarkable along the entire east coast
survival skills. Acacias can be found in diverse habitats that of Australia – ranging from
range from coastal to sub-alpine regions, and can withstand tropical Queensland to
huge differences in rainfall that occur in the tropics or dry Victoria, South Australia
arid lands. They are particularly prevalent in arid and semi- and Tasmania.
arid regions, and the dry subtropical regions. In the African
Serengeti sixteen different species can be found, including Below: Acacia nilotica,
the imposing Umbrella Acacia (Acacia tortilis) and the formerly Mimosa nilotica,
Yellow Fever Tree (A. xanthophloea). (Courtesy: Charles J is currently the type species
Sharp, Wikimedia Commons Project) for the genus Acacia;
watercolour image by an
true diversity of the genus was apparent, were quite unknown artist, c. 1800,
high. In 1890 Joseph Maiden commented: ‘Acacias are from a Dutch collection.
very largely developed in this continent, there being
about 312 of them, of which New South Wales boasts
102, and a fresh one is occasionally discovered. The
barks of all are more or less astringent, owing to the
tannic acid they contain, but most of them are useless
to the tanner, for three reasons – they are either of too
small a size to strip profitably, their bark is too weak
in tannic acid, or they are not sufficiently abundant.’
The genus Acacia holds a unique position within
the Mimosaceae section of the Pea or Bean family,
the Leguminosae. While a number of species have a
feathery foliage composed of true leaves, the majority
of the Australian natives are distinguished by phyllodes
and are classified in the subgenus Phyllodinae. Although
they look like leaves, phyllodes are actually flattened
leaf-stems with similar photosynthetic capabilities.
This makes the native species botanically distinct from
most of the Acacia found overseas. Joseph Maiden
described the characteristic in some detail:
If I were to say that most Wattles have no leaves, my

readers would think I was not speaking seriously. The
feathery foliage of the Black and Silver Wattle, finely
Dr George Bennett (1860) mentioned additional they advance in age, the Acacias cast off the leaflets,
details in regard to these phyllodinous characteristics: and the plant is covered in leaf-stalks only, which,
‘the foliage of the Acacias has excited great interest becoming broader or not, according to the species
from its peculiarity: the petioles or footstalks resemble of Acacia, have the appearance, and perform all the
leaves, and have the true leaf appended at the function, of true leaves. The leaf-stalks are easily
extremity … These leaf-stalks are called phyllodia; as recognised by their position, as one of the edges (not
Table 7.1 Acacia species found in Australia that are now classified as Acaciella, Vachellia and
Senegalia
Acacia Acaciella, Vachellia, Senegalia Distribution
Acacia albizioides Senegalia albizioides Queensland (Qld)
Acacia angustissima Acaciella angustissima
(Senegalia angustissima) Vachellia Qld (introduced)
Acacia bidwillii bidwillii Qld
A. bidwillii var. bidwillii Vachellia bidwillii Qld
A. bidwillii var. polytricha Vachellia bidwillii Qld
A. bidwillii var. typica Vachellia bidwillii Qld
Acacia bidwillii var. major Vachellia valida Northern Territory (NT), Western
Australia (WA)
Acacia calcigera Vachellia pallidifolia NT, WA
Acacia catechu (formerly Mimosa
catechu) Senegalia catechu NT (introduced – naturalised)
Acacia clarksoniana Vachellia clarksoniana Qld
Acacia curassavica Acaciella glauca Qld (naturalised)
Acacia ditricha Vachellia ditricha Qld, NT, WA
Acacia douglasica Vachellia douglasica NT
Acacia farnesiana var. lenticellata
Acacia pedunculata Vachellia farnesiana America
Acacia lenticellata Vachellia farnesiana Introduced: Australia (all states
Vachellia farnesiana except Victoria & Tasmania); Africa,
Acacia farnesiana var. farnesiana Madagascar, Asia
Vachellia farnesiana var. farnesiana America
Introduced: Australia (all states
Acacia karroo except Victoria & Tasmania); Africa,
Vachellia karroo Madagascar, Asia
Africa
Acacia leptoclada var. polyphylla Introduced: Australia (WA, Qld);
Acacia melaleucoides Asia, America
Acacia pachyphloia Vachellia bidwillii
Acacia pachyphloia subsp. Vachellia sutherlandii Qld
brevipinnula Vachellia pachyphloia NT, Qld
Acacia pachyphloia subsp. Vachellia pachyphloia subsp. NT, WA
pachyphloia brevipinnula WA
Acacia pachyphloia subsp. puberula Vachellia pachyphloia subsp.
Acacia pallid pachyphloia
Acacia pallidifolia Vachellia pachyphloia subsp. NT, WA
Acacia suberosa brevipinnula
Acacia sutherlandii Vachellia pallidifolia WA
Acacia texensis Vachellia pallidifolia NT
Vachellia suberosa NT
Acacia turbata Vachellia sutherlandii NT, WA
Acaciella angustissima var. texensis Qld, NT
Vachellia pallidifolia
Qld (naturalised)
NT
Notes:
1 Fifteen American species are now classified in the genus Acaciella. There is also a new classification of thirteen American species under the
genus Mariosousa.
2 Acacia pennata (incl. A. pennata subsp. insuavis, A. pennata subsp. kerrii) and Acacia catechu var. sundra belong in Senegalia but the
assignments have not yet been done.
the flat surface) is vertical, or directed to the zenith.’

In recent times, this phyllodinous characteristic What is a Wattle?
has been the basis for a botanical re-evaluation of Joseph Maiden was
the genus that would cover more than 900 species.1 appointed first curator
However, a major obstacle to the process exists. The of the Technological
type species for the genus is Acacia nilotica – a plant Museum in Sydney
native to Africa and the Indian subcontinent. It is in 1881. His keen
representative of a section of the genus that includes interest in native
a relatively small proportion of the total – just 161 plants led to the
species. These are fairly widespread across Africa, Asia, publication of the
and the Americas, with a few ranging into northern Useful Native Plants
Australia (see Acaciella, Vachellia and Senegalia in of Australia in 1889.
Table 7.1). For this reason, a name change that would His career strongly
keep the majority of Australian plants classified reflected his interest
as Acacia needs to be accompanied by a change in in the classification
the type species. Acacia penninervis, the Mountain and economic value
Hickory or Hickory Wattle, found in both eastern of the Australian
Australia and New Zealand, has been suggested. This flora and he wrote
re-classification process has not been an easy task for prolifically on the Joseph Henry Maiden,
the international botanical authorities. Australian subject. In particular, 1859–1925, pictured c. 1900.
species classified in the Acacia nilotica subgroup move the publication of (Wikimedia Common)
to the genus Vachellia. A couple of species move the Forest Flora of
to Senegalia, and there are a couple of naturalised New South Wales (1904–1924) was a remarkable
Acaciella species. Needless to say, many non-botanists achievement. Maiden became an acknowledged
will be thoroughly confused by the reclassification. authority on Acacia and Eucalyptus, and his works
provided the basis of botanical classification for
many decades. He produced the eight-volume A
Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus, as well as
A Census of New South Wales Plants. In addition, he
wrote numerous papers on Australian weeds, the
economic potential of the native flora and, where
possible, information on its medicinal
The Corkwood Acacia, Vachellia bidwillii (formerly Acacia

bidwillii), which is native to Queensland, has an attractive
cork-like bark, in contrast to the dense or rough-furrowed
character of the majority of the native Acacias. Corkwood
Wattle is also a useful food plant – the seeds are edible and
Aboriginal people ate the roots of young trees, peeled and
roasted (Roth 1901). (Courtesy: Cheryl Robinson JCU) Acacia maidenii, named in honour of Joseph Maiden. (Courtesy:
KAW Williams, Native Plants of Queensland, Vol. 1)
1 Distribution of phyllodinous species: Australia (around 950), the Pacific
Islands (7), Madagascar (1-2), tropical Asia (10).
plait, to form of plaited twigs.’ He continued: ‘It

is a matter of common knowledge how small trees
were used in the manner indicated in the above
definitions, in the erection of various structures
in the early days of the Colony. Acacias were
undoubtedly used (with other small trees), and it
is interesting to the student of language to note
how the word wattle has now become practically
synonymous with Acacia.’ An interesting point is
that the earliest use of ‘wattle’ did not refer to an
Acacia, but to an unrelated plant with a similar
appearance – Callicoma serratifolia. At the time,
this small tree was fairly prolific around the
streams of Sydney Cove: ‘[in] the earliest records
of ‘dab and wattle’ structures, the tough saplings
of this species were alluded to … The compact
round heads of flowers have a general resemblance
The east coast tree Callicoma serratifolia, the only species to those of wattles, and I have, on more than one
in its genus, is commonly called Black Wattle although occasion, when out in the bush, been asked by an
it is not related to the genus Acacia. (Courtesy: KAW
unbotanical companion “What kind of wattle is
this?” In [George] Don’s work on Dichlamydeous
uses. He had an eloquent style of writing and a Plants, published in 1834, this species was referred
remarkable knowledge of the subject matter. In to as “black wattle”’ (Maiden 1890).
the 1890 publication Wattles and Wattlebarks of While the species of Acacia found in Australia
New South Wales, Maiden discussed the origins tend not to have spiky defences, there are
of the term ‘Wattle’ [which he sourced from some exceptions such as the Mimosa Bush (A.
Webster’s Dictionary]: ‘a wattle is defined as a twig farnesiana) and the tropical species Dead Finish
or flexible rod; a hurdle made of such rods; a rod (A. tetragonophylla). Aboriginal people have
laid on a roof to support the thatch. Hence, when long used the needle-like spikes of the latter for
used as a verb, it signifies to bind with twigs; to inserting under warts. They were left in the skin
twist or interweave (twigs) one with another; to at the base of the growth until it started to bleed.
The treatment eventually killed the wart, which
sloughed off (Latz 1996; Barr 1988).
Vicious spikes like

these are typical
of many non-
Australian Acacias.
The oddly named Dead Finish, Acacia tetragonophylla. (Courtesy:

1770 – along with Acacia multisiliqua, A. legnota,

A. calyculata and A. holosericea. Other Australian
Acacia species collected on Captain Cook’s voyages
included A. leiocalyx, A. longifolia, A. suaveolens, A.
terminalis and A. ulicifolia.
Other Acacia species found in the tropical
coastal regions that HMB Endeavour passed when
mapping the coastline in 1770 include the Golden-
flowered Salwood (Acacia aulacocarpa) and the
Northern Wattle (A. crassicarpa). These Wattles
are a distinctive feature of Cape Tribulation – a
site named by Cook after the ship had been
involved in a collision with the offshore reef.
The petioles or leaf stalks of The Golden-flowered Salwood has an interesting
Acacia are more accurately distribution – although widespread along the coast
named phyllodes (phyllodia) between northern New South Wales and northern
and resemble leaves. Above: Queensland, it is not common. The tree is restricted
Acacia mangium and A.
flavescens; left: A. crassicarpa.
v Tropical coastal Wattles

Acacia humifusa is native to the tropical regions of
Queensland (favouring the east coast of the Cape
York Peninsula), the Northern Territory and West
Australia. It was among the species collected by
Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander at Cooktown
when HMB Endeavour was being repaired in
Acacia cincinnata in the coastal rainforest canopy.

The Daintree Wattle or Northern Black Wattle (Acacia
cincinnata) is a coastal Queensland species that ranges
from temperate rainforest margins and riverine sites, to
the northern tropical rainforest. It is one of the species
with an overseas distribution – extending to Papua New
Guinea and some eastern Malesian islands. The creamy
Golden-flowered Salwood Leaves and ripe seed pods of light yellow flowers produce distinctive pods that form
(Acacia aulacocarpa) by the the tropical Acacia humifusa. five tightly coiled loops. The name ‘ear-pod’ is an apt
beach at Cape Tribulation, description of the seed pod when it forms a flattened
North Queensland. woody capsule with crinkled edges.
to small populations along creek banks or run-off

sites. It is one of the Acacia species that was collected
and identified by the botanist Alan Cunningham
in 1820. Extracts of Acacia aulacocarpa have
shown a moderate level of antibacterial activity
against Bacillus subtilis, Aeromonas hydrophila and
Pseudomonas fluorescens (Cock 2008). This versatile
Acacia, whose distribution extends to Papua New
Guinea and Indonesia, has excellent potential as
a quick-growing crop for use in the pulpwood
and papermaking purposes, and is suitable for
revegetation projects on sites with poor soils and for
erosion control. The timber, which is moderately
durable and tough, is particularly versatile. It can
be used for construction purposes, cabinetwork,
furniture, flooring, boat building, tool handles,
boxes and crates, joinery and turnery. The inner
bark is also suitable as a source of tannin.
Burkitt’s Wattle, Acacia burkittii (now A. randelliana), from
JH Maiden, Forest Flora of New South Wales, (Vol. 7, 1916),
Australian Wattle: a national emblem illustrator Lilian Margaret Flockton.
The Coat of Arms of Australia is the official symbol of
Australia. The current version was granted by King George
V on 19 September 1912. The shield is the focal point of
the coat of arms, contained within is the badge of each
Australian State. In the top half, from left to right, the
states represented are: New South Wales, Victoria, and
Queensland. In the bottom half, from left to right: South
Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania. Above the
shield is the seven-pointed ‘Commonwealth Star’ or ‘Star of
Federation’ above a blue and gold wreath, forming the crest.
Six of the points on the star represent the original six states,
while the seventh point represents the combined territories
and any future states of Australia. In its entirety the shield
represents the Federation of Australia. In the background
is a wreath of Golden Wattle, the official national floral
emblem, though the representation of the species is not
botanically accurate (Wikimedia).
Floral emblems are important symbols. They have burkittii, now A. randelliana] is a Wattle largely developed
become an integral part of the very identity of the in western New South Wales, and very beautiful in the
clear dry air of the wide western plains. I do not say that
Australian continent, where pride of place must be
this is the most beautiful species (I would give the palm
shared between the Eucalypt and the Wattle. The
to A. decora Reichb., the Western Silver Wattle …), but I
latter has certainly been a fitting representative, do say that if one desires to see Wattle in all its glory, in
equalling the floral icons of many other countries. all its prodigal profusion – an emblem of purity, typical
Joseph Maiden’s eloquence concerning the Wattle was of the potential wealth of this wonderful country – then
truly inspirational: we must journey to the western plains. Just as in Western
Australia special trains are run to inspect the native flora
The Wattle and National Sentiment. – This [Acacia … it will happen a very few generations hence that
this continent) to employ wattle-buds as calendars. They

would decide on starting certain journeys or undertaking
other periodical businesses on the stage of development
of the wattle-buds; for the opening of the first flowers of
some species in certain localities takes place with hardly a
day’s variation from year to year (Maiden 1916).
These wonderful displays can be rather ephemeral, with

most blossoms losing their exquisite fluffiness if they
are harvested. Maiden continued with some interesting
information with regard to their botanical importance:
Wattles are divided into two large groups: one in which the
Western Silver Wattle, Acacia decora. (Courtesy: KAW

special trains will be run to see the Wattle, in order that

our citizens may appreciate their own native flora just as
the Japanese – artistic souls – do theirs. I have travelled
in many countries, but I do not call to my mind any
plant which impressed me more than the Wattle, – blaze
of pure gold (hardly a leaf to be seen), and miles of it.
The Australian Coat of Arms bears sprays of Wattle at the
bottom of the shield (Maiden 1916).
The Golden Wattle, Acacia pycnantha, Australia’s

national floral emblem, was not officially elevated to
that status until 1988. The eminent botanist George
Bentham formally described this species in 1842
in the London Journal of Botany from a specimen
collected by Thomas Mitchell from inland New South
Wales. Unfortunately, the plant later became popular
in cultivation and today in South Africa is regarded as
a pestilential weed.
Although the ‘golden’ colour of the Australian
wattle is its most familiar trademark, the flowers of
different species can display a remarkable diversity of
cream and yellow hues. Maiden was again eloquent
on the topic: Acacia flavescens is a widespread Queensland coastal species
with creamy-white flowers. It ranges from a temperate
The colour of wattle-blossoms varies from pure white to climate to the tropics, including the Cape York Peninsula.
deep yellow and, rarely, orange. It has been called a golden This species is distinguished by flattened pods that have
flower, and it is beautiful to the true Australian, gladdening transverse veins across them. The environmental importance
his heart like the precious metal; but with this difference, of some Acacia species is linked to the wonderful butterflies
that it is the most democratic of all flowers, abundant and to which they play host. The Red or Yellow Wattle (as this
free to rich and poor alike. The value of the plant-lore species is known) is a food plant for the larval stages of the
Blue Jewel butterfly – while the Northern Wattle (Acacia
of the aborigines has been probably exaggerated, but we
crassicarpa) supports the larvae of the Northern Imperial
do know that they used (and still do in remote parts of Blue butterfly.
flowers form little fluffy balls, and the other in which they Acacia: a useful crop
form short rods (botanists call them spikes) respectively.
Acacia timber has long been valued for its hardness and
Now a single ball or spike (it is the very embodiment
distinctive grain. For this reason a number of native
of softness and silkiness in spite of the suggestion of
aggressiveness of the name) consists of an aggregate of species have become popular in cultivation overseas.
flowers, and if a magnifying glass of moderate power be Australian Acacias are grown in around seventy
taken, one can readily see the minute yet perfect flowers countries. Among the most widely cultivated are Acacia
of which they are composed. One frail little fluffy ball, so mearnsii (South Africa, Brazil, China and Vietnam),
tender that it wilts at once and is readily blown about by A. saligna (North Africa, Middle East, western Asia,
a gentle breeze, is an aggregate of flowers each as perfect Chile), and A. mangium (Indonesia and Malaysia).
as that of a buttercup; and the calyx with its component The latter, which is known as the Brown Salwood in
sepals, the corolla with its constituent petals, the many Australia, is native to the tropical Queensland coast
stamens, and the incipient pod are all there. This floral and Papua New Guinea. This fast-growing species,
wonder is best seen when the wattle is not perfectly full.
which thrives on disturbance to the rainforest, is a
particularly useful shade and timber tree that has been
utilised in Southeast Asia for reafforestation programs.
It is of interest to find that it also has medicinal
potential. Investigations have shown that heartwood
extracts of Acacia mangium contain antioxidant and
antifungal flavonoids. Some of these were found to be
important to the plant’s disease-resistance capabilities.
A comparison of the flavonoid content of Acacia
mangium and A. auriculiformis2 found that the latter
contained higher levels, which made it less prone
rotting of the heartwood. Acacia mangium was found
to be more susceptible (Mihara 2005).
An old Acacia stump framing a stark white tropical Eucalypt.
Phyllodia of the Brown Salwood (Acacia mangium).

Flowers of Acacia dealbata. (Courtesy: Aelwyn, Wiki-media
Commons Project 2 Acacia auriculiformis is also utilised as a timber resource in Asia.
The timber of the Lightwood (Acacia implexa) is valued by

wood turners.
and A. mangium, which are popular for paper pulp
Acacia mangium is widely utilised in Southeast Asia for production, as are A. peregrinalis and A. mearnsii. The
reafforestation programs, and is valued for its attractively latter and Acacia mangium also have good potential
grained hardwood timber. for use in making reconstituted wood products. In
The Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) has achieved addition, innumerable Wattles have been used as fuel
fairly wide renown as an excellent furniture timber.
Species such as Acacia celsa and A. salicina yield
timbers of a similar quality. However, the diversity
and importance of the economic products sourced
from Australian native Wattles is not restricted to
cabinet-making, veneer and carpentry timbers.
Craft and turnery items utilise species such as Acacia
acuminata, A. aneura, A. implexa and A. papyrocarpa
– the latter also being suitable for making musical
instruments. Many other species yield a hard, durable
wood that has been valued for the manufacture of
strong, weather-resistant and hard-wearing items – for
example, tool handles from Acacia falciformis and A.
Thick-podded Salwood (Acacia crassicarpa) at Cape Tribulation.
silvestris, and posts and small poles from A. acuminata, Small farming ventures overseas have utilised Acacia crassicarpa
A. aneura and A. dealbata. Species valued as plantation (Indonesia and Vietnam) and Cole’s Wattle, A. colei (India, sub-
crops for the production of timber in Asia can have a Saharan Africa), as timber resources. The latter has also been
range of other uses. They include Acacia auriculiformis valued for its edible seed production.
Thick-podded Salwood (Acacia crassicarpa) at Cape

The timber of the Brown Salwood or Brush Ironbark Wattle
Tribulation.
(Acacia celsa) has been used as a Teak substitute. It is a fast
wood and charcoal resources, among them Acacia growing species that is found along a limited area of the
colei, A. mearnsii, A. saligna and A. stenophylla (Maslin tropical Queensland coast, extending into drier rainforest
& McDonald 2004). habitats.
The confusion caused by common names
The fruit annd phyllodia

of Acacia melan-oxylon.
(Courtesy: Michail Belov,
www.chileflora.com)
Bark and the extraordinary
twisted, ripened pods of
the Black Wattle, Acacia
auriculiformis. (Courtesy:
Kim & Forest Starr)
Acacia species can have a very similar appearance

and this means that the common names used
to describe many wattles can become rather
confusing. In Australia, ‘Black Wattle’ usually
refers to Acacia auriculiformis. However, the
Brown Salwoods, Acacia celsa and A. mangium,
have also been known as Black Wattle – as has A.
melanoxylon, albeit the latter is more commonly
known as Blackwood. Dr George Bennett
commented: ‘The Acacia melanoxylon … timber
is tough and straight-grained, resembling lance-
wood,3 and is valuable for such purposes as require
Flowers of Acacia melanoxylon. (Courtesy: KAW Williams,
elasticity and durability; the wood is beautiful
Native Plants of Queensland, Vol. 4)
when polished, and would make handsome
furniture. It bears a profusion of white flowers, The Blackwood, Acacia melanoxylon, has long
and its seeds furnish abundant food for birds.’ been considered to be a superb cabinet-making
timber.
Joseph Maiden emphasised its importance:
This is considered by some people to be the most valuable

of Australian timbers. Perhaps this is a bold claim to
make, bearing in mind the high merits of such timbers as
Ironbark and Red Cedar; but it is undoubtedly a timber
of the highest class, happily combining an ornamental
character with great strength. It is hard and close-
grained, and is much valued for furniture, billiard-tables,
cabinet-work, picture-frames, gun-stocks, walking-sticks,
crutches, tool-handles, railway and other carriages, boat-
building (stem and stern-posts, ribs, rudder), naves of
wheels, parts of organs, pianofortes (sound-boards and
actions), and many other purposes too numerous to
individualise. It is a most useful timber for coachbuilders,
in the bent timber branch. It bends well, and with proper
treatment from the felling and sawing of the lumber,
it substitutes perfectly for the bent timber in, say, an
Austrian chair, and would look as well, and feel as light.
For narrow boards it is used in the coach-building trade
in Sydney in place of American Walnut, and it is taken
for that timber when polished. It would last indefinitely
in dry situations. It is really valuable for panelling, and
perhaps framing.
The wood was equally valued by Aboriginal people

for making weapons and implements such as mulga
Australian Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon), Maui, sticks, club-shields, and the throwing sticks that were
Hawaii. (Courtesy: Forest & Kim Starr) used to propel spears. While the timber could be used
as a fuel, it was not suitable for making charcoal as this
3 A number of species have been known as Lancewood: Acacia burned too quickly.
crassicarpa, A. doratoxylon (Brown Lancewood), A. mangium, A. petraea
and A. shirleyi (Shirley’s Lancewood). The timber of Acacia melanoxylon is comparable to
some excellent imported materials – with substantial
The coastal species Acacia However, there is a significant hazard associated with
oraria, which is related working Acacia timbers. The sawdust can have a highly
to the Blackwood (A.
irritant effect – particularly in susceptible individuals.
melanoxylon), favours the
tropical sandy beaches of Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) commented of
the Queensland northern Acacia melanoxylon sensitivity that: ‘Workers in this
coast. It ranges from Cairns wood in joinery and furniture shops and in motor-
to the Cape York Peninsula body works sometimes suffer from severe spasmodic
(sometimes extending to
rhinorrhoea [runny nose], which is probably of an
inland sites along streams)
and overseas to Flores and allergic nature. A severe dermatitis, affecting the backs
Timor. An interesting of the forearms, and the neck, face and eyebrows more
botanical characteristic of particularly and affecting certain individuals only, has
this species is that the aril also been reported. Other persons have worked with
covering the seed can vary according to its site of origin – in
the timber for years with impunity … The condition
coastal areas it is red, whereas inland plants have a greenish
orange aril. is characterized by much itching, weeping of the
lesions, swelling of the parts and congestion of the
potential for domestic and overseas markets. The conjunctivae and gives every indication of being an
timber has extremely decorative reddish brown stripes allergic reaction.’
and diagonal light-gold markings, which has given In addition, it appears that hayfever and asthma
it a high ornamental value. Joseph Maiden (1904) have been well documented as allergic reactions
mentioned that one ‘English expert’ of the early linked to the genus. However, there may be more to
1900s attested: ‘The ornamental logs of this wood are this situation than is apparent. Certainly there will
exceedingly beautiful, and should fetch a high price be individuals who are pollen sensitive, although this
in this (London) market, where they could be used to does not appear to be a common condition. The risk
advantage in place of the best Honduras mahogany.’ commonly associated with flowering Acacias may be
High praise indeed. Maiden was equally impressed overstated because the pollen is large, heavy and is
with its potential: insect-dispersed – this is in contrast to the fine, wind-
distributed grass pollens known to cause allergies.4 It
Blackwood is strikingly like American Walnut [Juglans
nigra] in most respects, in fact the former is probably often
is possible that the reaction to Acacia may be related
substituted for the latter without the purchaser being any to a perfume intolerance. The components responsible
the wiser, the incentive being that Walnut brings about for the allergic reactions are possibly hydroxyflavans –
four times the price in the Sydney market. If Blackwood although quinones have also shown a mild sensitising
be treated with lime-water or potash, the deception will effect. Melacacidin, which is a moderate sensitiser, has
be complete. Blackwood is pushing itself forward on been identified in 125 Australian and three African
its own merits, but it has to fight against a good deal species of Acacia (Hausen 1990).
of the prejudice which is shown to Australian timbers, Acacia injuries involving physical wounds can also
largely caused by unseasoned timber having so often been have a tendency to become inflamed and infected. Dr
supplied. It requires fair play in the matter of seasoning, J. Burton Cleland (1931) reported:
and will well repay any reasonable care expended on it. The
similarities of Walnut and Blackwood are not confined to
outward appearance, for their properties appear much the The red mulga [Acacia cyperophylla] is a remarkable Acacia
same, hence a knowledge of the many uses to which the from whose stems the reddish bark hangs in patches and
former timber is put is useful as a guide to the capabilities shred as if from laceration by the horns of a bull. It is
of our Blackwood. A good deal of it possesses a ‘broken found growing near Hamilton Bore, north of Oodnadatta,
grain’ and satiny lustre which are exceedingly ornamental. and also north of the Cooper at Innamincka. The wood
Nothing, in my opinion, resembles the figure of picked polishes remarkably well. Scratches by the wood are said
samples so strongly as the South African mineral to be particularly liable to fester. It should be remembered,
crocidolite, which, as is well known, has a characteristic however, that those who meet with this timber growing,
and beautiful appearance. The figured wood is cut into are quite likely to be living on a minimum of fresh food,
veneers. It takes a fine polish. and particularly fruit, which may make scratches and
similar injuries more liable to become infected.
The perfumed Wattle

The fragrant timbers of a number of Acacia species
have been valued since the early days of the colony for
artworks and carpentry. Dr George Bennett (1860)
commented: ‘At the Paris Exhibition there was an
exquisite carving, in Myall-wood, of violet leaves and
flowers, by Archibald Murray, and which, as the wood
emits a strong odour of violets, was very appropriate.’
In 1848, the notes of Thomas Mitchell mentioned
the aromatic qualities of another timber: ‘We found
this day, in the scrubs by Marra Creek, the Acacia
salicina, whereof the wood has a strong perfume
resembling violets.’ The Black Sally Wattle or Black
Wattle (Acacia salicina) is of interest because it is one
of the species with a tannin-rich bark that has been
utilised as a piscicide (fish poison). Recently, a study
of leaf extracts determined they contained compounds
(possibly phenolics and sterols) with antigenotoxic
and antioxidant activity. This suggests that these
components could have useful chemopreventive
attributes (Mansour 2007).
Other fragrant species included the Pepper Tree
Wattle (Acacia elata), which Bennett considered to be:
‘of beautiful foliage and elegant growth, resembling
very much a Robinia: this tree yields a dye of a
golden-yellow colour, but so large a quantity of wood The Gossamer Wattle (Acacia floribunda): flowering tree and
is required to form the dye, that it is found more insect galls. Acacia floribunda is among the fragrant wattles
economical to use the imported fustic [a commercial that have attracted commercial interest. George Bennett
yellow dye]. It is the Mother [coba] of the native (1860) remarked: ‘The Willow Acacia (A. floribunda) is very
blacks, and has a scented wood of fine, close grain: common about the creeks in all parts of the colony, and has
a delightful scent. Both the gum and bark formerly formed
it has been found 18 inches in diameter.’ The Silvery articles of export to Great Britain.’
or Blue-leaved Acacia (Acacia subcaerulea), which was
valued by Aboriginal people for making boomerangs,
also yielded a ‘very good yellow dye’ from the bark
(Bennett 1860).
The flowers of some Acacia can have a wonderful
delicate, fragrance. A few species even gained
particular fame in the perfume industry, such as the
Black or Green Wattle (Acacia decurrens): ‘At one time
a well-known London firm of perfumers stated that
they prepare their “Extract of Australian Wattle” from
the flowers of this wattle, which is grown in enormous
quantities on the Riviera in southern Europe for
decorative purposes’ (Maiden 1907). In France,
perfume houses use the flowers of Acacia decurrens
4 More information is available at: www.asgap.org.au ‘If You Start Sneezing
don’t Blame the Acacias’, Norbert Schaeper. Indian investigations have
indicated that Eucalyptus pollen appears to be implicated more often than
the Acacia as a cause of allergic reactions (Boral 2004, Singh & Kumar 2003).
Sweet Acacia, Acacia farnesiana. (Courtesy: Michael J

Plagens, Wikimedia Commons Project)
true flowery fragrance. The essential oil from flowers

of “aroma” is greenish yellow and viscid. This oil itself
is never sold commercially but is mixed with other
substances and sold as perfumes, fixed oil, pomades,
or extract of cassie.’
Acacia decurrens (Black Wattle, Green Wattle) by Pierre- The Sweet Acacia or Mimosa Bush (Acacia
Joseph Redouté (1759–1840) from Jardin de la Malmaison farnesiana) ranges from its origins in Mexico and
(1804–1805), EP Ventenat, France. Published as Mimosa Central America, to southern Asia and northern
decurrens. Australia. This widespread distribution probably
var. dealbata and the viciously thorny Mimosa Bush occurred via the trade routes of early travellers –
(A. farnesiana). The latter has been specially valued sometime prior to European settlement. The plant’s
in Cannes, southern France, for making the famous resilient and opportunistic propagation strategies
Cassie flower oil. have resulted in an invasive tendency which has seen
Acacia farnesiana var. cavernia is a particularly it spread throughout Australia. It has even gained
useful variety that is of commercial value due to its the status of a pestilential weed in some southern
drought and frost resistant attributes. The annual Australian states. Acacia farnesiana, which has recently
yield per tree is around 1 kg of blossoms, which are been re-classified in Vachellia, and is now known as V.
used for the preparation of a pomade – a concentrated farnesiana.
perfumed oil. This is made by macerating the flowers
in purified liquid natural fat for several hours. Fresh Wattleseed harvests
flowers are continually added until the mixture is fully Wattle species often have a very similar appearance
saturated. The pomade is then mixed with alcohol to when in blossom as the flowers can have few
make a tincture known as an ‘absolute’, which is used distinguishing features. However, many species can
for making the violet bouquets that are characteristic of be identified by their distinctive fruit capsules: seed-
the French perfume industry. In his work on Medicinal containing pods that can have highly decorative
Plants of the Philippines, Eduardo Quisumbing (1951) configurations. They vary from a simple straightened
provides a few details on these uses of ‘Aroma’ (as the pod, to various twisted shapes, and highly convoluted
herb was known in the Philippines): ‘The odour of coiling masses. Pods are not the only important
this perfume resembles that of violets but is more clues used in the identification of a species. The style
intense. Cassie perfume is used in preparing the best of the seed and the way it is attached within by the
handkerchief bouquets and hair pomades. When aril or funicle may be equally informative. This can
diluted with other odours it imparts to the whole a be a highly individualised characteristic with clear
Seeds and seedpods of Acacia crassicarpa. Note the sturdy Seeds and seedpods of Acacia mangium. The fruit of the Brown
funicles holding the seeds in place in the pod. Salwood are tightly coiled pods that turn into decorative
springs of ‘wattle curls’ – a term that has been used to describe
classification features. Acacia crassicarpa produces the convoluted appearance of wattle seed pods.
distinctive flat woody pods, within which the shiny
black seeds are securely attached by a white funicle.
The highly convoluted pods of Acacia mangium show
another type of seed-attachment strategy.
Numerous Australian Acacias yield seeds that
have been valued as a native food resource. The arils
are rich in oil and the thick seed coat has fibrous
qualities. The seed itself is a fairly rich carbohydrate
resource (starch, around 50%) – as well as containing
some protein (20%), unsaturated fats and oil (8%),
and various minerals e.g. potassium, calcium, iron,
magnesium, sodium. The seed flour has attracted
interest because it can be used to make gluten-
free foods and can help regulate blood sugar levels.
This makes it admirably suitable for inclusion in
Unripe and ripened seedpods of Acacia holosericea. This
specialised diets for coeliac and diabetic individuals. shrub, native to tropical and inland northern Australia, is
In Africa, some Australian Acacias have achieved commonly known as Soapbush Wattle or Strap Wattle.
particular importance as a seed crop which can be
utilised in fairly high quantities (around 30%) in
the diet. Their popularity is linked to the fact that, Acacia victoriae (the Elegant Wattle) and A. murrayana
despite the great diversity of Acacias present on the have also been used in Australia to develop quality
African continent, many species have toxic potential. seed-yielding plants suitable for cultivation. Unlike
They have been associated with incidents of poisoning the Elegant Wattle, Acacia murrayana is a spineless
that range from fairly mild side effects (drowsiness), species, which is an asset for harvesting purposes. In
to more severe reactions such as muscle paralysis or addition, Acacia murrayana has potential for use in
renal failure. By comparison, relatively few Australian revegetation programs as it has good soil stabilisation
species are toxic. A selection of these semi-arid species properties and is capable of regenerating from its roots,
that yield prolific seed crops have been cultivated which means it can regrow following fire damage or
Africa. The most popular are Acacia cowleana, A. colei clearing operations (Lister 1996).
(formerly classified in A. holosericea) and A. tumida. Unsurprisingly, Australian Aboriginal people
A few species, such as Acacia coriacea, had edible

green pods that were eaten raw or steamed over a
fire. Today, the most common cultivated species for
wattleseed harvests in Australia include the Brisbane
Acacia murrayana in flower. (Courtesy: KAW Williams,

Native Plants of Queensland, Vol.3)
Acacia coriacea. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native Plants of

Queensland, Vol. 2)
Acacia coriacea. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native Plants of

Queensland, Vol. 4)
Wattle (Acacia fimbriata), Sydney Golden Wattle (A.

longifolia), Flinders or Notable Wattle (A. notabilis),
Golden Wattle (A. pycnantha), Silver or Swamp
Wattle (Acacia retinodes) and the Elegant Wattle or
Flower spike of the Elegant Wattle, Acacia victoriae.
(Courtesy: Brian Walters, ANPS) Gundabluey (A. victoriae). The latter, which is also
known as the Bramble or Prickly Wattle, is a fast-
utilised a much greater variety of native species – at growing prickly shrub that is widespread throughout
least fifty-six (and possibly more). Traditionally, the the continent – ranging from the coast to inland sites
pods were fire-baked to neutralise any bitter substances It can often be found forming thick scrubs on river
in the seeds. The baked seeds were then winnowed, flats. In central Australia it was traditionally regarded
yandied,5 parched, and ground or pounded to make as an important food crop. The green pods could be
a paste that was cooked into damper-like breads. lightly fire-roasted before the seeds were extracted and
eaten, while mature seeds (which have a hard seed

coat) were ground before use. However, the wild seed
crop can be unreliable. At times it has failed over a
large area and other local species have been utilised as
substitutes.
The Dalby Wattle or Dalby Myall (Acacia stenophylla) is a

fairly widespread tree that ranges from the eastern states
(Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland), inland to South
Wattle seed products are used in cosmetics and toiletries. Australia and the Northern Territory – extending into
Oil from Wattle seeds has been incorporated into a number northern West Australia. It is one of the species that has also
of innovative personal care products, as a nourishing and been known as ‘Black Wattle’. (Courtesy: Don AW Carlson,
emollient addition to skin moisturisers, hydrating creams, Wikimedia Commons Project)
and cleansing soaps. Acacia stenophylla has attracted substantial
horticultural interest due to its salt tolerant habit and
Acacia stenophylla was one of the species that was
ability to withstand a wide range of climatic extremes,
sampled as a coffee substitute by the early explorers.
including drought and moderate frost.6 Not only
Close observation of the provisions found around
will it grow under saline conditions and in alkaline
Aboriginal camps led to various experiments with the
soils, it naturally colonises riverine sites. This means
edibility of the native flora. The diaries of Thomas
it can survive flooding and waterlogged, seasonally
Mitchell’s expedition in 1848 made some interesting
inundated situations. The tree has a few other desirable
observations regarding these food supplies:
strategies that make it suitable for crop development.
The Angophora lanceolata was everywhere; Callitris grew It is particularly useful as a shade tree that can stabilise
about the base of the hills, and some very singular acacias, soils and in plantings for windbreaks. It provides an
a long-leaved grey kind of wattle, the Acacia stenophylla excellent fuel wood, and the timber is suitable for
of Cunningham. On one tree large pods hung in such carpentry purposes or fence posts. Joseph Maiden
profusion as to bend the branches to the ground. From (1920) commented that the wood was hard and heavy
this abundance I supposed it was not good to be eaten; with a close-grained character that was ‘beautifully
nevertheless, I found in another place many of the same marked and takes a fine polish. It planes excellently,
pods roasted at some fires of the natives, and learnt from showing a very smooth surface’. These characteristics
our guides that they eat the pea [seed]. The pod somewhat have continued to support its selection as a timber
resembled that of the Cachou nut of the Brazils, –
crop – particularly as this is a long-lived species that
Munumula is the native name.
can reach over 50 years old. It has a rapid growth
habit and coppices well. Interest overseas has led to
The gum is also edible, either raw or dissolved in hot plantation trials in Pakistan and Egypt – although it
water (Wightman 1992). is not favoured as a seed resource. It can produce a
large seed crop but difficulties with the harvest limit
5 Yandying is a refining process used by Aboriginal women to clean seeds
or other products. It involves the use of a coolamon (an elongated wooden its usefulness.
dish) to separate the contents according to different characteristics (e.g.
density or surface type). This is an important and skilled process that is used
to differentiate different grains. It is an easy way to separate edible from non-
edible seeds – as well as remove insect-damaged material or soil debris (Latz 6 This species has, however, been classed as a woody weed in some parts of
1996). Queensland.
Fire-survival tactics The outer covering of the [Acacia] seed is of great

hardness, and under ordinary circumstances it will
Fire, a calamity all too regularly imposed on Australia’s remain in the ground for many years before germination.
wildlife and flora, has forced the development of some I am indebted to Mr. William Neilley, of Sydney, for
inventive survival strategies. Numerous plant species are what appears to be a well-authenticated instance of
naturally designed to germinate following fire. Indeed, wattle seed remaining dormant in the ground for over
the cultivation of Acacia can be intrinsically linked to 37 years. An allotment of land in the town of Bega,
the harsh conditions of a fire-prone environment. The purchased from Mr. Spence, formerly had wattles on it,
but the trees and all wattles near had long since been
intense heat cooks the seed cases, which spring open.
destroyed. After a lapse of 37 years Mr. Neilley had the
The seeds, as well as the surviving parent plant, then
land ploughed, and wattles sprang up thickly when
have the opportunity to take advantage of the ash- the ground was trenched. Bush-fires, however, usually
fortified and nutrient-enriched soil. Post-fire conditions hasten matters; and it is well known that perfect forests
also limit predation by seed-harvesters such as ants, of young wattles spring up in many places after these
because the seeds are more difficult to find buried occurrences.
within the ash. Joseph Maiden (1890) provided some
interesting information on the subject: He went on to explain that these observations had
helped farming enterprises:
The operations of nature are therefore assisted in

practice by means of heat, and this heat may be either
dry or moist. For the first, Mr. J. E. Brown recommends
a quantity of brushwood to be burnt down to the
condition of expiring embers. ‘In this residuum of the
fire the seed is placed, and mixed up with the ashes and
charred coals, and the whole is then allowed to remain
until cooled down. The seed is now ready for sowing …’
Care will, of course, require to be exercised to prevent
loss by over-burning. A frying-pan is used by some
people for roasting wattle seeds. Secondly, the method
of treatment by boiling, or hot water. Mr. Brown has
recommended that the seed be placed in a vessel, water
almost boiling poured upon it, and left to soak for one
or two days; the seed is then taken out and kept damp
in a bag until swelling takes place.
The heat exposure could be fairly intense:
Professor Tate, who, in addition to his scientific knowledge,

Detail of a burnt tree trunk, and a fire-blackened landscape. has had much practical experience in wattle-planting, has
instituted a series of experiments upon the temperature to
which wattle seed may be exposed in assisting it to germinate.
The experiments are useful, in that they enable the operation
of treatment with hot water to be conducted with greater
confidence. In my own case I have been afraid to destroy the
vitality of seed by the application of too high a temperature,
but Professor Tate shows that the seeds may be boiled for
several minutes without injury, though there is no advantage
in heating the water above 150°F.
Ant–plant relationships enlists the ants to protect them from insect attacks
(Tropical Topics No. 35 April 1996; Tropical Topics
No. 13 July 1993).
Ants may even help increase the chances of
Acacia seed development. Some trees encourage ant
guards, who prevent insects from damaging the plant
– although their presence can be a bit of a problem
during times of insect pollination. One cunning
aromatic solution that deals with this dilemma occurs
when the flower reaches its peak fertility. The plant (or
the pollen) emits a chemical signal that distracts the
guards and allows the insect visitors within (usually
Above: Seeds of Acacia
melanoxylon, showing bees). The presence of the ant guards, who are on duty
elaiosomes. (Courtesy: before and after pollination, also improves the final
Steve Hurst @ USDA- seed-set by preventing disturbance of the fertilised
NRCS PLANTS flower. In Africa, ant-guarded species even provide
Database)
ant housing estates within their modified thorns to
accommodate their very own private army (Willmer
& Stone 1997).
Left: Acacia seeds with

elaiosomes, fleshy The Acacia as a weed
structures rich in lipids Acacias are extremely tough plants. Many Australian
and proteins that are
attractive to ants. habitats place them in a position of hardship –
The deliberate deployment of insects for propagation

purposes is characterised by some cunning plant
strategies. There are species that utilise a small
appendage on the seed (an elaiosome) that is a rich
food source for the ant harvesters. Plant and ant
mutually benefit from this strategy. The ant colony
obtains a portable food resource to feed its young,
and the discarded seed settles into a nutrient-rich
waste site that will be (at least in some situations)
eminently suitable for their propagation. There are
some additional benefits, including the relocation
of the seed to a new site that can reduce competition
from other plants. The nest can offer protection
Above: Tropical
from environmental hazards such as summer fires Acacias in coastal
or the winter snow when the seed or seedling is habitat.
likely to be vulnerable. Even the rough handling
they experience en route to their new home can
be beneficial – the resultant scarring can facilitate Acacia farnesiana:
germination in some species. Some Acacias also flowers, leaves and
use small nectar-producing glands (extra-floral ripening/ripened
nectaries) on their branches – a sweet bribe that seedpods. (Courtesy:
Kim & Forest Starr)
ranging from the dry deserts to the salty sea sprays of the Acacia species that are ‘declared weeds’ and Australian
coastline. Their versatile survival strategies are particularly escapees rate highly on the list. Table 7.2 below gives an
admirable qualities. From a botanical point of view, indication of the main species that rate concern.
Joseph Maiden’s words show an appreciation of the The Northern Wattle (Acacia crassicarpa) is a coastal
wattle's resilience and its strategic exploitation of a great
diversity of environment niches across the continent:
And then, have we ever thought of the universality of

the precious wattle? It encounters the spray of the ocean,
and unites the sand to offer resistance to the encroaching
waves. If we go to the torrid saline sands of the interior
it is still there, defiant alike to heat and drought. It
adorns every geological formation, softening the hard
outlines of the ancient rocks, for we see its beauteous
plumes gracing the sandstone, the granite, the basalt
with charming impartiality. It is the natural ornament of The Kangaroo Thorn (Acacia paradoxa) is a fairly widespread
the black tablelands, of the well-drained hillsides, of the species in the southeast of Australia. It ranges from Brisbane
boggy alluvial lands, and defines and gilds the margin of in Queensland, through New South Wales to Victoria and
the running stream. Give it soil, and it will gratefully rear into South Australia. This native is now naturalised in
its head to the sky; if an anchoring place and nutriment Western Australia and Tasmania. It is listed as a noxious
be not available, it will diminish its size and accommodate weed in South Africa and California.
itself to its altered conditions. Afford it plenty of water,
and the happy response is broad, luxurious foliage with
very cascades of brilliant posies. In the desert its branchlets
are reduced to spines, a very embodiment of the defensive
attitude necessitated by its severe environment … It is
found in every Australian State, and abundantly ….
The wattle stands for sunshine, for purity, for beauty, for
goodwill throughout Australia, for a united happy people
– Australians first, and then citizens of our respective
States next.
Kangaroo Thorn, Acacia paradoxa. (Courtesy: KAW

Consequently, their adaptability has enabled many Williams, Native Plants of Queensland, Vol. 4)
species to have weedy prospects. Within Australia,
population outbreaks of a number of non-native tree that ranges from the northern tropics overseas to
Acacias, as well as several indigenous species, regularly Papua New Guinea. It produces a distinctive broad,
occur. African species with pestilential potential flat and straight pod and is known as the Thick-podded
that have emigrated here include Acacia nilotica and Salwood for this reason. It, and the Hickory Wattle
A. erioloba (formerly A. giraffae). Acacia farnesiana (Acacia aulacocarpa), are very alike in appearance.7
(now Vachellia farnesiana), while naturally found in They both have the typical bright yellow Acacia flower
northern Australia (and Africa), has an equally serious and share a similar range – although the pods of the
weedy habit. Various native species, among them latter have a slightly twisted structure and distinctive
the Cootamundra Wattle (Acacia baileyana) and the line-etching on their surface. Unfortunately, much of
Queensland Silver Wattle (A. podalyriifolia), have the beach-land habitat of these trees has been subject
escaped from garden cultivation into the bushland. A to disturbance and is rated of conservation concern.
few have troublesome invasive potential, with some Weedy invasions along the coast pose a particular
species acquiring a measure of notoriety overseas. problem to maintaining the integrity of the landscape.
Indeed, Acacia mearnsii has been listed as one of the
7 Acacia crassicarpa and A. aulacocarpa have also been known as ‘Brown
World’s 100 Worst Weeds. South Africa has at least nine Salwood’.
The Beach or Northern

Wattle (Acacia crassicarpa).
The Cootamundra Wattle (Acacia baileyana), which is

native to New South Wales and Victoria, has gained a rather
notorious reputation. Not only is it considered a nuisance
in many parts of Australia, it has gained pest status in the
United States (especially in California) and South Africa.
The plant has become naturalised in New Zealand. It is still
sold as an ornamental in parts of Australia.
Table 7.2 The Acacia as a weed

Abbreviations: NSW – New South Wales; SA - South Australia; WA – West Australia; NT – Northern Territory
Species, common name Origins: Australia and overseas Weed locations: Australia and overseas
Acacia alata WA (south-west corner) Australia – NSW (southeast)
Winged Wattle
Acacia auriculiformis Tropical Australia (primarily Australian tropics – weedy outbreaks
Black Wattle, Ear-pod Wattle Queensland and NT)
Papua New Guinea and eastern USA (Florida – serious invasive weed)
Indonesia Hawaii (weedy potential)
Acacia baileyana NSW (south-western slopes) Australia (noxious weed) – SA, NSW, Tasmania, Victoria,
Cootamundra Wattle WA (southwest), Queensland
New Zealand (naturalised)
USA – California (naturalised weed)
South Africa (declared weed)
Acacia catechu var. sundra Indo-Malayan region Australia – NT tropics (serious potential to spread.
Cutch, Black Catechu Noxious weed, environmental weed alert list)
Acacia confertiflora (syn. USA and Mexico Australia – Queensland (southeast), NSW (western slopes
Ambrosia confertiflora) and plains), Victoria
Burr Ragweed
Acacia cyclops WA (southwest), SA and Victoria Australia – Victoria (naturalised)
Red Eye, Western Coastal South Africa (declared weed)
Wattle USA – California (naturalised weed)
Acacia dealbata NSW, Victoria, Tasmania Australia – WA (southwest); SA (Adelaide hills); Victoria
Silver Wattle Widespread (naturalised) – southern and south-western
Europe, New Zealand, Azores, Madagascar, India
western USA – California (naturalised weed)
Acacia decurrens South-eastern Australia Australia – WA (southwest); Victoria

Green Wattle, Early Black South Africa (declared weed)
Acacia dunnii Northern Territory, WA Australia – northern Queensland
Elephant Ear Wattle Note: also native to the USA Pacific Islands (prospective invasive weed)
Acacia elata NSW (southeast) Australia – Victoria; WA (southwest)
Cedar Wattle, Pepper Tree South Africa (declared weed)
Acacia farnesiana Central America Australia – weedy pest in drier regions (possibly
Mimosa Bush, Prickly introduced and naturalised prior to European settlement)
Moses, Mimosa, Scented Africa and Asia (naturalised)
Wattle USA – naturalised weed
Acacia floribunda NSW (southeast) Australia – Victoria
White Sallow Wattle
Acacia giraffae South Africa Australia – prohibited plant (noxious weed listing)
(syn. A. erioloba)
Camel Thorn
Acacia howitti Victoria, Tasmania, NSW (south) Australia – Victoria
Sticky Wattle
Acacia implexa Tasmania, Victoria, NSW, Queensland Australia – northern tropics
Screw-pod Wattle South Africa (declared weed)
Acacia iteaphylla SA (north of Adelaide) Australia – Victoria; WA (southwest); SA (Adelaide Hills)
Flinders Range Wattle
Acacia karroo South Africa Australia – east coast (southern Queensland to Victoria,
Karroo Thorn SA and WA) Not widespread, but has serious weed
potential (noxious weed listing; environmental weed alert
list)
NZ – naturalised weed
South Africa (weedy invasions)
Acacia longifolia Australian east coast – southern Australia – SA (southeast); Victoria (southwest)
Sydney Golden Wattle Queensland, NSW, Victoria, Tasmania South Africa (declared weed)
and SA USA – California (naturalised weed)
Acacia mangium Australia – Queensland Hawaii (weedy outbreaks, invasive weed potential)
Mangium Wattle (tropics and subtropics)
Papua New Guinea, Moluccas, eastern

Indonesia
Acacia mearnsii Australia – NSW, Victoria, Tasmania Widespread overseas, naturalised in many places:
Black or Green Wattle, Late southern and south-western Europe, North and South
Black Wattle America, Asia, Africa, Pacific Islands.
Portugal (prohibited weed)
Hawaii and Pacific Islands (naturalised, high invasive
risk)
USA – naturalised weed (California)
Acacia melanoxylon Australian east coast – tropical Australia – NSW (southeast); WA (southwest)
Blackwood, Black Wattle, Queensland to NSW, Victoria, Tasmania South Africa (declared weed)
Sally Wattle, Black Sally and SA USA – California (noxious weed, naturalised)
Pacific Islands (high risk weed)
Naturalised: South America, India, Sri Lanka, eastern
Africa, southern and south-western Europe, New Zealand
Hawaii (naturalised)
Acacia nilotica, Africa and western Asia Australia: mainly Queensland and Northern Territory
A. nilotica subsp. indica (serious invasive potential across the continent, noxious
Prickly Acacia, Gum Arabic weed listing; weed of national significance)
Tree Pacific Islands (invasive weed)
Eastern Africa (serious weed of rangelands)
USA (introduced weed)
Acacia paradoxa Queensland (south), NSW, Victoria, Australia – Victoria (noxious weed listing)
(syn. A. armata) Tasmania, SA and WA (southwest) USA (California – naturalised, noxious weed)
Kangaroo Thorn, Paradox South Africa (declared weed)
Acacia
Acacia podalyriifolia Queensland (Brisbane to Rockhampton, Australia – Queensland (southeast); NSW; Victoria; WA
Queensland Silver Wattle, extends inland (southwest)
Pearl Acacia South Africa (declared weed)
Hawaii (weedy potential)
Acacia pycnantha SA and Victoria; southern NSW and Australia – WA (southwest)
Golden Wattle WA (southwest ) South and south-western Europe (naturalised)
Acacia retinodes SA, Victoria, Tasmania and NSW USA – California (naturalised weed)
Water Wattle Hawaii (weedy potential)
Acacia saligna WA (southwest) Australia – SA; Victoria; NSW (southeast)
Golden Wreath Wattle, Port South Africa (declared weed)
Jackson Wattle USA (introduced species)
Acacia sophorae NSW, Victoria, SA, Queensland Australia – SA (inland); Victoria
Coast Wattle (south), Tasmania
Acacia stenophylla Widespread – eastern Australia (NSW, Australia – Queensland (northwest)
River Cooba, River Myall, Queensland), SA, NT and WA (north)
Black or Dalby Wattle
Acacia umbellata Queensland and NT (tropical & Northern Australia
Acacia Wattle subtropical regions); WA
Acacia verticillata Victoria, Tasmania, SA USA – California (naturalised weed)

Prickly Mimosa, Prickly
Moses
Note: The Mulga or Yarran (Acacia aneura) and the South Wales Wattle (A. parramattensis) are also listed as introduced species in the United States.
Native Australian Acacia species of A. brachypoda (Western Wheatbelt Wattle), A. brunioides

conservation concern subsp. gordonii (syn A. gordonii), A. chapmanii subsp.
australis, A. cochlocarpa subsp. cochlocarpa (Spiral-fruited
Despite the great diversity of Acacia that have evolved,
Wattle), A. enterocarpa (Jumping-jack Wattle), A. imitans
a fair number of native species are of conservation (Gibson Wattle), A. insolita subsp. recurva (Yornaning
concern. They have suffered from the effects of Wattle), A. lanuginophylla (Woolly Wattle), A. leptalea
introduced animal grazing, large-scale clearing (Chinocup Wattle), A. lobulata (Chiddarcooping Wattle),
practices and urban development. A. pharangites (Wongan Gully Wattle), A. pinguifolia
Extinct (2 species): (Fat-leaved Wattle), A. porcata, A. pygmaea (Dwarf Rock
Acacia kingiana and A. prismifolia (Diels’ Wattle). Wattle), A. recurvata (Recurved Wattle), A. rhamphophylla
Critically endangered (3 species): (Kundip Wattle), A. ruppii (Rupp’s Wattle), A. sciophanes
Acacia cochlocarpa subsp. velutinosa (Velvety Spiral Pod (Wundowlin Wattle, Ghost Wattle), A. splendens
Wattle), Acacia sp. Graveside Gorge, A. unguicula. (Splendid Wattle, Dandaragan Wattle), A. subflexuosa
Endangered (28 species): subsp. capillata (Hairy-stemmed Zig-Zag Wattle), A.
Acacia aprica (Blunt Wattle), A. aristulata (Watheroo terminalis subsp. terminalis (Sunshine Wattle), A. vassalii
Wattle) A. ataxiphylla subsp. magna (Large-fruited (Vassal’s Wattle), A. volubilis (Tangle or Tangled Wattle),
Tammin Wattle), A. auratiflora (Orange-flowered Wattle), A. whibleyana (Whibley Wattle).
 and provide timber resource of exceptional value – they

have a medicinal reputation that has given some species
It is important to realise that an understanding of international recognition as pharmaceutical products. In
the overall value of this genus contributes to an Australia numerous native species have also been used as
appreciation of the many species with commercial traditional medicines. The story of their versatility and
potential. Its ease of propagation and innovative diversity as medicinal plants is an interesting topic that
strategies for survival have made the humble Wattle was appreciated from the early settlement of Australia.
one of the most prolific and valuable genera on the Indeed, wattle bark was among the first antidiarrhoeal
planet. Not only do they yield invaluable seed crops remedies utilised in the colony.
Chapter 8
THE MEDICINAL MULGA
vegetable principles, which give a blue or green ink color

with iron salts, and which precipitate proteins, gelatin and
connective tissue (as in the tanning of leather) and therefore
act as astringents, styptics and antiseptics, the latter chiefly by
depriving the bacteria of food. They are less destructive than
the metals; being practically nontoxic, they are especially
suited for use in the alimentary canal and for the treatment
of extensive burns. They do not decrease peristalsis directly,
but do so indirectly by allaying the underlying inflammation.
Their employment in diarrhoea dates back at least beyond
the fourth century B.C. They form more or less insoluble
compounds with many metals, alkaloids and glucosides, and
are therefore used as antidotes.
The latter property of tannin was particularly effective

for the treatment of poisoning due to heavy metals.
Today, this ability could have a valuable environmental
role for cleaning up toxic metals from contaminated
sites – as studies on the African species Acacia nilotica
have recently indicated. Bark extracts were shown to
adsorb the following metals (in descending order of
effectiveness): chromium, nickel, copper, arsenic,
and lead. The extract was also shown to be re-usable
without losing its efficacy (Prasad 2001).
The Acacia can be classed among the oldest
Daintree Wattle (Acacia cincinnata) with Tree Ferns (Cyathea natural resources that humanity has utilised. In
cooperi, C. rebeccae) and other rainforest flora. Daintree pharaonic times the Acacia was a popular medicine
National Park, Northern Queensland. and tears of Acacia senegal gum have even been found
Healers throughout history have been aware of the in Tutankhamun’s tomb. The ancient Egyptians
medicinal value of tannin-containing plants. The use employed preparations of Acacia2 poulticed on swollen
of many herbal astringent and antidiarrhoeal agents legs and broken bones, and for healing wounds.
relied on a strong tannin component. Torald Sollmann, Doubtless its styptic properties were well appreciated.
in A Manual of Pharmacology (1949), provides a good Medicinal infusions, which were commonly prepared
explanation of the reasons for their use: from the leaves and flowers, entered into remedies
for eye disorders, diarrhoea and uterine problems.
Tannins or tannic acids1 are a group of widely distributed Acacia nilotica leaves (infused and prepared as a paste)
1 Tannic acid for medicinal use was usually obtained from plant galls (a type
were used as a treatment for intestinal worms, while
of tissue growth due to insect activity). a mixture of Acacia leaves, honey and sweet beer was
227
respiratory disorders, skin infections and injuries. The

bark ash provided a useful styptic for wounds and an
anti-irritant powder for skin eruptions. This tends to
suggest that these remedies had effective antiseptic
and antibacterial attributes – which would not be
unexpected, given the high tannin content of many
of the Acacia genus. In an article on the ‘pharmacy’
of Victorian Aborigines, Alistair Campbell provided
a good overview of their use: ‘[Acacia] was employed
to make a decoction used for skin conditions such as
boils and bubborum, an itchy skin condition which
may have been due to scabies. It was also used for
venereal disease. It was taken orally for diarrhoea
during the day and pills made from wattle bark and
gum were used at night and morning. A hot infusion
of the roasted bark of the Blackwood tree (Acacia
Acacia senegal, from Paul Hermann Wilhelm Taubert,
melanoxylon) was used for bathing rheumatic joints.
Natürliche Pflanzenfamilien, Vol. III, 1891.
The gum from wattle trees, or the ash of burnt wattle
taken as a cough remedy. In addition, Acacia bark bark mixed with gum, were used to treat wounds
was an important tannin resource for making leather, and sores.’ A wattle decoction was even regarded as
while a blue dye for linen cloth was extracted from effective for treating ‘hard’ boils – although if the
the pods. These pods, which were highly astringent condition was considered to be ‘obstinate’ the site was
(they contain around 30%) tannin, were also utilised first poulticed with ‘wild marshmallow’ to soften it
medicinally (Hepper 1990; Manniche 1989). before the infection was opened with a bone lancet
(Campbell 1973–74).
The Prickly Acacia (Acacia nilotica) is an environmental

nuisance in Australia and is listed as a ‘weed of national
significance’. However, easily prepared bark extracts (or
powder) could be used for phytoremediation purposes,
which would appear to have excellent commercial prospects.
Wild harvests would also deal with the problem of ridding
the land of this pest. (Courtesy: JM Garg, Wikimedia
Commons Project)
Wattle: a major medicinal tannin

It is surprising just how closely aligned these uses are
to those listed for Aboriginal traditions in Australia,
which primarily utilised Wattles as remedies for
2 Acacia nilotica was the main species utilised – although A. tortilis, A.
raddeana and A. albida were also employed by local healers. Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon).
Chapter 8 THE MEDICINAL MULGA 229
Acacia astringents The astringent properties of Wattle bark were quickly

evident, and this led to experiments with the native
Acacia for treating gastrointestinal disorders.
In 1887 the Reverend W. Woolls mentioned its use
in a review of the potential of Australia’s native flora: ‘I
have been assured that, in extreme cases of dysentery,
when all ordinary remedies have failed, a decoction of
wattle bark (Acacia decurrens and some allied species)
have [sic] proved successful.’ Indeed, the bark was once
exported to Britain – and was valued highly enough to
be included in the British Pharmacopoeia. The Golden
Wattle (Acacia pycnantha) from South Australia, was
considered to be equally effective: ‘An infusion of
the bark is used … as an antidiarrhoeic, particularly
in children.4 The bark has also been employed with
success in eye diseases, diphtheria, ozaena [a form of
sinusitis with a foul-smelling nasal discharge], chaps
[raw, rubbed skin], typhoid fever and haemorrhages’
(Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Decoction of Acacia bark, from the British Pharmacopoeia There are numerous Acacia species that have been
of 1914. used medicinally across the Australian continent
– although the manner in which they were utilised
could vary substantially. A wash made from the
crushed leaves of the Silky or Silver-leaved Wattle,
Acacia holosericea, or a root bark (infusion) of the Dead
Finish (A. tetragonophylla) provided a useful cleansing
antiseptic lotion for skin problems such as cuts, sores
and boils. The former species is found throughout
northern Australia, the latter is a Central Australian
Traditional medicine practices, particularly on the

Asian and African continents, utilised the Acacia
genus for treating colds and ophthalmia, and as
a styptic to stop bleeding.3 The astringent bark
was commonly recommended for the treatment
of diarrhoeal disorders. From the early days of the
colony, the resemblance of the Australian Acacia to
the trees and shrubs of Africa and India was quite
unmistakable and their pharmacological potential
was thought to be comparable. With a little trial and
error, the medicinal applications of some of the new
Australian species were to prove similarly effective. Juvenile Silky Wattle (Acacia holosericea).
3 The main species utilised medicinally were Acacia catechu, A. nilotica, A. 4 See Table 8.1 for details of the species utilised.
seyal, A. sieberiana, A. senegal, A. albida and A. karroo.
An Aboriginal antibiotic
Acacia leptocarpa (syn. A. polystachya) is a widespread
species along the Queensland coast – ranging from a
temperate Brisbane climate to the northern tropics
of Cape York Peninsula and the Northern Territory.
It is one of the species whose distribution extends
overseas to Papua New Guinea. At the Palmer River
in northern Queensland, an infusion of Acacia
leptocarpa leaves was used as a wash for treating sore
or inflamed eyes. Alistair Campbell also mentioned
the use of Wattle as a treatment for venereal
The Hickory Wattle or Sally, Acacia falcata. This species

was utilised as a wound healing herb by Aboriginal people.
(Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native Plants of Queensland, Vol. 4)
species found throughout much of inland Australia.
In Central and Western Australia an infusion of the
leaves and twigs of Acacia ancistrocarpa,5 A. translucens
and A. trachycarpa was applied to sores. The leaves of
Acacia ancistrocarpa could also be chewed and spat
onto sores or other forms of itchy skin infections.
Fire-softened Acacia holosericea leaves were equally
useful when applied directly to a site. However, the
use of Acacia pyrifolia was slightly different as the bark
decoction was applied around the wound and not put
directly onto it. This tends to suggest that the remedy
could have irritant potential. Other species employed
for wound-healing purposes included Acacia
inaequilatera (inner bark decoction); A. farnesiana
(root and bark); A. falcata and A. implexa (bark
embrocation); A. trachycarpa, A. ancistrocarpa and A.
translucens (infusion of leaves and twigs). An ointment
could be prepared from the red-black gum of Acacia
estrophiolata. This was obtained from incisions in the
trunk and kneaded in water until soft for local use,
or it was dried and the powder dusted onto injuries Acacia leptocarpa (syn. Acacia polystachya).
(Latz 1996; Isaacs 1994; Barr 1993; Pearn 1993;
Levitt 1981; Reid & Betts 1977; Maiden 1913, 1910;
Maiden 1889). Details regarding the medicinal use of disease – an introduced scourge of many Australian
the genus are summarised in Table 8.1. Aboriginal people: ‘Thomas described 3 Goulburn
River aborigines who had severe VD (probably
gonorrhoea). The colonial surgeon, Dr. Cousins,
5 Recent studies have shown that this species has anti-inflammatory
properties (Li 2003). pronounced that life could be saved only by surgery.
The Aborigines refused this treatment and used a
strong decoction of wattle bark as a lotion to the The Aboriginals were pronounced later as being
affected parts. This was made by the native doctors cured.’ This is one of the species that has tested
by boiling the wattle bark and became very strong. positive in alkaloid studies (Collins 1990).
Table 8.1 Medicinal uses of Australian Acacia

Species, common name Use Treatment details Reference
Acacia auriculiformis Analgesic Leaves and pods decocted and used as wash to relieve pain in Levitt 1981
Earleaf Acacia, legs and body.
Earpod Wattle,
Northern Black Wattle Antiseptic Antiseptic wash prepared from the leaves. Marrfurra 1995
Antipruritic Crushed green pods infused to make soapy lather with Barr 1993
cleansing antiseptic properties. This was applied to relieve Wightman 1992
itching skin problems. Wightman &
Particularly valued for rashes due to contact with hairy Andrews 1989
caterpillars and for allergic reactions.
Acacia adsurgens Smoke therapy (anti- Leaves burnt and the baby immersed in the smoke for treating Latz 1996
diarrhoeal) diarrhoea.
Skin wash Leaf decoction used as wash for general complaints. Latz 1996
Acacia ancistrocarpa Smoke therapy (anti- Leaves used as a smoke treatment for babies suffering Latz 1996
diarrhoeal) diarrhoea.
Analgesic Leaves mashed in water and used to bathe sore head. Isaacs 1994
Analgesic Twigs and young leaves fire-heated and rubbed on body to Lassak & McCarthy
treat swellings or internal pains. 1992
Acacia aneura Analgesic mix Alkalinea Mulga ash mixed with Isotoma petraea (which Lassak & McCarthy
Desert Mulga contains nicotine-like alkaloids) used as a pain-killer and for 1992
treating colds.
Smoke therapyb Smoke therapy following birth for mother and baby. Barr 1993
Acacia bivenosa subsp. Cough medicine Bark (infusion or decoction) used as cough medicine. Reid & Betts 1977
wayi* Webb 1969
Umbrella Bush
Acacia colei Anti-inflammatory Liquid from plant to treat laryngitis. Latz 1996
(syn. A. holosericea) Astringent
Acacia cuthbertsonii Analgesic Bark used by Aboriginal people, with Codonocarpus Reid & Betts 1977
Silver Witchetty cotinifolius, for pain relief in rheumatism or to ease a toothache.
Bandage Strong pink inner bark used as bandage for wounds, securing Latz 1996,
dressings or splinting fractures: moistened before use, allowed Isaacs1994,
to dry firmly in place. Barr 1993
Analgesic Bark bandage wrapped around forehead to treat headache Barr 1993
(inner bark next to skin).
Acacia decurrens Anti-dysenteric Bark decoction for treating extreme dysentery Lassak & McCarthy
Green Wattle 1992
Acacia dictyophleba Smoke therapyb Leaves used as smoking medicine for mother and newborn, Latz 1996
also for young girls at onset of menses.
Acacia estrophiolata Analgesic Roots and bark infused to make red solution used as wash for Latz 1996
Ironwood Antiseptic headaches, sore eyes and skin disorders.
Antiseptic Orange inner bark from younger branches: wash for sores, Barr 1993
boils, scabies, inflamed eyes (i.e. conjunctivitis).
Antiseptic Bark of smaller roots infused in hot water: used as treatment for Barr 1993
Antibacterial sores, sore throat, headache, alimentary discomfort – poured
Analgesic, etc. over area and rubbed in (some could be taken internally).
Soothing and healing Root bark lotion was applied externally for many disorders, Barr 1993
lotion e.g. wounds and burns.
Bandage Long strips of root bark moistened with water and wrapped Barr 1993
around burns and larger wounds. Also used to secure dressings.
Antiseptic Gum softened in water and the mix rubbed into skin as an Isaacs 1994
Antiparasitic ointment for scabies, sores and wounds. The dried, powdered Barr 1993,
gum was used similarly.
Acacia farnesiana Astringent Bark and root used to treat mucus membrane inflammation and Cribb 1981
Mimosa Bush diarrhoea.
Snakebite treatment Long prickles used to deaden pain from snakebite: prickles Leiper 1984
pushed into flesh at top of limb and cuts made to bleed poison
out.
Acacia hemignosta Healing agent Black ash prepared from bark burnt on fire. Wightman 1992
Analgesic Ash is rubbed onto sore tongue and lips of babies.
Sore throat: babies are treated via ash rubbed on mother’s
nipple and suckled.
Ash: rubbed on sore areas, i.e. shoulders, neck and chest (used
powdered or mixed with animal fat) .
Acacia holosericea Anti-inflammatory Mashed root infusion taken for laryngitis. Reid & Betts 1977
Silver-leaf, Soapbush or Antiseptic
Strap Wattle Decongestant Infusion of bark or roots taken for coughs and colds. Leiper 1984
Antipruritic Crushed ripe pods (with seeds and arils) lathered in water and Barr 1993
rubbed on itching skin. Good for rashes due to itchy grubs. Marrfurra 1995
Analgesic Pliable bark tied around head (inside of bark next to skin) to Barr 1993
treat headache.
Acacia kempeana Cold medicine Warm leaf wash for severe colds, or leaf chewed and saliva Barr 1993
Witchetty Bush Decongestant swallowed to alleviate congestion.
Note: The leaves of this species have shown antibacterial
(bacteriostatic) properties (Palombo & Semple 2002)
Smoke therapyb Mother lies in warm smoky site to stop post-partum bleeding. Barr 1993
Acacia leptocarpa Ophthalmic remedy Mashed green phyllodes soaked and infusion used for treating Reid & Betts 1977
sore eyes.
Acacia ligulata Smoke therapy Leaves used as a smoking medicine to induce diaphoresis: Latz 1996
Umbrella Bush reputed to help dizziness, nerves and fits.
Medicinal wash Bark decoction used as medicinal wash. Latz 1996
Cough medicine Bark infusion used as cough medicine. Isaacs 1994

Barr 1993,
Acacia lysiphloia Smoke therapy b
Smoke therapy for sick babies, or used following birth for Latz 1996
Turpentine, Turpentine mother and baby. Regarded as being a powerful medicine. Barr 1993
Wattle
Emotional remedy Branches used to ward off annoying spirits. Fire-warmed Wightman 1992
branches pressed against side of head (near ears) and on
forehead: ‘This will stop the person thinking about the spirits.’
Note: Aromatic new growth or branchlets from young plants
preferred.
Body wash Leaves soaked (or boiled) and the liquid used as body wash to Smith 1993
treat colds, influenza and fevers.
Aromatic leaf decoction used as body wash to treat headache, Wightman 1992
influenza and mumps (NOT taken internally).
Leaves decocted and liquid used as external wash to treat Wightman 1994
stomach ache, diarrhoea and muscle pain.
Flu and cold medicine New growth (leaf, branchlets) fire-heated until soft and placed Latz 1996
Analgesic on painful sites, e.g. the head or small of the back, for the relief Barr 1993
of colds or flu. Smith 1993
Small branches heated and rubbed over aching joints and
muscles.
Acacia melanoxylon Analgesic Roasted bark, made into a hot infusion, used to bathe rheumatic Campbell 1973–74
Blackwood Antirheumatic joints.
Acacia monticola Flu and cold medicine Mashed roots (soaked) or branchlets (boiled) for treating Reid & Betts 1977
Turpentine coughs and colds: it was either taken or used for bathing.
Used same as for Acacia lysiphloia: leaf decoction used as Wightman 1992
external wash for headache, influenza and mumps (not taken
internally).
Acacia multisiliqua Flu and cold medicine Handful crushed leaves decocted and steam inhaled to clear Barr 1993
Decongestant congestion.
Leaf may also just be hand-crushed and aroma inhaled.
Acacia oncinocarpa Respiratory disorders Leaf decoction taken for chest infections. Barr 1993
Acacia orthocarpa Skin healing Considered an excellent medicine for skin problems. Wightman 1994
Needle-leaved Wattle Leaves sun-dried and ground into fine powder. This is mixed
to make a paste that can be rubbed on skin sores and rashes.
Powdered leaves mixed with oil or fat and rubbed onto sores.
Leaf and bark decoction used as external wash for skin sores Wightman 1992
and influenza. Used everyday. Especially good for babies.
Acacia pellita Antipruritic Pods and seeds lathered in water to treat skin pruritus (itching). Marrfurra 1995
(syn. A. holosericea var. Barr 1993
pubescens)
Soap Bush Analgesic Leaves infused in hot water: used as body wash to soothe Isaacs 1994
aching muscles.
Decocted leaves and seeds: used as wash for sores, and for
pain relief.
Smoke treatment Leaves placed on fire and smoke used to quieten silly, excitable Levitt 1981
(sedative) children.
Analgesic Fire-heated leaves placed on forehead for headache. Levitt 1981
Acacia pruinocarpa Smoke therapyb Smoking medicine for woman and baby after birth. Isaacs 1994
(syn. A. notabilis) Analgesic Seeds used for headache relief. Isaacs 1994
Black Gidgee
Acacia tenuissima Skin wash Leaf infusion used as medicinal wash. Latz 1996
Acacia tetragonophylla Cough medicine Inner bark (cleaned) soaked or boiled and taken as cough Isaacs 1994
Dead Finish medicine. Reid & Betts 1977
Anti-dysenteric Leaves chewed for dysentery. Reid & Betts 1979

Wound healing Wood (without bark) ash used as antiseptic and applied to Reid & Betts 1977
circumcision wounds. Apparently acute pain followed, which
subsided within 30 minutes. Wound healing was very rapid.
Wart removal Pungent phyllodes inserted under warts – causing it to wither Latz 1996
and naturally fall off. Reid & Betts 1977
Cough medicine Bark decoction used as cough medicine. Latz 1996
Acacia torulosa Medicinal wash Young leaves infused and liquid used as general purpose Wightman 1992
medicinal wash.
Acacia translucens Skin disorders Leaf decoction cooled and used as external wash for skin Wightman 1994
disorders, e.g. sores, rashes.
Analgesic Mashed leaves and twig infusion for bathing the head for Reid & Betts 1977
headache.
Acacia trachycarpa Analgesic Mashed leaves and twig infusion for bathing the head for Lassak & McCarthy
headache. 1992
Twigs and young leaves fire-heated and rubbed on body to
treat swellings or internal pain.
Notes:
a A number of Acacia species have been used as a source of alkaline ash for admixtures with pituri; they include A. aneura, A. beauverdiana, A. calciola, A.
coriacea, A. estrophiolata, A. ligulata and A. pruinocarpa. Acacia salicina and A. auriculiformis bark, when burnt, has been added to commercial chewing tobacco
to act as a catalyst for nicotine release.
b Smoke therapy following a birth is a well-known practice among Aboriginal people. Hot coals are placed in a pit and covered with termite or anthill clay. Over
this are placed layers of branches covered in young leaves. Mothers can sit or lie in the smoke, which helps to stop bleeding. Newborn or young babies were held
over the smoke for a few minutes – a procedure that was thought to be generally beneficial for them. The treatment was also useful for shrivelling the umbilical
cord of a newborn baby (Barr 1993). Smoke therapy has been used for other conditions, such as fevers and disorders with an undiagnosed (unknown) cause.
The versatile Silver-leaved Wattle
Acacia lysiphloia. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native Plants of

Queensland, Vol. 3)
The Silver-leaved Wattle (Acacia holosericea).
The Silver-leaved or Silky Wattle (Acacia holosericea)

is a widespread species of the Australian tropics and
subtropics, extending from Brisbane to northern
Acacia ligulata. (Courtesy:
Queensland, into the Northern Territory and to KAW Williams, Native
Western Australia. Seeds from fire-roasted pods of Plants of Queensland, Vol. 3)
this species were edible and the immature pods or
leaves could be used to make an antiseptic soapy
strong tannin component,
infusion that was used as a wash for skin disorders.
early chemical analysis of
In Broome, Western Australia, the infused roots
the Acacia genus revealed
(not the bark) were used as a remedy for laryngitis.
the presence of saponins
A fish poison (piscicide) has been prepared from
and alkaloids. In 1910
the bark, leaves and green seed pods – which were
Joseph Maiden commented of Acacia implexa: ‘The
crushed and immersed in water (Barr 1993; Brock
bark of young trees contains a bitter, doubtless owing to
1993; Webb 1969).
the presence of a saponin. The fringe of this subject has
alone been touched, and a not too difficult, yet a very
Chemical revelations important, subject for research is open to our young
Australian chemists. Who will systematically examine
An analysis of the chemical constituents identified
our Acacias for saponins?’ His sample of bark, which was
in different species can provide an indication of their
from an older tree, contained tannic acid (7.82%). The
medicinal or practical potential. In addition to a
extract (20.54%) had a slightly bitter taste due to the
presence of a saponin. Another sample from Deception

Bay had a higher tannin content (14.6%) and extract
yield (33.51%) – which may have been due to the age
of the tree.
Numerous Australian Acacias have been shown to
contain tannins and saponins, among them A. aneura, A.
holosericea, A. ligulata, A. lysiphloia, A. multisiliqua and A.
pellita. Certainly the presence of these components could
have influenced their efficacy as fish poisons (Lassak &
McCarthy 1992). Joseph Maiden also mentions the use
of Acacia falcata, A. penninervis and A. salicina as fish
poisons (Maiden 1913).
Acacia auriculiformis is an example of a saponin-
containing native Acacia with numerous practical
uses. It had a comprehensive medicinal reputation as
an antiseptic, analgesic and antipruritic (anti-itching)
agent. The effectiveness of the pods as a natural soap
has been attributed to their saponin content. The
ripe pods (seeds intact) were crushed and lathered
in water to make a wash for treating skin problems.
This recommendation appears to be supported by
studies that have shown extracts had antibiotic and
antibacterial properties. Investigations of bark extracts
have likewise supported the medicinal use of Acacia
auriculiformis – as well as discovering numerous
extremely interesting potential applications for this
species. Extracts have demonstrated antioxidant
and anticancer (antimutagenic, chemopreventive)
attributes. Flavonoids found in the heartwood have
shown antifungal effects that appear to help the tree The Northern Black Wattle (Acacia auriculiformis) is a
resist heart-rot fungi. In addition, saponins with tropical species that ranges from Queensland and the
Northern Territory, and overseas to Papua New Guinea. It
antifilarial actions and cestocidal activity against contains diverse components of pharmacological interest,
the tapeworm Hymenolepis diminuta were isolated. e.g. alkaloids, triterpenes and steroids.
Acaciasides (A and B) have been identified as the
antihelmintic components – and also had anti-microbial extracts from around 125 species of Acacia identified
properties. Acacia bivenosa is another native species that only a few that had high levels of alkaloids: A.
has demonstrated antibiotic attributes (Singh 2007; acuminata, A. argentea, A. fimbriata, A. holosericea, A.
Mandal 2005; Mihara 2005; Pennacchio 2005; Kaur longissima, A. melanoxylon, A. oxycedrus, A. polystachya
2002; Mahato 1996, Ghosh 1996 & 1993; Barr 1993). and A. sophorae. Those demonstrating antitumour
In addition, studies have identified saponins with an activity were limited to Acacia ixiophylla, A. leiocalyx,
antifertility (sperm-immobilising) effect from Acacia A. leptocarpa, A. melanoxylon, A. rhodoxylon and A.
auriculiformis extracts (Pakrashi 1991).6 simsii (Collins 1990).
Investigations have highlighted diverse biochemical Certainly, investigation of the anticancer properties
potential for many other species in the Acacia genus of the genus has given some interesting results. Recent
– although it can take a lot of research to produce American studies have focused on the potential of
something of interest. For instance, an examination of triterpenoid saponins (avicins) from the Australian
desert species Acacia victoriae. These compounds
6 Indian traditions have also used Acacia arabica flowers to affect fertility – as
an abortifacient (Nath 1992). attracted interest due to their ability to induce normal
apoptosis in cancer cells (Li 2005; Haridas 2001;

Mujoo 2001). The cytotoxic, chemopreventive and
antimutagenic effects of extracts of the African species
Acacia nilotica have been attributed to the presence
of polyphenols, notably gallic acid. In particular, leaf
extracts showed good antitumour activity against skin
cancer (papilloma) in animals (Meena 2006; Kaur
2005, 2002).
Overseas studies of the genus have linked the
cytotoxic or antitumour attributes of extracts from
certain species with the identification of diverse
active components. They include Acacia mellifera
(lupane triterpenoids), A. concinna (kinmoonoside
saponins), and the Taiwan Acacia, A. confusa (a trypsin
inhibitor). Heartwood and bark extracts of the latter,
which contain numerous phenolic components, have Acacia ixiophylla has demon-strated antitumour activity.
substantial antioxidant activity. In Mexico, Acacia Tannins extracted from the twigs and phyllodes were were
pennatula has been used in traditional medicine shown to have antitumour activity (Lassak & McCarthy
1992). (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native Plants of
as an anticancer remedy and anti-inflammatory Queensland, Vol. 3)
agent. Extracts showed antifungal activity (against
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides), as well as cytotoxic Australian Acacias for bioactive principles determined
properties (Tung 2007; Peraza-Sanchez 2005; Wu that A. pruinocarpa, A. dictyophleba and A. adsurgens
2005; Mutai 2004; Arora 2003; Chang 2001; Tezuka had substantial allelopathic potential. This means they
2000; Popoca 1998; Lin 1989). could inhibit the germination and growth of plants
There are other discoveries that wait to be revealed – possibly due to their phenolic content (Li 2003;
through investigation of the Australian Acacias. Wickens & Pennacchio 2002).
Acacia adsurgens and A. ancistrocarpa have shown anti-
inflammatory activity that appears to be linked to their
phenolic constituents. In addition, an evaluation of
Sim’s Wattle (Acacia simsii) is an alkaloid-containing species that is found from northern Queensland to Papua New Guinea.
It is a fuelwood resource and has been used for revegetation purposes on bauxite mine sites. The shrub has good erosion
control qualities and can form a useful low windbreak. On degraded sites it can regenerate rapidly due to its prolific seed
production, although this also gives the plant weedy potential.
(see also Table 8.2, page 238). Importantly, water-

soluble gums provide a non-toxic additive with
useful thickening and binding properties for making
solutions. Gums are usually excreted by a plant in
response to injury. Their mucilaginous polysaccharide
character allows them to form a ‘gummy’ type of jelly.
Mucilage, which is very similar, differs because it is
a normal form of storage material found in leaves,
seed coats, roots and barks. Resins have quite different
properties as they do not dissolve in water. These
complex chemical mixtures characteristically have an
astringent tannin component (Evans 2002).
The viscosity of gums can vary substantially
according to their degree of solubility in water.
Different gelling and adhesive qualities strongly
influence their practical use. Gum Arabic has particular
value for pharmaceutical purposes and microbiological
studies. Perhaps surprisingly, the importance of gums
in the food and cosmetic industries is largely under-
appreciated. They are widely employed as binding
agents in numerous products such as ice cream,
desserts, and cream toppings – as well as being
incorporated into numerous personal care items.
Pharmaceutical uses of Gum Acacia

Acacia monograph (Gum Acacia) from the British The importance accorded to Gum Acacia for
Pharmacopoeia of 1932. pharmaceutical purposes related to its stable glue-like
qualities and non-intrusive (colourless, odourless,
Medicinal gums and mucilage tasteless) characteristics, which rendered it eminently
Another aspect of the native Acacia species that deserves suitable for making mixtures. It could easily be
consideration involves their suitability as mucilaginous utilised as a ‘vehicle’ in which other substances could
and binding agents, and as a resin resource. Gums and be mixed, and was an equally useful adhesive agent
resins, which differ in their chemical and physical for binding tablets or lozenges together. In particular,
properties, have diverse medicinal and culinary uses Gum Acacia was highly valued as an emulsification
Acacia Mucilage from the British Pharmacopoeia of 1867 and 1932.

Table 8.2 Natural gums: official resources, allied or alternative gum resources
Gum Botanical resources Qualities Use

Gum Arabic Acacia senegal, Sudan. Mucilaginous Pharmaceutical: stabiliser in
Allied gums: emulsification and binding emulsions and lozenges, cough
Ghatti or Indian gum (Anogeissus agent. and throat products, anti-
latifolia), India. diarrhoeal agents.
West African Gum Combretum Food industry: widespread use.
(Combretum nigricans) used as
Gum Arabic adulterant
Talha Gum (Acacia seyal)
Tragacanth Astragalus gummifer, Western Swells to make gelatinous Pharmaceutical: suspension
Asia. mass, of which only small agent for insoluble powders, etc.,
(Numerous species from Turkey part dissolves. binding agent in pills and tablets.
and Iran yield similar gums.)
Allied product:
Chitral Gum (Astragalus
strobiliferus), India
Karaya Gum, Sterculia urens, India Low solubility in water, Different grades of product:
Indian or Bassora but swells substantially 1. Granular – bulk laxative agent.
Tragacanth with retained fluids. 2. Powdered gum – lozenges,
pastes, denture fixative powders,
adhesive for stoma appliances.
Katira Gum Cochlospermum religiosum Tragacanth-like gum. Tragacanth substitute.
(syn C. gossypium), Treatment for sores due to
India. mercury poisoning.
Alternative product: Asteracantha
heratensis
Psyllium seed Plantago afra (seed) Mucilage-containing seeds Bulk laxative agent: highly
Plantago indica (seed) that swell in water. viscous quality; isphagula husks
Plantago ovata (seed husk; have higher swelling factor than
isphagula) the seeds.
Herb cultivated in Europe and Dietary: lowers cholesterol and
former USSR countries, Pakistan has hypoglycaemic (blood sugar
and India. lowering) attributes.
Guar Gum Cyamopsis tetragonolobus, India White powder that readily Hypoglycaemic agent: can
forms mucilage with water. influence blood sugar levels by
changes in gastric emptying and
gastrointestinal transit time.
Lowers cholesterol.
Food industry: used as a thickener.
Xanthan Gum Xanthomonas campestris Artificially produced gum. Pharmaceutical industry.
bacterium: culture fermentation Cosmetics industry.
on glucose Food industry.
Fucus Seaweeds: Dried plant thallus Thyroid activity due to iodine
Bladderwrack Fucus vesiculosus, F. serratusm, powder with mucilaginous content.
Ascophyllum nodosum qualities. Other uses: mineral supplement,
Europe bulk laxative agent
Cetraria Cetraria islandica lichen. Mucilaginous qualities. Cough mixtures: to soothe cough
Iceland Moss Scandinavia and central Europe and sore throat.
Bitter tonic: to disguise nauseating
taste of some medicines.
Note: The gums discussed here should be differentiated from natural latex products such as rubber from Hevea brasiliensis or chicle from Manilkara chicle (the
latter was the original source of chewing gum).
Australian alternatives
Numerous Australian native plants can produce gums,
albeit little is known about their qualities. Although
many native gums never achieved commercial success,
some were certainly valued by the Aboriginal people
and the early colonists. In 1871 Dr Andrew Ross
noted: ‘The gum from the wattle tree, when dissolved
in boiling milk, is now frequently used by many of
the settlers in the interior for dysentery and diarrhoea;
and is said with very good results.’ Acacia gum
continued to be used in this way for the best part of
the next century. Later, many tannin-containing gums
were simply overlooked as marketable products with
medicinal potential because there was no great need
for them. They were completely overshadowed by the
popularity of Eucalyptus kino – of which there were
Acacia bark and exudate. Burls (growths on the tree) are the abundant resources.
result of insects laying eggs in the trees’ tissue. Sometimes the In 1926 Professor Rennie provided the following
adult insect can remain here throughout their life, causing
continual irritation that results in a fairly large deformity.
and suspension agent for making liquid medicines

such as antidiarrhoeal compounds and cough
mixtures. The tropical African species Acacia senegal
yielded the best quality product.7 Over the centuries,
however, the gum became increasingly hard to obtain
due to over-exploitation. Experimentation with other
African Acacias revealed a number of substitutes, and
a few species native to Senegal and Nigeria were found
to be eminently suitable (see Table 8.2, opposite).
7 Acacia senegal ranges from Africa to western India. In India Acacia arabica The Golden Wattle, Acacia pycnantha. (Courtesy:
gum, likewise known as ‘Gum Arabic’, was more extensively utilised. Melburnian, Wikimedia Commons Project)
Acacia Gum Arabic number of species – Acacia decurrens, A. deanii subsp.

paucijuga and A. senegal – although many others have
been utilised as substitutes. Originally the gum was
hand-collected during times of drought, when the tree
bark split, and the sap exuded naturally and dried to
form gummy ‘tears’. Beetles that bore into the tree can
also cause gum seepage. Today the trees are tapped,
and there can be considerable variation in the quality
of the product, depending on the type of harvesting
and processing methods used. Some African species
Acacia gum exudations. of Combretum are known to yield an inferior (and
cheaper) form of Gum Arabic, although this is not
European supplies of Acacia gum, ‘Gum Arabic’, have
an officially recognised product. In other parts of the
been sourced from Sudan for at least 2000 years. The
world the similar ‘Gum Tragacanth’ was sourced from
true Gum Arabic was collected from a very limited
the genus Astragalus.
summary regarding the quality of the Australian alternatives to Gum Arabic. The ‘Sydney gum’ from
Acacia gum: ‘very little detailed chemical work has Acacia decurrens was also among those that were
been done. All the species of Acacia yield a product considered to have a fair resemblance to Gum Arabic.
which is said to be identical with Gum Arabic, and is The ‘Sydney gum’ was widely used in the treatment
of more or less satisfactory quality, but Maiden states of upper respiratory tract problems and bronchial
that the best varieties would be difficult to obtain in disorders. It was also occasionally employed as an
any quantity and could not be economically collected antidote to alcohol or ammonia poisoning (Annison
at the present cost of unskilled labour. Various other 1995; Lassak & McCarthy 1990; Watt & Breyer-
plants yield gums, but none seems to have been put Brandwijk 1962). Gum Senegal from Acacia senegal,
to any use, although a few can be obtained similar to worth around $1.5 million annually, continues to be
gum tragacanth which is used in pharmacy.’ imported into Australia (Maslin & McDonald 2004).
Fortunately, their lack of consequence in the With this in mind, there should be a good potential
commercial market did not prevent an interest in market for acceptable local resources.
their chemical evaluation. One reason for this was The suitability of Acacia leiophylla as a Gum
linked to the desire for self-sufficiency should overseas Arabic substitute was mentioned by Joseph Maiden
supplies became compromised – as could happen, for in an article on vegetable exudations (1892–96). He
instance, during wartime. Some years later Professor considered that the chemical composition of the gum
McKern commented: ‘The large number of Acacia hardly differed from that of the official substance:
species in Australia, most of which exude a gum,
drew early attention to the possibility of collecting
Mr. Helms informs me that this gum is largely used for
and marketing products similar to Gum Arabic and food by the natives, and so highly is it esteemed by them
gum tragacanth. Some export of these gums has been that they were unwilling to part with even a small quantity
achieved, as much as 168 tons having been exported of it. In WA it has been recorded to yield a useful gum. In
to the United Kingdom in 1898. However, collection an official report it is stated that it ‘is recommended by the
costs and the difficulty of securing sufficient gum of medical faculty for its strengthening properties’, though it
good quality has caused this industry to ease. Much has no more claim to that recommendation than many
information is available on the gums of many species other wattle-gums have … This gum is a perfect substitute
should overseas supplies be cut off’ (McKern 1960). for Gum Arabic, and would be valuable if obtainable in
On the international market, the Australian native large quantities. It is readily and entirely soluble in cold
water. It would require sorting for the market, as even
gums never gained the reputation for reliability and
in the small sample received there are three qualities,
quality enjoyed by the African Gum Senegal. The portions being quite brown and almost opaque, while
tannin-based astringency of the gums from many species other portions are colourless-transparent and yellowish-
was the main barrier to their use as a suspension agent transparent respectively. The gum strongly resembles
in pharmacy. Also, the ‘gummy’ quality (i.e. degree of many specimens of wattle-gums I have examined from
solubility and resultant viscosity) and the yield could the western parts of NSW ie. from arid country; the
vary substantially between the different species. While wattle-gums of inferior solubility being obtained from the
some produced large amounts, the yield from others coast districts, with comparatively high rainfall.
was virtually non-existent. Other gums were relatively
insoluble in water – for example, those of Acacia dealbata Native Acacia gum resources were to become
and A. deanii subsp. paucijuga, which tended to swell and increasingly scarce, however, when the settlers found
not dissolve (Lassak & McCarthy 1992).8 that certain species were valuable sources of tannin.
Older references mention that the gum of Acacia
pycnantha, which was known as ‘wattle gum’ or the
‘Australian gum,’ was inferior to Gum Arabic. This
is interesting, because recent studies evaluating the New uses for old gums
gum of Acacia baileyana and the Golden Wattle, A. Today, the research has shown that Acacia-sourced
pycnantha, continue to propose their suitability as gums have diverse practical potential. There is an
interesting study of gum extracted from the seeds or
8 Gum Tragacanth from Astragalus tends to have similar qualities.
the cotyledons9 of Acacia victoriae that showed this adhesive qualities. Acacia dealbata is a high-yielding
water-soluble extract combined well with canola oil native gum resource with this type of commercial
(50%), forming a stable emulsion that had excellent potential. It is also suitable for making superior quality
potential for use as a stabiliser or emulsifier. The food watercolour paints. Acacia microbotrya gum has shown
industry could easily take advantage of the product. similar potential (Krebs 2003).
In particular, the gum was suitable for use at low pH In addition, there are various new medicinal
levels (e.g. in mayonnaise and salad dressings) and applications for gum products. For instance, an Acacia
for making oil-in-water emulsions (Agboola 2007). gum formulation (with other plant ingredients) has
The tannins (polyphenols) found in some Australian been used for the prevention of ulcers (Fuisz, US Pat.
Acacia gums impart a dark colour to them (in No. 5,6651,987). Particular interest has been directed
comparison to Gum Arabic) and can enhance their toward the ability of Acacia gums to alter drug
bioavailability when added to combination products.
This has been a fairly recent topic for investigation.
The development of formulations that incorporate
Acacia gums to improve drug dissolution is under
investigation (Blank, US Pat No. 4,946,684).
Perhaps one of the most intriguing medicinal
applications of Acacia gum is its former use as a
plasma expander in emergency treatments for shock.
In the early 1900s the gum was given intravenously to
treat nephrotic syndrome in children. Although the
treatment was reported successful in re-establishing
diuresis and reducing the associated oedema, the
procedure was doomed by some serious side effects.
The Elegant Wattle, Acacia victoriae. (Courtesy: KAW Professor John Pearn (1993) reported:
In spite of great early promise, this treatment was

shown, through experiments on dogs, to be counter
productive. Intravenous injections of Acacia gum
produced harmful effects on liver metabolism and altered
cholesterol metabolism but did not alter blood osmotic
pressure. Following the intravenous injection of the gum
the foreign material is deposited in the liver and the
reticuloendothelial system, causing an iatrogenic disease
known as arabinosis. This syndrome was characterised
by splenomegaly, hepatomegaly10 and impaired renal
function. The intravenous use of Acacia preparations had
disappeared by 1940.
The intravenous use of Gum Acacia for treating low

blood pressure following surgery was similarly plagued
by kidney and liver damage, as well as allergic reactions
(Morton 1977).
More recently, investigations have supported the
dietary use (which should be differentiated from its
intravenous use) of Acacia gum as an adjunct for
The Black Wattle (Acacia dealbata).
9 Cotyledons are an important part of the embryo, within the plant seed, 10 Splenomegaly is enlargement of the spleen; hepatomegaly is enlargement
from which the first leaves develop. of the liver.
treating chronic renal failure. In Eastern folk medicine,

Acacia gum has been utilised as a restorative and was
thought to be an excellent remedy for renal failure
patients. Recently, reports of its clinical use in end-
stage renal failure in children have shown substantial
benefits. Animal studies determined that it protected
rats from experimental nephrotoxicity – although the
mechanism of action was not established. Certainly,
an increased intake of fibre and a reduction of protein
has dietary benefits in these conditions. Investigations
continue to be undertaken (Mosawi 2007; Al-Mosawi
2004; Ali 2004, 2003; Al-Majed 2002; Bliss 1996).
There are also investigations of the anti-diabetic
properties of powdered seed extracts of Acacia
arabica that have shown hypoglycaemic activity via
the promotion of insulin release from the pancreas
(Wadood 1989). It is not unreasonable to consider
the possibility that Australian species have similar
potential.
Another medicinal use of Acacia gum deserves
mention. In Africa and Asia, twigs from a number
of Acacia species have traditionally, and successfully, Black Pencil Cedar, Panax elegans F.v.M. (now Polyscias
elegans), from JH Maiden, Forest Flora of New South Wales,
been used as ‘chewing sticks’ for dental hygiene. 1904, plate 24, illustrator Lillian Margaret Flockton.
Investigations have shown that good antibacterial
activity resulted from the practice. The twigs were Panax [Polyscias] gums closely resemble Acacia gums in
composition. They both contain gums wholly soluble in
chewed at one end to form a frayed edge that was then
cold water, and consisting entirely of arabin, and gums
used to ‘brush’ the teeth. It could then be masticated partially soluble in water, though containing varying
for some hours afterward – a habit that extracted any proportions of metarabin, which substance causes them
residual antibacterial properties of the wood. Acacia to swell in cold water. The gum of P. murrayi would
arabica, which has been regularly used in this manner, form a valuable substitute for Gum Arabic, and it would
has shown fairly good plaque control properties. It be a valuable minor industry for this country if it were
was effective in studies of children with mild plaque procurable in large quantities. All the gums possess some
deposits – although those with severe conditions odour, obtained from the barks, and isolation of the
found the use of a regular toothbrush more effective. odoriferous bodies could best be carried out by analysis of
Antibacterial studies have shown that Acacia arabica the bark. This odoriferous principle in the Araliaceae, and
reminding one of the Umbelliferae, has long been known.
gum was particularly active against periodontal
bacteria and it appears to be suitable as an antiplaque
Maiden’s final com-
additive to chewing gum (Almas 2001; Clark 1993;
ment refers to the
Ndung’u 1990; Gazi 1991).
celery and aniseed
aromatic qualities of
Gum Arabic from Celerywood the genus.
The rainforest trees Polyscias elegans (formerly Panax elegans)
and Polyscias murrayi are known as ‘Celerywood’ due
to the distinctive aroma of the twigs and crushed
Left: Polyscias murrayi.
leaves. According to Joseph Maiden the genus (Courtesy: KAW
was considered to have potential as a Gum Arabic Williams, Native Plants
resource: of Queensland, Vol. 2
The Common Hookthorn (Acacia caffra).
Polyscias murrayi. (Courtesy: Peter Woodard)
Bush tucker gums

A gum as sweet as sugar?
Several species of Acacia exude very sweet gums

of culinary interest. In particular, an exudate from
Acacia caffra (called ‘Cape Gum’ in reference to
its South African origins) was sweet enough to
be used as a cooking sugar. It resembled Gum
Acacia and was also suitable for use in pharmacy,
a mould growing on the tree had an interesting
although it had a less adhesive character. Cape
reputation as a remedy to ‘draw’ abscesses. It was
Gum was regarded as being a useful remedy for
even noted to be potent enough to draw broken
thrush and sprue (inflammation, stomatitis) of the
needles out of the flesh (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk
mouth. There was also an unusual treatment in the
1962).
Transvaal for osteomyelitis (a serious infection of
the bone) that incorporated the gum into a plaster
in combination with capsicum fruit and strong The culinary use of native gums appears to have
vinegar. This was applied locally. Additionally, never gained wide acceptance in Australia. The edible
gums differed from those used for medicinal purposes
– they tended to be lighter in hue or even translucent,

and had a sweeter flavour. Medicinal gums tended to Acacia decora
be darker in colour and had a bitter taste, due to their Joseph Maiden so valued the Western Silver Wattle or
higher phenolic content. The seasonal character of Showy Wattle (Acacia decora) that he rated it among
many native gums and their resulting lack of familiarity the most outstanding of the Australian Wattles:
in the marketplace meant that they did not come into
widespread use. Local harvests by Aboriginal people This tree is well named decora, for it is most beautiful.
were of minor consequence and were usually little To see it on the western plains in August or September,
known or appreciated. forming veritable balloons of gold, is to witness a truly
Australian spectacle which no lover of nature can see
Gums, however, did provide a useful snack
unmoved. Australia is a country of interesting plants; but
food in the bush for travellers, even if some were I know nothing wore gorgeous, more sweet, more pure,
more palatable than that of others. Indeed, some than the countryside ablaze with plants of this species at
achieved an interesting reputation among the early their best. The clear country air, and the more sombre
colonists as a useful bush tucker. Wattle gums were appearance of the rest of most of the vegetation in winter,
the most widely collected, with Acacia decora, A. or in early spring, combine to enhance the brilliance of this
homalophylla and A. decurrens among the more Wattle. It is quite true that we have some pretty Wattles in
familiar types. Some gums were rated as a great the Coast districts, but the Wattle is only developed in its
delicacy, and in some areas individual Acacia trees fullest beauty in the interior, the tablelands or the western
acquired a particular importance. Certainly in plains. Its profusion, also, is inexhaustible (Maiden 1911)
Victoria, specimens with significant yields were
owned and harvested by Aboriginal men. In other
places the harvest could be put away for later use.
One Western Australian species was said to yield so
much gum that it could be rolled into large balls
and stored.
Joseph Maiden mentioned that Wattle gum ‘must

possess some nutritive value, as instances are on record
of the lives of children and others who have been lost in
the bush having been sustained by it. Boys sometimes
soak it in water to make a thick jelly and sweeten it; thus
a toothsome confection is made.’ A news item in the
Sydney Morning Herald of 24 March 1891 substantiated
these observations: ‘A little boy named Finch, who was
lost near Albury, [was] recovered by a black tracker
engaged from Benalla. Over 400 people had been in
search of the boy … who was not otherwise much the
worst [sic] for his eight days in the bush. He was found
120 miles from home, and said he had lived on wattle The Western Silver or Showy Wattle, Acacia decora, has
gum’ (cited in Pearn 1993). been a source of Wattle gum. (Courtesy: Ethel Ardvark,
Terminalia and Leopard Tree gums
There have been a few other edible gum resources utilised their quality could vary substantially. Of the
that were of interest to the early settlers and explorers. thirty native species of Terminalia, a number yield
They include those from the native Terminalia and edible gums – notably T. bursarina, T. ferdinandiana,
Flindersia trees – resources that Aboriginal people T. pterocarya, T. platyphylla and T. volucris.
regularly harvested as bush food snacks. However, Ludwig Leichhardt mentioned the local harvest of a
like gums from the Acacia, according to the species gum near the Gulf of Carpentaria: ‘We collected a great
quantity of terminalia gum, and prepared it in different

ways to render it more palatable. The natives, whose
tracks we saw everywhere in the scrub, with frequent
marks where they had collected gum, seemed to roast
it. It dissolved with difficulty in water: added to gelatine
soup, it was a great improvement’ (Leichhardt 1847).
He was possibly referring to the Wild Peach (Terminalia
carpentariae, syn. T. hadleyana subsp. carpenteriae).
The clear red gum of this tree has long been a popular
Aboriginal harvest in the Northern Territory. The many
scarred trees one sees testify to this – trees with pieces of
bark chipped out to facilitate seepage.
The gum’s preparation, which does not appear to have
Terminalia carpentariae (left) and T. ferdinandiana, the
changed much from Leichhardt’s day, depends on its Kakadu Plum (right), have an extra claim to fame as their
seasonal characteristics. In the dry season hardened pieces fruits are very rich in vitamin C (Brand 1982). The resinous
are softened by fire-roasting, while others are boiled. In inner bark of the former has also been pounded to make
the wet season, more malleable samples are simply mixed a form of putty that was particularly valued as a caulking
with water. An interesting aspect of the harvest involved substance for boats. (Courtesy: Anja Toms, Top End
Explorer Tours)
the potential toxicity of the product. For instance, some
tribes considered that Terminalia canescens gum was
poisonous, while other tribes valued it as a food. Yet there
were other groups that regarded it as a rather tasty ‘sweet’
(Yunupinu 1995; Isaacs 1994; Wightman 1994, 1992,
1991; Smith 1993; Low 1990; Levitt 1981).
The Leopard Tree (Flindersia maculosa) is a species
of the arid, dry inland regions of New South Wales
and Queensland. It yielded an exudate that quickly
attracted the interest of the early explorers. Thomas
Mitchell, in Three Expeditions into the Interior of
Australia, mentioned an ‘Acacia’ (later identified as
Flindersia) ‘with a white stem, and spotted bark, there
grows to a considerable size, and produces much gum.
Indeed, gum acacia abounds in these scrubs, and when
the country is more accessible, may become an article
of commerce’. Joseph Lauterer commented on its use:
‘During the summer months large masses, of a clear
amber colour, exude from the stem and branches. It
makes good adhesive mucilage, has a splendid taste,
and is eaten by the aborigines. It is commonly used by
bushmen as a remedy in diarrhoea’ (Lauterer 1896).
Later, Joseph Maiden examined the gum in more
detail: ‘In view of the scarcity of good Gum Arabic, Leopardwood, Flindersia macu-losa, from JH Maiden,
it would be a useful addition to our raw products if Forest Flora of New South Wales, 1904, illustration by Lilian
abundant supplies of it could be obtained. I have not Margaret Flockton.
heard of a gum being yielded by any other Australian revealed it to be:
species of Flindersia in quantity’ (Maiden 1904).
Further investigation of a sample from around A most valuable gum. It is in pieces as large as pigeons’
the Lachlan and Darling rivers in New South Wales eggs, and I have seen a piece half as large as an emu egg,
Flindersia maculosa. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native

it in some measure. I have heard some people speak
disparagingly of this tree, but upon extensive inquiries I
find that their prejudices have not been substantiated, it
being held in high esteem by those who feed [their stock]
very extensively upon it. It does not supply the quantity
The Leopard Tree, Flindersia maculosa. (Courtesy: Peter Woodard) of foliage that many of the others do, although attaining
the height of about 40 feet.
clear and of excellent quality, with only a small portion
of bark at the place of attachment to the tree. In parts of
the interior it is said to be fairly abundant. In some cases The scarcity of the Leopard Tree was soon to become
it remains in the liquid state on the trees for some little a serious matter of concern in some regions of New
time before hardening, or else exudes very rapidly, for it South Wales (Maiden 1904).
is frequently brought to Sydney in pieces as long as an
ordinary earthworm, and of the same average diameter.
It dissolves readily and completely in cold water. It hardly
appears to affect the transparency and absence of colour Flindersia: phytochemical studies of
of pure water. In this respect it may be ranked very closely native timber trees
to picked Turkey Gum Arabic. It possesses the faint The Flindersia genus has also attracted the attention of
cloudiness which an aqueous solution of Gum Arabic a number of phytochemical studies. Botanist Selwyn
soon assumes (Maiden 1904).
Everist (1981) mentioned that while ‘no records of
toxicity to livestock are noted in the literature …
Mr R.W. Peacock provided further details regarding
[the] wood and bark of all Australian species have
the tree’s usefulness:
been found to contain compounds of great chemical
interest. These include flavonoids, coumarins,
The ‘Leopard Tree’ is very much prized for its fodder triterpenoids and at least 9 alkaloids, 6 of which are
value, both cattle and sheep being very fond of it. It is one from furoquinoline group.’ In 1952 Professor Len
of the few which cattle thrive upon, and I have known Webb had pointed out that this genus was among
milking cows fed almost solely upon it to give a fair the timber-yielding trees of potential interest for their
quantity of milk. It is very easily recognised owing to its alkaloid components: ‘The proportion of alkaloid-
spotted appearance, which is due to the outer bark falling
bearing genera among local commercial timbers is
off in patches. It is fast becoming scarce owing to the
partiality of stock for it. During its young stage the tree
of some interest, in view of the accessibility of bark,
throws out a lot of angular lateral branches, which protect leaves etc. from these trees. Out of a total of about
similar potential – Cycas circinalis, Lunasia amara,

Rhodomyrtus macrocarpa and Plumbago zeylanica.11
Previous studies had found that the Crow’s Ash
(Flindersia australis) contained a quinoline alkaloid
that was named flindersine (Webb 1952). Recent
studies of this compound have shown that it had
moderate antibacterial and antifungal properties
– as well as cytotoxic activity (Duraipandiyana &
Ignacimuthu 2009; Varamini 2009; Cantrell 2005).
Gums from Albizia

The genus Albizia contains trees that resemble Acacia,
which can make some species quite difficult to tell
apart. Indeed, this genus is fairly closely related
to Acacia within the Mimosoideae, a subfamily
of the Fabaceae (which was formerly classified as
Leguminosae) – although they are placed within
The Cudgerie, Bumpy Ash or Silver Ash (Flindersia different tribes ie. Acacia belongs to the Acacieae
schottiana) is native to the rainforests of northern Queensland, (along with the genera Acaciella, Mariosousa, Senegalia
Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. It has come under threat and Vachellia), while Albizia is in the Ingeae.
in the latter country due to habitat loss, particularly from Early chemical appraisals of Albizia noted there
clear-felling logging operations. (Courtesy: KAW Williams,
Native Plants of Queensland, Vol. 1)
was a similarity between these two genera. In 1897
Joseph Lauterer commented: ‘very likely saponin is
120 genera listed as Australian commercial timbers,
14 genera gave excellent spot tests for alkaloids, which
were confirmed in eight of these genera: Alstonia,
Atherosperma, Cryptocarya, Daphnandra, Doryphora,
Erythrina, Erythrophleum, Flindersia.’
The bark of the Bumpy Ash or Silver Ash (Flindersia
schottiana) and another, unidentified, species were
noted to contain a poisonous principle – the taste of
which had a nauseating effect. Bumpy Ash bark also
caused a reaction with tingling and numbness of the
tongue (Webb 1952).
Later studies established that Flindersia maculosa, F.
schottiana and F. pimenteliana all contained high levels
of alkaloids. Leaf extracts of the latter was found to
have positive activity in anti-tumour studies (Collins
1990). The genus also has antibacterial potential. An
extensive investigation of the antibacterial potential of
the native flora by Nancy Atkinson and colleagues in
1956 found that the bark of an unidentified species
and Flindersia oxyleyana (leaves and branches) were
active against Salmonella typhi and Staphylococcus
aureus. Of particular interest was the strong activity The Asian Siris Tree (Albizia lebbeck).
of Flindersia oxyleyana against Myobacterium phlei.
11 Ultimately this study examined extracts from an extraordinary number of
Only a couple of other extracts in the study had native species, more than a thousand.
found in many Acacias and the Albizzias are rich in it

Gum adulterants too. In fact the above-mentioned Acacia anthelmintica
Albizia gums have been deliberately utilised as an is really an Albizzia.12 Our native and ornamental tree
adulterant or substitute for Acacia – although they Albizzia lebbeck which extends also to Africa and Asia
have no official standing. Indeed, they are considered has been found, as early as 1886, to be very rich in
to be inferior to true Gum Arabic and are not saponin in the flowers and in the whole inflorescence.’
recognised for use as food additives. One matter of The Albizia genus contains species with substantial
concern has been the discovery of contaminants such amounts of tannin and saponin – and a few have
as aluminium and other heavy metals as adulterants provided effective fish poisons. Like the Acacia, native
in the gum. The African Flat-Crown (Albizia Albizia species were regarded as being a gum-yielding
adianthifolia) (syn. A. gummifera) yields a clear resource of variable quality.
insoluble gum that was utilised as a cosmetic – albeit In northern Australia, the ornamental Asian Siris
not considered to be of particularly good quality. The Tree (Albizia lebbeck) was the most familiar of the genus.
dark exudate of the Bitter Albizia (Albizia amara) It yielded a clear tea-coloured gum with a gelatin-like
was of similar poor quality (Anderson & Morrison character that was not very water-soluble. This tree has
1990, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). had a fairly extensive medicinal reputation. The seeds
and the bark were recommended for gastrointestinal
distress (diarrhoea, gastroenteritis) and haemorrhoids.
Bark preparations had a particularly wide range of uses
– including remedies for bronchitis, leprosy, paralysis
and parasitic (helminthic worm) infestations. The bark
was also useful for healing ulcers, particularly those
resulting from snakebite. It was reputed to be effective
for gum inflammation, while the powdered root bark
was specifically recommended to ‘strengthen’ the
gums (Satyavati 1976; Burkill 1935).
12 Older texts often spell the genus Albizzia.
Albizia adianthifolia, the African Flat-Crown.

Gums from the genus Sterculia
Karaya gum. (Courtesy: Krystal Colloids, India)

In India a cataplasm of Albizia lebbeck flowers was utilised
as a cooling and emollient remedy that was applied locally
Sterculia is another interesting genus (albeit
to inflammatory skin problems, including furuncles. The unrelated to Acacia) with Australian representatives
leaf had a couple of ophthalmic uses – it was taken as a that yield a gum of pharmaceutical value. Tragacanth
remedy for night blindness or applied locally to the eye for from Sterculia urens is a traditional remedy that has
conjunctivitis (Satyavati 1976). long been officially utilised in Indian hospitals. The
Gum from the seed pod of the Tulip Sterculia (Sterculia

Karaya harvest. (Courtesy: Krystal Colloids, India) shillinglawii).
exudate, which is usually obtained from the leaves

and cut branch ends, makes a clear thickened jelly
when immersed in water. Like Gum Acacia, it
has been used to make stable mixtures that could
remain viable for several days. This gum, which has
been known as karaya, kadira or Sterculia Gum,
has a rapid water-absorption capability. It has a less
soluble character than similar commercial products,
which gives the gum a useful viscosity. However, its
quality can be compromised by storage (particularly
exposure to hot, humid environments) or upon
being powdered. The gum, like that of Psyllium seeds,
possesses excellent emollient and laxative effects on
the intestine. Indian veterinarians have also used it as
a remedy for pleuropneumonia in cattle. In the 1920s
Karaya Gum was introduced to the United States as a
cheap alternative to tragacanth. This was to have some
unexpected benefits when the gum was found to have
superior mucilaginous attributes that encouraged its
use in a range of pharmaceutical products.13 It was
employed as a substitute for tragacanth in products
such as the soothing lozenges used for easing throat
inflammation. The powdered gum was even suitable
for use as an adhesive for dentures because it could
bond firmly and was resistant to bacterial and The Australian Peanut Tree (Sterculia quadrifida).
enzymatic degradation. Commercially, Karaya Gum
has achieved widespread use. It can be found in a
care products or cosmetics. Other uses include its
remarkable variety of goods, and has a diverse array of
deployment as a gelling agent in hairdressing lotions, as
applications. It is an exceptionally useful thickening
an adhesive in paper-making, as a binder for building
product that has been incorporated into many food
materials, and as a thickening agent to bind colouring
items, as well as being employed for making personal
13 More recently, edible gums from species of Khaya have been used
pigments for printing fabrics. Katira Gum, sourced
as pharmaceutical binding agents. Evaluations have focused on their from Cochlospermum religiosum (syn. C. gossypium), is
mechanical strength and specific drug release characteristics (Odeku a similar product (Morton 1977).
& Itiola 2003, 2002).
The seeds of many native ‘Peanut trees’ (genus 

Sterculia) have been eaten as bush tucker although,
despite its useful relative, the gum does not appear The Australian native flora offers an interesting
to be of any substantial importance. However, the storehouse of products with future potential that is
mucilaginous exudate from the fruit pods of Sterculia not limited to medicinal gums and resinous resources.
quadrifida is said to be edible (Maiden 1900). The Remedies from the Eucalypts and Acacias, which
roots of this species were also roasted and eaten have been utilised since the first emigrations to
(Roth 1901). The leaves, which have been used as a this continent, have been a substantial success for
sweetening agent for cooking meat, have also been various reasons – both practical and medicinal – on
used to heal wounds – crushed and applied directly an international scale. There is, however, one other
to the site (Low 1992; Webb 1959). An infusion of aspect of the flora that has an equally ancient tradition
the inner bark has also been utilised as an antiseptic of use in Asia, Oceania and Australia. The aromatic
eyewash (Hiddins 2001). qualities of various Paperbarks and Tea Trees were as
noticeable as those of the Eucalypts, and they were
admirably suited to very similar avenues of medicinal
exploitation. These plants have likewise benefited
from advances in modern chemistry and essential oil
research, resulting in an entirely new range of products
with unique flavour and fragrance qualities.
Simple instructions for the preparation of Tragacanth

mucilage from the British Pharmacopoeia of 1867.
Chapter 9
TEA TREES: MODERN

INVESTIGATIONS OF AN ANCIENT
REMEDY
The Myrtaceae is the most famous and widespread Leptospermum arachnoides, Leptospermum laevigatum,
family on the Australian landmass. The genera it Leptospermum squarrosum, Melaleuca armillaris,
contains rate highly among the most unique and Melaleuca nodosa and Syzygium paniculatum. His
interesting flora on the continent – and are often work was to provide an important framework for later
characterised by distinctive essential oil attributes. identification studies.
However, the early collections of the Myrtaceae
required substantial investigative work in little-charted
territory as far as botanical science was concerned.
Many genera were completely unknown at the time of
European settlement. This made accurate classification
a rather daunting task. A fortuitous encounter
that would help solve some of these problems took
place in 1788, when the German botanist Joseph
Gaertner visited Joseph Banks in London. Gaertner
was particularly interested in the shape of fruits and
reviewed a number of Myrtaceae specimens that
had been collected from Botany Bay. These original
samples formed part of an impressive collection
although, oddly enough, there were few Eucalypts
among them. The species that Gaertner reviewed
included Angophora costata, Corymbia gummifera,
Flower detail of the Thyme Honey Myrtle (or Feather

Honey Myrtle, Melaleuca thymifolia). This species was
among the ‘Tea Trees’ originally collected from Botany
Bay – which also included Leptospermum juniperinum, L. The Melaleuca genus is commonly called Paperbark or Tea
polygalifolium and L. trinervium. Tree, sharing the latter title with the genus Leptospermum.
251
Tea Tree tales

Early discoveries The native ‘Tea Trees’ from the genera Leptospermum
A number of samples of the Myrtaceae collected and Melaleuca were among the essential oil-containing
at the Endeavour River in northern Queensland species that attracted particular interest for their
included Baeckea imbricata, Callistemon viminalis, aromatic tea-making qualities. Over two centuries ago
Eugenia (Syzygium) banksii, Melaleuca angustifolia, a particularly famous incident involving a measure
Myrtella obtusa, Rhodomyrtus macrocarpa, Tristania of serendipitous discovery was linked to the use of
suaveolens, Thryptomene oligandra and Leptospermum these plants. Indeed, the adoption of Leptospermum
fabricia. The latter, which is commonly known as as a tea plant actually resulted from a case of mistaken
the Yellow Tea Tree, is now classified as Neofabricia identity. In the 1891 Presidential Address to the Royal
myrtifolia. The distribution of this species and Society of Queensland, Frederick Manson Bailey
Thryptomene oligandra is restricted to the Cape York provided details of the story:
Peninsula – with the Yellow Tea Tree also being
found in southern Papua New Guinea.
On Capt. Cook’s third voyage [in 1777], David Nelson
and the surgeon of the ship ‘Resolution’, William
Anderson, collected the botanic specimens, and from a
note of this latter gentleman we find that the leaves of
Leptospermum scoparium were used as a substitute for
Chinese tea: he mistook the shrub for a Philadelphus, a
genus of Saxifrageae. He says that he drank the infusion
and found it of pleasant taste and smell. It may here be
pointed out that the word should be spelt ‘tea’ and not ‘ti’
so persistently used by newspaper writers; this latter word
is the Maori name for Cordyline, a genus of Liliaceae.1
The latter distinction is important. While the genus

Cordyline is found in Australia, these shrubs have
been more highly valued as medicinal plants in New
Zealand and Oceania. In particular, the leaf infusion
Leptospermum fabricia (now Neofabricia myrtifolia). (Courtesy: was utilised as an antidysenteric and diarrhoeal
KAW Williams, Native Plants of Queensland, Vol. 2) remedy – as well as being a useful local application
for wounds.
The use of the ‘Tea Tree’ by Captain Cook and
his crew later ensured the general popularity of the
infusion: ‘The leaves, as I have already observed, were
used by many of us as tea, which has a very agreeable
bitter scent and flavour when they are recent, but
loses some of both when they are dried. When the
infusion was made strong, it proved emetic to some,
in the same manner as green tea.’ The volatile nature
of the essential oil would have been responsible for a
loss of flavour and aroma during the drying process.
1 These plants have been known as ‘Cabbage Trees’ due to the edibility of
the inner leaves and plant heart. The Cordyline genus provides an interesting
illustration of the confusion that can surround botanical classification.
Cordyline, which contains around ten native species, has actually been placed
in six or seven different families over the past twenty years. Currently it may
Thryptomene oligandra. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native be classified in Asparagaceae, although the Queensland Herbarium places it
in Laxmanniaceae. In the Flora of Australia, Cordyline has been placed in the
Plants of Queensland, Vol. 3) Agavaceae – a family that contains the fabled Dragon’s Blood tree (Dracaena).
Chapter 9 TEA TREES: MODERN INVESTIGATIONS OF AN ANCIENT REMEDY 253
Kanuka Tree, Kunzea ericoides, formerly Leptospermum

ericoides. (Courtesy: Andrew McMillan, Wikimedia
Commons Project)
Tea Tree, Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium). There are that was found useful for the relief of headaches,
around 86 species of Leptospermum, of which 83 are influenza, coughing, breathing problems and sinus
native to Australia. Only three species are found overseas congestion. Bark decoctions could be utilised as a
– including the New Zealand Manuka (Leptospermum gargle for a sore throat or as an antidiarrhoeal remedy
scoparium). Two species range to Papua New Guinea and in dysentery. The latter preparation, which was said
Southeast Asia – Leptospermum flavescens and L. parviflorum.
(Image courtesy: Kim & Forest Starr) to be an excellent sedative, was even used by miners
to help them sleep during the night when heavy
Over time, the tradition of making tea from native machinery was being used nearby. In addition, the
plants prospered – with colonists and explorers bark was used as a splint for broken bones, while the
experimenting widely with the flora seeking appealing white gummy ‘manna’ could be applied to burns as an
infusions. Leptospermum petersonii, the Lemon- emollient or taken as a sweet-flavoured mild laxative.
scented Tea Tree, and L. flavescens were two of the The manna exudate naturally seeped from wounds to
species that became particularly popular (Low 1990). the tree and crystallised as it dried (Riley 1994).
The early story of the discovery of the Tea Tree An infusion of the twigs and leaves of Manuka or
began in New Zealand, where these plants had an Kanuka became highly regarded as a diuretic that was
extensive medicinal reputation. The Red Manuka also reputed to have a tonic effect on the urinary tract
(Leptospermum scoparium) and the White Manuka (kidney and bladder). Dr Joseph Lauterer considered
or Kanuka (Kunzea ericoides, formerly Leptospermum that these were not the only useful candidates: ‘the
ericoides) were utilised almost interchangeably as leaves and young shoots of all species of Leptospermum
herbal medicines. They were valued as pain-relieving, are at least of the same service to the urinary organs
anti-arthritic and wound-healing remedies. A and against gravel as those of the European Uva
decoction prepared from the young shoots of these Ursi’ (quoted in Maiden 1889). The latter herb,
plants was regarded as being a good bathing remedy Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, has traditionally been highly
for rheumatism, lumbago, soreness of the back, and valued for urinary tract disorders. It was specifically
itching skin problems (rashes, eczema). Inhalations of used as a solvent in cases of urinary tract stones and
the aromatic leaf infusion had a decongestant effect as an antibacterial remedy to treat infections. An
interesting comment, which appears to relate to the use Manuka chemotypes

of Leptospermum for treating genitourinary disorders, More than ten different chemotypes of Manuka
was made by an early, unknown writer: ‘An infusion (Leptospermum scoparium) have been identified – which
of this herb is regarded as peculiarly serviceable to means that the activity of the oil can vary substantially.
persons in a reduced state whose previous moralities Four main chemotypes have been identified from
will not admit of the strictest investigation’ (quoted in different growing sites in New Zealand.2 They are
Cribb & Cribb 1981). characterised by triketones; linalool and eudesmol;
pinene, and oils that are deficient in triketone, linalool
and eudesmol (see also Table 9.1, page 259).
The chemotype that is sought after for medicinal
purposes is characterised by more than 20 per cent
triketones (i.e. flavesone, iso-leptospermone and
leptospermone). Shrubs specifically sourced from East
Cape, on New Zealand’s North Island, have shown
particularly potent antimicrobial attributes. The oil,
which contains fairly good levels of leptospermone,
was active against a broad range of bacteria (including
Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus and Streptococcus).
It has also shown substantial antifungal properties
(against Candida, Trichophyton and Microsporum). In
particular, the antifungal and antiseptic effects appear
to be linked to the presence of leptospermone – which
could explain the variation in efficacy of oils from
different locations. Comparison of New Zealand and
In New Zealand, Manuka seed capsules were highly valued
Australian material has determined that the latter had
as an astringent for diarrhoeal disorders – the green fruit was higher levels of 1,8-cineole and low levels of triketones.
chewed raw, or made into a decoction for use. Seed capsules The New Zealand (East Cape region) oil showed good
could also be chewed and the saliva swallowed to ease fevers, activity against Bacillus subtilis and a dermatophyte
stomach pain, and colic (Brooker 1987). (Trichophyton mentagrophytes) – while the 1,8-cineole
2 Further detailed analysis of the chemically
different oil types has been undertaken. See
Douglas 2004.
White-flowered Leptospermum scoparium. Pink-flowered Leptospermum scoparium. Flowers of a pink form of Leptospermum
(Courtesy: Kim & Forest Starr) (Courtesy: Kim & Forest Starr) scoparium. This species comes in
numerous colour forms.
based oil was ineffective. Although the related herb

Kanuka (Kunzea ericoides) has traditionally been which also belongs to the family Myrtaceae. The
utilised similarly to Manuka, the essential oil has shrub was noticed to have a suppressive effect on
different characteristics.3 It contains α-pinene (over the growth of plants that were found nearby (i.e.
50%), with smaller amounts of viridiflorol and an allelochemical activity). This attracted interest
viridiflorene (under 10%). Triketones are not found in its ability to have a suppressant effect on weeds
in Kanuka oil (or are present only in minute amounts)
and it has a substantially weaker antimicrobial effect
(www.ManukaOil.com; Douglas 2004; Christoph
2000; Porter & Wilkins 1998).
In the past, harvesters have inadvertently collected
a combination of samples from Manuka and Kanuka,
which resulted in mixed oil profiles. In addition,
Manuka Tea Tree oil has been confused in the
marketplace with the Australian Tea Tree oil (from
Melaleuca alternifolia) due to the similar names of the
products. Substantial levels of terpinen-4-ol, which
characterise the latter, are not found in Manuka oil
(Porter & Wilkins 1989). The problem of variation
in essential oil is quite evident from a comparison of Flowers of the widely cultivated Crimson Bottlebrush
the antimicrobial activity from Manuka, Kanuka and (Callistemon citrinus).
Tea Tree (referred to as Melaleuca in this comparison).
There were greater differences between samples of (Comes 2005). Leptospermone is classified as a
Manuka and Kanuka, than between samples of triketone (as are the related compounds flavesone
Melaleuca. Kanuka oil was strongly antibacterial, and agglomerone). Chemical investigations of
although its antifungal activity was low. Manuka the action of triketone-based herbicides were to
displayed a stronger antifungal activity, though it was open doors to an entirely new discovery. The drug
not as potent as Melaleuca. However, the antioxidant nitisinone (NTBC, marketed under the brand
activity of Manuka samples was more consistent name Orfadin), which was originally developed
than that of Kanuka, while Melaleuca showed no as a herbicide, is now used in the treatment of
activity (Lis-Balchin 2000). The greater variability hereditary tyrosinaemia type I. In early studies it
in the Manuka and Kanuka essential oils may also was found that rats treated with the drug developed
be suggestive of different chemotypes, variations in corneal lesions and developed tyrosinaemia.
growing or soil conditions, or in the form of the plant In humans, tyrosinaemia is an inborn error of
that is harvested. metabolism linked to a deficiency of a tyrosine-
converting enzyme (tyrosine aminotransferase in
3 These plants, when not in flower, are difficult to tell apart. the liver) that affects children. It results in high
4 The essential oil of Eucalyptus grandis also contains high levels of levels of tyrosine in the body, and foods containing
leptospermone (26%) – as well as flavesone (12%) and isoflavesone (3%),
α-pinene (25%), and low levels of 1,8-cineole (6%) (Brophy & Southwell the amino acids tyrosine and phenylalanine must
2002). be restricted. One of the symptoms of the condition
is the development of corneal opacities. NTBC
entered clinical trials and was used successfully to
Drug discovery from a herbicide treat the condition (Lock 1998). Since its initial
Leptospermone has been used as a ‘lead’ chemical clinical use in 1991 the drug has replaced the
for the development of the herbicide Callisto radical surgery (liver transplantation) that was the
(mesotrione) – which is designed to control weeds main treatment for this rare condition. Today it is
in maize crops. It was originally isolated from also being investigated for its clinical potential in
Callistemon citrinus4 (hence the product name), the related condition alkaptonuria.
A new era of research

Other species of Leptospermum with antimicrobial The Australian Jellybush
properties could also be of interest. Early investigations
found that the essential oils of Leptospermum
liversidgei and L. citratum (now L. petersonii) had good
antibacterial properties – as did the Coastal Tea Tree,
L. laevigatum, which was active against Staphylococcus
aureus (Atkinson & Brice 1955; Atkinson 1949).
Flower detail of Leptospermum polygalifolium.
Coastal Tea Tree (Leptospermum laevigatum), Bishop Museum

specimen, Honolulu. (Courtesy: Kim & Forest Starr)
The Jellybush or Lemon-Scented Tea Tree (Leptospermum

Leptospermum laevigatum. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, polygalifolium) is an interesting species that contains a
Native Plants of Queensland, Vol. 3) number of subspecies – which can be difficult to tell apart.
Their essential oil can have equally diverse characteristics,
containing either pinene or eudesmol as the main
constituent, as well as a number of other components.
The shrub ranges along the coast (extending inland from
the coastal belt) from Victoria to Cape York Peninsula in
northern Queensland. (Image courtesy: Tyagarah Apiaries,
Byron Bay)
Additional studies have shown that leaf and flower

extracts of Leptospermum bracteata had good activity
against Pseudomonas fluorescens. The flower extracts
were particularly active against the latter (equivalent
Leptospermum liversidgei. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native to chloramphenicol) – as well as having a moderate
Leptospermum flavescens. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native The Weeping Tea Tree or White Wood, Leptospermum
Plants of Queensland, Vol. 1) madidum (formerly L. longifolium) is a tropical species of
northern Queensland and the Northern Territory. There are
antibacterial effect against Bacillus cereus and B. two subspecies: L. madidum subsp. madidum is found on the
Cape York Peninsula; L. madidum subsp. sativum is native to
subtilis. Leptospermum juniperinum leaf extracts were
the Northern Territory and the Kimberley region of Western
similarly active against these Bacillus species, and Australia. (Image courtesy: KAW Williams, Native Plants of
against Aeromonas hydrophilia (Cock 2008). Other Queensland, Vol. 3)
studies have determined that Leptospermum petersonii
oil had antifungal properties that were due to activity Wales to northern Queensland – and overseas into
of the main constituent, that is, citral. Leptospermum Southeast Asia. From Australian samples of the leaves
polygalifolium and L. liversidgei also had antifungal and twigs, terpenes (primarily pinene and citral)
properties, albeit not as potent (Davis & Ward 2003). were isolated as the main components of the oil with
Leptospermum flavescens is another species of therapeutic effects. In the Moluccas, mountaineers
interest due to its traditional medicinal reputation. distilled an aromatic oil from the plant which was
Although it is not particularly common, this species used as an inhalant for treating bronchitis, or applied
has a wide distribution, ranging from New South locally as an embrocation for easing rheumatic pain.
In Malaysia the leaf tea was valued as a febrifuge, as
well as being utilised as an appetite stimulant and for
the relief of stomach discomfort. The herb appears
to have substantial analgesic effects, as it was said
to be useful for treating dysmenorrhoea (painful
menstruation) or could be applied externally to relieve
the pain of bowel obstruction (Perry & Metzger 1981;
Quisumbing 1951).
The essential oil of the Leptospermum genus
can vary substantially between species – as well as
within a species if there are different chemotypes of
the plant. The Weeping Tea Tree or White Wood,
Leptospermum madidum (formerly classified L.
longifolium) is a tropical tree that has two subspecies
(subsp. madidum and subsp. sativum).5 The oil, which
Leptospermum madidum.
can vary as to the main constituent, often contains
α-pinene in appreciable amounts. An analysis of Territory the leaves of this shrub have been used as a
Leptospermum madidum subsp. madidum identified natural shampoo. Usually they were simply rubbed in
two different oil types. One form contained pinene the hands with a little water and massaged into the
(33%), low levels of 1,8-cineole (less than 10%), hair, although sometimes the decoction was used as a
and a fair amount of humulene (10.5%). The second wash. This was said to not only keep the hair healthy
form was almost devoid of pinene (1%), humulene – regular use would actually prevent hair loss (Barr
(3.6%) and 1,8-cineole (4.8%). This oil contained 1993).
other constituents of interest: calamene (8.1%) and
eudesmol (18.4%) (Brophy 1998; see also Table 9.2,
page 266). The scent of lemon
The oil of Leptospermum parvifolium (which was The Lemon-scented Tea Tree, Leptospermum petersonii
also formerly classified as L. longifolium)6 contained (formerly known as L. citratum) is among the most
levels of pinene (29.6%) that were similar to the popular species in the genus. Early evaluations of
first oil type – but differed due to its content of the tree in the Queensland Forest Service Bulletin
verbenone (10.9%) and trans-pinocarveol (5.6%). (Swain 1928) mentioned that it was a rare species
Smaller amounts (2–3%) of myrtenol, myrtenal, of the coastal regions, recorded only in Queensland
β-caryophyllene, pinocarvone and α-phellandrene from the Palmwoods district, 50 miles (80 km)
could also be present (Brophy 1998). In the Northern north of Brisbane, at Springbrook, and occasionally
in the Northern Rivers region of New South Wales.
A comment with regard to its commercial potential
seems worth recording: ‘It does not exist naturally in
any commercial availability, but may be cultivated
readily. The seed is scarce, but the Queensland Forest
Service has planted several plots of it for the purposes
of seed supply.’
The remarkable success this species was to achieve
as an international oil resource was hinted at in remarks
by Mr Gillard Gordon: ‘I have had done under my
supervision a considerable amount of Leptospermum
citratum, and I believe there is a very big future before
it. As far as my research has carried me I could not find
any areas in the virgin state large enough for distilling
plants. I have had it grown in various parts of New
South Wales in diverse circumstances, and it grew
Lemon-scented Tea Tree seed Lemon Tea Tree luxuriantly in every case and stood cutting back for
capsules (Leptospermum petersonii). oil. (Courtesy: Peta several years, showing an actual improvement on each
Bishop Museum specimen, Hono- & John Day, The
lulu. (Courtesy: Kim & Forest Starr) Paperbark Co)
growth’ (quoted in Swain 1928).
The oil was first described in 1918 by Richard
Challinor, Edwin Cheel and Arthur Penfold – and
it quickly gained a measure of fame in the essential
5 There has been some confusion in the botanical literature regarding these oil industry as a fragrance. The main components
species. Leptospermum madidum is the current name for the Australian species of the oil, citral and citronella, give it an attractive
that was formerly known as L. longifolium. The latter title was applied to this
species in 1958 – although it was later discovered the name had already been lemony scent that subsequently saw it become widely
given to another species in 1814. The older classification is regarded as being incorporated into personal care and perfumery
correct. Therefore the Australian plant was given the new name Leptospermum
madidum in 1992. products. In 1950 Arthur Penfold and Frank Richard
6 To add to the confusion, Leptospermum parviflorum is not an Australian Morrison made the following observations with regard
species, it is native to Papua New Guinea (and plants identified by this name to its marketable potential: ‘It was early realised that
in the old literature also refer to L. madidum). Leptospermum parviflorum
should not be confused with the Australian species L. parvifolium. this attractive shrub, which had been grown as a garden
hedge, would have to be cultivated if commercial familiar, has useful antiseptic and antiviral properties.
demands for its essential oil were to be met. Many It combines well in oil blends and can be used in a
experimental plots have been established in Australia, vaporiser – the latter having an aerosol effect that can
and much information on cultivation is available. The help to neutralise airborne microbes including moulds,
only commercial plantations in the British Empire are fungi and bacteria. It also had the potential to prevent
located in Kenya Colony, although Naves reports an the spread of the influenza virus. Clinically its use has
analysis of an oil sent to him from Rhodesia by the been recommended for clearing sinus congestion and
distiller. Outside of the Empire, the tree is grown in head colds. Prepared as a hydrosol, the essential oil
Guatemala’ (Penfold & Morrison 1950). has been recommended for cleansing oily skin and
Studies by Penfold and his colleagues in 1942 as a treatment for acne. It has also been utilised as an
established that there were three oil types. They expectorant, anti-inflammatory, digestive stimulant,
were based on citral, citronellal or geranyl acetate/ and calming and sedative remedy – although very low
geraniol – each of which gives the oil quite different doses may have a stimulating effect (Webb 2000). The
properties. Subsequent analysis has confirmed these oil has shown significant antifungal activity against skin
variations, which all have aromatic properties. The dermatophytes (species of Microsporum, Trichophyton
geranyl-acetate form is characterised by a fragrant and Epidermophyton) – with geranial identified as the
rose aroma. The level of citronellal, which has insect active antifungal component (Park 2007).
repellent properties, can vary substantially (9–28%). The chemical differences that characterise oils
The citral (lemon-scented form) contains fairly high from diverse species of Leptospermum, summarised
proportions of neral (23–37%) and geranial (22–30%) in Table 9.1, can be an important factor on which to
(Webb 2000). The lemon-scented oil, which is most base future investigations of these plants.
Table 9.1 Common chemical constituents found in oils from the genus Leptospermum
Pinene
Anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic and spasmogenic, antiseptic
Flavour, fragrance and perfumery.
• Leptospermum rupicola (48%, Brophy 1999a).
• Leptospermum brachyandrum (49.2%; humulene 9.5%), L. deuense (57.6%), L. luehmannii (68.3%), L. madidum subsp.
madidum (33%; humulene 10.5%), L. pallidum (45.2%; α-terpineol 8%), L. polyanthum (41.3%; trans-pinocarveol 9%,
myrtenol 5.9%), L. purpurascens (30%), L. speciosum (52.7%; 1,8-cineole 11%), L. turbinatum (40.7%; 1,8-cineole 17%),
L. whitei (30.3%; T-cadinol 8.1%) (Brophy 1998).
• Leptospermum lamellatum (42.2%), L. trinervium (30.6%) (Brophy 1999c).
• Note: 1,8-cineole was usually present at levels of less than 10% in the above species (Brophy 1999c, 1998)
1,8-cineole
Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiseptic, anaesthetic, antispasmodic, anticancer (cancer-preventive)
Decongestant: anti-tussive, expectorant, anticatarrhal
• Leptospermum rotundifolium: equivalent amounts of α-pinene (16–25%) and 1,8-cineole (21–28%) (Brophy 2000c)
• Leptospermum spectabile: low pinene (10.8%) and moderate cineole levels (22%) (Brophy 1999b).
β-caryophyllene
(Caryophyllene oxide is widely used preservative for food and drugs. Antifungal properties.)
• Leptospermum grandifolium (23.4%), L. lanigerum (34.5%; humulene 12.6%), L. morrisonii (26.7%; grandiflorone 58.4%),
L. variable (24.7%; pinene 23.8%), L. species Mt Maroon (24.4%) (Brophy 2000b).
• Leptospermum trinervium (19.2%; globulol 10%, bicyclogermacrene 21.8%) (Brophy 1999c).
• Leptospermum juniperinum (20%; pinene 39.5%) (Brophy 1999a).
Eudesmol
β-eudesmol: anticancer (anti-tumour promoter), antimutagenic, antibacterial, antiulcer,
Levels around 30% eudesmol:
• Leptospermum arachnoides, L. crassifolium, L. macrocarpum, L. turbinatum (Brophy 1999b).
• Species with higher amounts:
• Leptospermum thompsonii (40.7%), L. epacridoideum (65.4%), L. petraeum (76.1%), L. riparium (58.3%) (Brophy 1999b).
Leptospermum myrsinoides (63.3%, Brophy 1999c).
• Eudesmol-rich, low pinene: Leptospermum micromyrtus (69.1%), L. minutifolium (80.8%), L. rupestre (80%) (Brophy 1999a).
which have a similar activity, vary in their potency

against different types of pests. A methyl-eugenol
chemotype of the Black Tea Tree (Melaleuca bracteata)
has shown interesting commercial potential. The oil,
which has a sweet fruity aroma, has been successfully
used as an attractant in fruit fly traps (Chuang & Hou
2008; Yan 2002; Webb 2000).
Leptospermone has a structure that is similar to
valone – an insecticide and rodenticide with an effect
that resembles warfarin. The activity of leptospermone
was not as potent as valone, although it did show a
good synergistic activity. Leptospermone has also
The Woolly Tea Tree, Leptospermum lanigerum. This is a demonstrated anthelmintic properties (activity against
cold-climate species (Tasmania, Victoria, southern NSW), worm infestation, Brooker 1987).
which has an unusual woolly-leaved character, yields an oil
characterised by β-caryophyllene (see Table 9.1). (Courtesy The louse in history
Len Webb Ecological Images Collection, Griffith University)
Pesticides and insecticides

Leptospermum petersonii provides another example
of the insect-repellent potential of some native
species. The leaf oil contains good amounts of citral
and citronellal (see Table 9.2, page XXX) – insect-
repellent constituents that have led to cultivation of
the shrub commercially in Africa and Guatemala.
Other aromatic compounds in the Myrtaceae with The head louse, Pediculus humanus capitis. (Courtesy:
Dr Dennis D. Juranek, Center for Disease Control &
interesting insecticidal attributes include methyl- Prevention, US Dept. Health & Human Services)
eugenol, eugenol and isoeugenol. These compounds,
The Narrow-leaved Paper-bark (Melaleuca alternifolia).

formulations has excellent potential. Studies have

Head lice, the scourge of many mothers of school-age shown excellent acaricidal activity against Sarcoptes
children, have an interesting history. They have been scabiei var. hominis (Walton 2004).
around for eons, since human head lice (Pediculus Argentinian research has shown that Eucalyptus
humanus) separated from chimpanzee head lice (Pediculus oil (particularly that with high 1,8-cineole levels)
schaeffi) 5.6 million years ago. However, the body form of from numerous species has good pesticidal properties.
the louse appears to have been a more recent development Among these, Eucalyptus sideroxylon, E. globulus subsp.
(around 107,000 years ago) that had important globulus and E. globulus subsp. maidenii were found
consequences for the spread of disease. Body lice, which to be exceptionally effective against head lice (Toloza
feed on the skin twice a day, can be a vector for bacteria – 2010). Evaluations of Eucalyptus camaldulensis, E.
which head lice do not carry. Body lice can carry infections tereticornis and two hybrids (Eucalyptus grandis x E.
such as epidemic typhus, trench fever and relapsing fever. tereticornis and Eucalyptus grandis x E. camaldulensis)
Attesting to their historical associations are finds of the indicated that the latter hybrids were the more effective
louse in archaeological sites, the first discoveries being at pediculicidal agents (Toloza 2008). Eucalyptus cinerea,
a 10,000-year-old site in Brazil and a Neolithic cave in E. viminalis and E. saligna demonstrated similar anti-
Israel’s Northern Negev. Nits (as they are so fondly called) louse activity. In addition to 1,8-cineol, anisole was
have been found in Egyptian tombs and the ancient another effective essential oil component. Pennyroyal
writers recorded numerous strategies to rid to body of (Mentha pulegium) essential oil (and its benzyl alcohol
these pesky critters. Nit-combs have long been one of component) – followed by the South American herb
the most effective ways of removing them from the hair Myrcianthes cisplatensis – were also of interest (Toloza
– as well as the use of numerous herbal remedies, many 2006). Eucalyptus oil has the potential to play a useful
of them highly toxic. In the past, louse infections have role in combination formulations, as1,8-cineole can
been far more prevalent than today and there are some improve the bioactivity of essential oils against drug-
wonderfully graphic writings that tell of nit infestations resistant forms of head lice. A lotion that combined
(for further details see www.nuvoforheadlice.com/history oils from Eucalyptus and Peppermint (dissolved in
A Brief History of Head Lice). 96% ethanol) was found to have equivalent activity
to any commercially available head lice lotion. The
Useful pesticidal actions have also been addition of dodecanol significantly potentiated the
attributed to Tea Tree oil (Melaleuca alternifolia) activity of the mixture8 (Gonzalez Audino 2007).
– which was effective against the house dust mite Paramenthan-3,8-diol, which is found in the Lemon-
(Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus) and the head louse scented Eucalyptus, E. citriodora (see chapter 5), also
(Pediculus humanus capitis). Its use had excellent has effective repellent activity against hair lice – as did
preventive effects in allergic reactions to dust mites, oil from the Monk Pepper (seeds of Vitex agnus-castus)
which was probably due to the terpinen-4-ol content (Semmler 2010). The repellent activity of some oils
of the oil (Williamson 2007). In addition, its pesticidal extends to their use against grain storage pests such
properties support the incorporation of Tea Tree oil as the flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum) – against
into shampoo formulations for the treatment of head which oils from Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus)
lice (pediculosis). Clinical studies of a shampoo using and Lemon Eucalyptus were effective (Olivero-Verbel
a combination of Tea Tree oil (0.5%) with thymol 2010).
(1.0%) and American Pawpaw (Asimia triloba) extract
(0.5%) gave excellent results.7 A success rate of 100
per cent was achieved after three applications of the
shampoo, which was also effective against lice that
did not respond to pyrethrin-permethrin treatments
(McCage 2002). In addition, the incorporation of
Tea Tree oil into anti-scabies shampoo and soap 8 Dodecanol is a fatty alcohol that is obtained from palm kernel or coconut
7 It should be noted that this does not refer to the common Pawpaw – which oil fatty acids. It has emollient, stabilising and emulsifying attributes and has
is sourced from Carica papaya, an Asian fruit tree. been used in fragrance manufacture. It does, however, have irritant properties
and there are concerns with regard to its environmental impact.
Treating mites and lice

Lavender oil (from Lavandula
officinalis), which contains
linalool and linalyl acetate,
was effective against the house
dust mite (Dermatophagoides
pteronyssinus) and the head louse
(Pediculus humanus capitatus),
albeit somewhat less potent
in comparison to Tea Tree
Lavender oil. (Courtesy: oil. Rosemary oil (Rosmarinus
Peta & John Day, The officinalis), which has also
Paperbark Co.) shown anti-allergic properties,
can inhibit the allergic reaction
to the house dust mite and help to prevent allergic
inflammatory airway responses (Williamson 2007). A number of Baeckea herbs have been used as tea
Other studies have identified a number of oils with substitutes. They include the Twiggy Myrtle (B. virgata),
good activity against the house dust mite. In addition pictured here, the Weeping Myrtle (B. stenophylla), and
to Eucalyptus and Rosemary oils, they included the lavender-scented B. frutescens (which was formerly
oils from Clove, Chenopodium and Caraway. classified under B. stenophylla). (Courtesy: KAW
Cinnamaldehyde and chlorothymol were the most
active constituents, with citronellal also rating well
(Saad 2006; Choi 2001).
The genus Baeckia

The reclassification of native Baeckea
Baeckea virgata, which was first collected from New
Caledonia in 1774, is a representative of an Australian
genus whose distribution extends to New Caledonia.
The genus is generally recognised as being largely
native to Australia – where around 60 of the 75 total
species have been described. However, more recently
the classification has undergone serious reorganisation
in an attempt to better reflect the true affinities of the
Australian plants. Plants that were once recognised as the
Many are now classified as members of different variable species Baeckea virgata have now been
genera – for example Babingtonia, Euryomyrtus, subdivided into eight species that are placed
Ochrosperma, Triplarina, Rinzia and Sannantha. within the genus Sannantha. This includes
Changes such as this can make it difficult to track the plants commonly sold as Baeckea virgata -
down the medicinal uses of some species. While there which were originally transferred to the genus
is some information on Baeckea virgata there are few, Babingtonia. The latter genus has more correctly
if any, chemical studies that address the differences been used for Western Australian plants that
between the new genera. differ quite markedly from those found in New
Kong CMRI Vol. 1, 1984). While there have been few

South Wales. However, the classification of all investigations of the medicinal potential of the plant,
the Western Australian species is likely to change some extracts have shown antimicrobial attributes
in the future due to their botanical uniqueness. against the dental bacterium Streptococcus mutans.
Overall, the genus Sannantha now contains The leaves contain compounds (phloroglucinols) with
fifteen species. In addition to the eight segregated cytotoxic (anti-leukaemic) activity, and some studies
from the old Baeckea virgata classification, there have indicated extracts of the plant had antiparasitic
are three from New Caledonia (S. virgata, S. (antibabesial9 and antimalarial) activity (Murnigsih
leratii, and S. procera), plus Sannantha tozerensis 2005; Hwang 2004; Fujimoto 1996).
from Cape York, and two other native species:
S. cunninghamii and S. crenulata. Some other
eastern Australian species, formerly in Sannantha,
have also been placed in new genera – Harmongia
and Kardomia. The true Baeckea virgata is
considered to be endemic to New Caledonia,
where this species was first collected and described
botanically. It is now known as Sannantha virgata.
The Baeckea genus is still found throughout

Australia. Species include Baeckea frutescens, the
distribution of which extends to Asia, and now
includes plants that were formerly classified as
B. imbricata (pers. communication, Dr Peter G. Flowers of Baeckea species from Northern Queensland.
Wilson, Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, 2010).
Determining the chemical variations of essential
There are a number of other Australian Myrtaceae oils can be a tricky undertaking, and Baeckea frutescens
genera of medicinal interest that contain aromatic provides a good example of how complex the analysis
essential oil herbs (see Table 9.2, page XXX). Among can become. The essential oil can vary considerably,
them is the genus Baeckea. Baeckea frutescens, which which suggests the existence of different chemical
is native to New South Wales and Queensland, is one varieties. Malaysian studies determined that the oil
of the native species that ranges overseas to Southeast was generally rich in pinene (39.9–55.5%), although
Asia, and as far as southern China. In Asian traditions, terpene (34.1%) could predominate in some samples.
this shrub has had a fairly extensive medicinal Appreciable amounts of 1,8-cineole, which was
reputation as a febrifuge, stomachic and diuretic, and present in some samples, was absent in others. The
as a tonic for lassitude and fatigue. It has been utilised chemical variability of Vietnamese-sourced oils was
as an antimalarial remedy, for menstrual problems, similar. In addition, there were other samples that were
and was popular in Malaysia for use during postnatal characterised by tasmanone (22.9–24.3%) (N’Guyen
care (the infusion taken and the dried plant used as a 2004; Jantan 1998; see also Table 9.2, page XXX).
dusting powder) (Burkill 1935). Chemical analysis has opened a number of avenues
In Hong Kong the herb had a similar reputation of interest with regard to the relationship of Baeckea
as an aromatic tonic – as well as being utilised as with other genera. The leaf oils of Baeckea virgata,
an antispasmodic, anti-toxin and analgesic remedy. B. stenophylla and B. frutescens contain a distinctive
In particular, the decocted plant was valued as an phloroglucinol compound, baeckol. Studies have
antipruritic for skin problems (including dermatitis) identified this compound in other species within this
and as an antifungal for tinea pedis (athlete’s foot).
The root decoction has been recommended for 9 Babesiosis is a parasitic condition transmitted via tick infestation that
treating snakebite, rheumatism and gastrointestinal affects animals and humans. It is characterised by fevers, anaemia, listlessness,
appetite loss and jaundice. The Texas cattle or red-water fever is one form of
disorders (epigastric discomfort, diarrhoea) (Hong this disease.
genus (i.e. Baeckea imbricata and B. crenulata10) – as

well as in Darwinia procera, D. grandifolia and Calytrix
angulata. This could be a chemical clue suggestive of
evolutionary links between these plants. The related
compound isobaeckeol has been isolated from
Thryptomene saxicola, while homoisobaeckol was found
in Baeckea frutescens (Singh & Bharate 2006; Tetenyi
1991). Although little appears to be known about
the biological properties of these plants, Thryptomene
saxicola was among those examined by Nancy
Atkinson in 1949. Extracts of the leaves had active
antibacterial properties against Staphylococcus aureus.
The essential oil of Thryptomene calycina (syn. Baeckea
calycina) has also demonstrated antibacterial activity,
particularly against Salmonella typhimurium – albeit
only active at a high concentration (Wilkinson 2005).
Baeckol was first identified in Baeckea imbricata and
Darwinia procera, species that are native to eastern Baeckea imbricata. (Court-esy: KAW Williams, Native
Australia. The finding of baeckol in non-Australian Plants of Queensland, Vol. 2)
Thryptomene saxicola. (Courtesy: Trevor Yaxley, Australian

Native Plant Society, Tasmania North)
Baeckea stenophylla. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native

samples of Baeckea frutescens, as well as in West
Australian samples of Calytrix angulata, is suggestive
of genetic relationships between these plants (Tetenyi
1991). Baeckea stenophylla, which also contains this
compound, is now classified as B. frutescens. This
Thryptomene saxicola. (Courtesy: Roy Skabo, Australian species has a restricted distribution on the tip of the
Native Plant Society, Tasmania) Cape York Peninsula, extending to nearby islands and
10 Baeckea crenulata is now Sannantha crenulata. a small area of the Papua New Guinea coastline.
Native Lemon-scented Myrtle (1926) mentioned that the essential oil of another
The genus name Darwinia has rather famous species, Darwinia fascicularis, contained around 60
connections as it was named after Dr Erasmus per cent geranylacetate. Darwinia fascicularis, which
Darwin (1731–1802), the English physician and is listed as an endangered species, has a very limited
poet who was the grandfather of Charles Darwin. distribution near Sydney. Today, only three remnant
sites remain, with an estimated total population of
around five hundred plants.
Some other unique species in the Darwinia genus are

listed as being of serious conservation concern. This
includes the lovely Mountain Bells, Darwinia meeboldii,
so named for its attractive bell-like flowers. A number of
other species are known by the same common name (D.
leijostyla, D. macrostegia, D. oxylepis and D. squarrosa).
(Courtesy Brian Walters)
The plants depicted are Verticordia insignis and Hedaroma

latifolium (now Darwinia citriodora) from A Sketch of
the Vegetation of the Swan River Colony by John Lindley
(1839). Artist unknown.
Essential oil from the Tick Bush
(Kunzea ambigua)
This endemic genus contains around seventy
species, most of which are found in Western
Australia. Darwinia citriodora, however, has a
fairly widespread distribution – ranging from the
southwest corner of Western Australia, to South
Australia and New South Wales. This essential oil-
containing species of the Myrtaceae was examined
by Nancy Atkinson and colleagues in 1949. True
to the species epithet citriodora, the leaves have a
wonderful lemon fragrance. Investigations of leaf
and flower extracts (as well as those of Agonis linearis,
Kunzea ambigua, Sydney region. (Courtesy: Cas Liber,
now Taxandria linearifolia) showed antibacterial
activity against Salmonella typhi. Professor Rennie
high levels of methyl myrtenate (63%) or methyl

The Australian Tick Bush (Kunzea ambigua) is among geranate (61%) – while the oil of an unclassified
the native essential oil-containing plants that have Astartea species (a genus that was formerly classified
attracted recent research interest with regard to their as Baeckea) contained myrtenal (26%), with smaller
antibacterial properties. The tree acquired its common amounts of myrtenol, linalool and α-pinene. There
name from the habit of native animals infested with are some interesting pharmacological investigations
various bugs (ticks, mites, etc.) camping underneath of myrtenal that have shown antiplasmodial and
it. It became a general belief that they acquired their antimalarial properties – as well as herbicidal,
parasites here – although it may well be that the pesticidal and pest-attractant attributes (Lowe
reverse was true. Perhaps camping in the oil-enriched 2009; Southwell 2005). Myrtenal has a minty,
leaf litter had a pesticidal effect. green, cooling flavour with spicy notes, which has
The oil appears to have excellent anti-inflammatory seen it used in mouthwashes. As a fragrance it has
and analgesic properties. Tick Bush has been used a sweet cinnamon and spicy camphor character.
for treating muscular aches, rheumatic and arthritic Methyl myrtenate and methyl geranate also have
pains – as well as respiratory tract disorders, influenza, aromatic fragrance attributes.11 The latter is widely
nervous tension, stress and anxiety. The oil, which has used for flavouring dairy products, confectionery,
a relatively low level of cineole (15–16%), contains processed foods, cereals, spices and sauces.
a fairly high level of α-pinene (average around 40%)
– as well as lesser amounts (under 10%) of globulol,
viridiflorol, biocyclogermacrene and α-terpineol. The Mountain Tea Tree (Leptospermum
antimicrobial effects, which include antibacterial and
wooroonooran )
anti-candidal actions, were found to be particularly
The Mountain Tea Tree (Leptospermum
effective against Staphylococcus aureus. The oil has been
wooroonooran) has a fairly limited distribution in
utilised clinically, with good results, for treating skin
tropical Queensland. This tree is restricted to the
disorders (eczema, dermatitis, rashes), nail infections
(onchomycosis), tinea, leg ulcers, gout, chilblains and
soft tissue injuries (bruising, strains and sprains). Its
analgesic effects are useful as a household remedy for
easing the discomfort of insect bites, minor burns,
shingles and migraine headaches. In addition, its
pleasant aromatic properties have deodorant attributes
and it has also been utilised as an insect repellent
(Webb 2000).
A number of Baeckea species have attracted

interest due to other essential oil constituents that
have potential value in the perfume and flavouring
industries. Recent studies of the Straggly Baeckea
(Ochrosperma lineare, formerly Baeckea linearis)
have shown that it contains substantial levels of
methyl chavicol (81.6%) (Southwell 2003; see also
Table 9.2, page XXX). This compound can affect
the nervous system, possessing anticonvulsant and
antispasmodic activity, in addition to its anaesthetic,
fungicidal, carminative, anticancer and muscle
relaxant attributes (Webb 2000). Investigations of Leptospermum wooroonooran. (Courtesy: Prof. Len
the essential oil of Darwinia citriodora (formerly Webb, Len Webb Ecological Images Collection, Griffith
University)
Hedaroma latifolium) have also identified forms with
mountain range along the Mossman coast, the in diameter. They are thought to be part of relict
Carbine Tableland and Mount Bellenden Ker. communities that were more widespread during
The Aboriginal name for the latter mountain is previous cool wet climatic periods (Tracey 1982;
where the species epithet, wooroonooran, is said to Webb & Tracey 1981). The common name ‘Snow-
have originated. This species naturally prefers the in-Summer’ is due to its habit of flowering with
tropical wet highlands, at altitudes above 1500 masses of small white blossoms that appear to cloak
metres, where it may dominate the landscape. the mountain peaks – a particularly beautiful sight
The tree forms a wind-sheared canopy and can be when the sun is shining. The essential oil, which is
found as an emergent over the evergreen mossy low in pinene (under 11%), has higher levels of the
thickets found at these elevations. Leptospermum compounds sabinene (9–19%) and humulene (11–
wooroonooran grows up to 10 metres high and 20%) – as well as some β-caryophyllene (5–7%)
the trunks of some individuals can reach a metre (Brophy 2000a).
Table 9.2 Essential oil components of Baeckea, Kunzea and Leptospermum species of
medicinal or aromatic interest
Species Main constituents

Ochrosperma linearis Two chemotypes in NSW (Southwell 2003):
(syn. Baeckea linearis) 1. Southern form: methyl chavicol chemotype (81.6%, plus pinene and
Straggly Baeckea bicyclogermacrene)
2. Northern form: bicyclogermacrene (27.4%), β-pinene (21.5%), plus
germacrene D (13.2%) and β-caryophyllene (11.6%)
Baeckea frutescens Note: there is substantial chemical variability in the oils from different
locations
1. Malaysian-sourced oil
Rich in pinene (39.9–55.5%), although terpene (34.1%) predominated in some
samples.
Appreciable amounts 1,8-cineole in some samples, but absent in others
Other characteristic compounds: p-cymene, limonene, linalol, terpineol,
caryophyllene and humulene (Jantan 1998).
2. Vietnamese oils
Characterised by tasmanone (22.9–24.3%) and others by 1,8-cineole (N’Guyen
2004).
Kunzea anbigua α-pinene (av. 39.9%) and 1,8-cineole (av. 15.8%)
Tick Bush Other constituents: globulol, viridiflorol, biocyclogermacrene, α-terpineol
(Webb 2000).
Leptospermum blakelyi Nerolidol (24.5%), bicyclogermacrene (12.6%), eudesmols (28.9%) (Brophy
1998).
Leptospermum brevipes Limonene (20.9%) (Brophy 1998).
Leptospermum brachyandrum Humulene (47.3%) and aromadendrene (11%) (Brophy1998).
Leptspermum deanei Pinene (18.3%), bicyclogermacrene (22.7%), plus globulol (10%) (Brophy
1999c).
Leptospermum emarginatum Eudesmol-based oils
and Leptospermum emarginatum: eudesmol (around 50%)
Leptospermum grandiflorum Leptospermum grandiflorum: plants grown in coastal locations had a high
concentration of eudesmol constituents (around 50%) while those from inland
locations was low (ca. 5% eudesmols) (Brophy 2000a).
Location note: growing site could exert a significant influence on the oil
produced
Leptospermum glabrescens Leptospermone (28%), 1,8-cineole (10.2%), insignificant pinene levels
(Brophy 1999b).
Leptospermum laevigatum Two chemotypes

1. β-caryophyllene (39.3%) and aromaodendrene (16.2%)
2. Farnesol (36%) (Brophy 1999c)
Species Main constituents

Leptospermum liversidgeii Two chemotypes
1. Citronella Tea Tree: virtually no citral (neral/geranial)
Common citronellal variety with high citronellal (44%) and isopulegol (up to
20%).
Minor constituents: linalool, citronellyl acetate and methyl cinnamate.
2. Citral chemotype
Low citronellal and high level of citral 55–80% (eg. neral 20%, geranial 35%)
(Webb 2000; Brophy 2000a).
Leptospermum microcarpum Two chemotypes
1. α-pinene (57.6%), α-terpineol (7.9%).
2. T-cadinol (22.9%), globulol (12.7%) (Brophy 1998).
Leptospermum morrisonii Grandiflorone (58.4%), β-caryophyllene (26.7%) plus spathulenol (9.7%) and
calamene (12.4%) (Brophy 1999a).
Leptospermum myrtifolium Chemotypes
1. Total eudesmol (85%)
2. Farnesal (18.7%), farnesol (26.5%), dihydrofarnesol (10.3%) (Brophy
1999a).
Leptospermum namadgiensis Aromodendrene (22.1%), α-pinene (10.1%) plus globulol, viridiflorol and
eudesmol (Brophy 1998).
Leptospermum novae-angliae Chemotypes
1. High nerolidol (65.8%)
2. α-pinene (21.3%), eudesmols (39.9%) (Brophy 1999).
Leptospermum oreophilum Farnesol (61.7%), β-caryophyllene (16.3%) (Brophy 2000b).
Leptospermum petersonii Chemotypes
Lemon-Scented Tea Tree High citronellal (46.2%) and low citral (neral/geranial: 13.5%/22.8%)
Low citronellal and high citral, i.e. geranial (β-citral, 22–30%) and neral
(α-citral 23–37%)
‘Rose’-scented chemotype: geranyl acetate (21–38%) and geraniol (21–29%).
Another form contains γ-terpinene (26.5%) and terpinolene (17.6%) (Webb
2000; Brophy 2000a).
Leptospermum polygalifolium Leptospermum polygalifolium subsp. transmontanum: pinene (37%) and
terpinen-4-ol (7.6%).
Leptospermum polygalifolium subsp. ‘wallum’: pinene (35.3%) and
β-caryophyllene (7.8%).
Leptospermum polygalifolium subsp. howense: low pinene (17.7%) and
eudesmol rich (60.6%).
Leptospermum polygalifolium subsp. polygalifolium: low pinene (9.4%) and
eudesmol-rich (56.9%) (Brophy 2000b).
Leptospermum scoparium High variation in oils and diverse chemical varieties (chemotypes): (i)
Manuka triketones (over 20%); (ii) linalool and eudesmol; (iii) pinene.
(New Zealand-sourced material) Various additional oils types can be rich in other components (see Douglas
2004): myrcene (20%), ylangene and copaena (25.6%), methylcinnamate/
cubebene (17%), or geranylacetate (48%).
Note: Geranylacetate is a perfumery substance of commercial interest
Leptospermum sejunctum Nerolidol (36.2%), eudesmol (38.9%) (Brophy 1999a).
Leptospermum thompsonii Low pinene (14.4%), myrtenol (32.7%), eudesmol (30.5%) (Brophy 1999b).
Left: Leptospermum brachy- the Clarence River and the Queensland border, but
andrum. chiefly about the Richmond River and its tributaries. The
Below: The Weeping oil consists of a complex mixture of compounds, chief of
Tea Tree (Leptospermum which are α-terpinene, y-terpinene, p-cymene, terpinen-
brachyandrum), which ranges 4-ol and around 10% cineole. Extensive investigation has
from northern New South
shown the oil to possess valuable bactericidal properties,
Wales to north Queensland,
can yield two oil types and at the present time overseas demand for this oil for
that are characterised by medical and dental use is very strong. The advantage that
either pinene or humulene. the oil possesses over other germicides is its ability to
The latter is found in penetrate deeply into infected animal tissue and pus, and
combination with a smaller at the same time it has a very low level of toxicity to the
amount of aromadendrene host. It is also of value in dealing with obstinate fungal
(Brophy 1998). (Courtesy: infections.
KAW Williams, Native
Today’s medicinal use of the oil differs little from these
observations made more than forty years ago.
Over a hundred com-
ponents have been reported
in the essential oil of
Melaleuca alternifolia. This
was determined from an
examination of more than
800 samples of Tea Tree oil
by Brophy and colleagues in
1989. The level of the main
constituents are: terpinen-4-
ol (average 40%), γ-terpinene
Tea Tree oil. (Courtesy:
Assad Sarroff, www. (10–28%), α-terpinene (5–13%),
austproducts.com.au) 1,8-cineole (under 15%), p-cymene
(0.5–12%), terpinolene (1.5–5%),
α-pinene (1–6%), α-terpineol (1.5–8%) and limonene
(0.5–4%). In addition, low levels of aromadendrene,
sabinene, globulol, viridiflorol and δ-cadinene can be
The Australian Tea Tree present (Hammer 2006; Carson & Riley 2001).
In the mid to late twentieth century a specific Tea Tree oil travelled a rather rocky road to success.
Australian ‘Tea Tree’ came to prominence in the Originally, the commercial extraction of Melaleuca
international marketplace as a therapeutic oil resource. alternifolia oil was a tedious undertaking. The oil
In 1960, Professor H.H.G. McKern’s review of the yield was small and the source of supply unreliable.
natural plant products industry of Australia provided The whole process was fraught with difficulties. The
an interesting overview of the Tea Tree oil industry: remote site where these trees were found, around
Bungawalbyn Creek in New South Wales, was a
The term ‘tea tree’ is applied in Australia to a large group swampy habitat characterised by soggy environmental
of shrubs and trees belonging to such genera as Melaleuca, obstacles to the collection of the raw material.
Leptospermum, Kunzea etc. Nearly all produce an oil in 12 There were some discrepancies in reports in the early literature that
greater or lesser amounts, but the commercial term ‘tea suggested confusion between Tea Tree Oil resources. Cajeput oil (Melaleuca
cajuputi) and Niaouli oil (Melaleuca quinquenervia) have been referred to
tree oil’ is reserved for the product distilled from the as ‘Melaleuca Oil’ – as has Tea Tree Oil. Manuka and Kanuka have also
foliage of Melaleuca alternifolia (family Myrtaceae), one been referred to as a form of Tea Tree oil. Terpinen-4-ol analysis will easily
of the ‘paper-barked’ tea trees of the North Coast of New differentiate the species source. Allergic reactions in the early literature that
were traced to eucalyptol (1,8-cineole) suggest the involvement of Eucalyptus,
South Wales.12 Commercial production is found between not Tea Tree Oil (Carson & Riley 2001).
The development of a reliable source of supply was

the only way to overcome these difficulties. Late in
the 1970s, cultivation of the tree was undertaken by
Thursday Plantation. The subsequent development
of sophisticated oil extraction processes and reliable
chemotypes of the plant were essential to developing
a successful business. Tea Tree oil progressively
gained a remarkable level of support from good
pharmacological and clinical research. This was the
stimulus that was to eventually lead to its outstanding
Tea Tree oil still. Early days of Tea Tree oil distillation in success in the local and international marketplace.
the 1980s at Main Camp, north-eastern New South Wales.
(Courtesy: Ian Southwell)
Tea Tree plantation near Mullumbimby, north-eastern New

South Wales. (Photo: R Colton, courtesy Ian Southwell)
Spent leaf being utilised as mulch, shovelled into the boiler

for Eucalyptus or Tea Tree oil distillation at West Wyalong,
western New South Wales. (Courtesy: Ian Southwell)
Intrepid harvesters trekked through the boggy site

armed with cane knives for severing the suckers that
covered the pollarded tree stumps. Branches, held
upside down over hessian sacks, were then stripped
of their foliage. The job was extremely hard going,
although some of the fitter and more daring collectors
claimed to collect almost a tonne a day. The material
was then transported to mobile wood-fired pot stills Regrowth for eight months allows the Tea Trees to reach
for distillation of the oil. These circumstances retarded harvestable height once more. Wyrallah, north-eastern New
commercial production of the oil for decades. The sole South Wales. (Photo: A Mangiagli, courtesy Ian Southwell)
supplier was Australian Essential Oils Ltd, whose work
was further hampered by unreliable harvests – as well
as yields that were inconsistent and of a highly variable
A marketing success
The medicinal success of Tea Tree oil was ultimately
quality. Some of the explanation for this variability lay
to open the doors to a whole new era of essential oil
in the discovery that climatic conditions had a major
research on the Australian flora. The discovery of its
influence on the trees’ oil production. Unfortunately,
effective antibacterial and antifungal properties saw
concerns regarding the viability of the venture were
it steadily gain popularity as a household antiseptic.
not allayed by a serious lack of marketing skills. In
Studies had begun in the 1920s with investigations
the mid-1970s the company was sold, and all the
at the Technological Museum in Sydney, where
original records dealing with Tea Tree oil, its history
Arthur Penfold and his team discovered that the oil
and medical applications, were destroyed.
applications. Incorporating the oil into lubricants,

oils and detergents would appear to have excellent
potential in diverse industries. In addition, Tea Tree
oil was recommended for respiratory tract disorders
(empyema, acute nasopharyngitis, catarrh), throat and
mouth disorders (tonsillitis, mouth ulcers, sore throat,
aphthous stomatitis, gingivitis, pyorrhoea13), thrush
(candida) and even diabetic gangrene. Its particular
advantage over many other oils relies on its effective
penetration of intact skin surfaces. It has proven
extremely useful for the treatment of injuries (cuts and
sores), infections (boils, ulcers, infected fingernails),
skin disorders (impetigo contagiosa,14 ringworm,
tinea, psoriasis) (Penfold & Morrison 1950). In
addition, it has anti-irritant effects that are useful for
relieving the discomfort of insect bites and stings. The
use of Tea Tree oil in such diverse conditions is an
Melaleuca alternifolia. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native indication of the remedy’s remarkable scope of action.
Plants of Queensland, Vol 2) Chemotypes of certain other Melaleuca species
– M. linariifolia (pictured here), M. dissitifolia and
M. uncinata – can produce very similar essential oils
to that of Melaleuca alternifolia (Murtagh 1999).
Melaleuca foliosa also contains terpinen-4-ol in fairly
good amounts (23–30%) with α-terpineol (5–10%)
(Brophy & Doran 1996).
Harvesting Tea Tree oil crop. (Courtesy: Peta & John Day,
The Paperbark Co.)
of Melaleuca alternifolia leaves had a high germicidal

activity. In 1946, this was linked to the presence of
Liniment and soap products containing essential oils
terpinen-4-ol, which was identified as the active
from Melaleuca linariifolia and Eucalyptus camaldulensis.
principle of the oil. Even then, the oil was recognised (Courtesy: Milton James, www.boysfromthebush.org.au)
as having great potential. An article in the Sydney
Technological Museum Bulletin (1946) mentioned: ‘An 13 Stomatitis involves inflammation of the mucous membranes of the
interesting application of the oil is its incorporation mouth, while gingivitis refers to inflammation of the gums. These conditions
can be due to infection, allergic reactions, radiation therapy or the side-effects
in machine cutting oils, the germicidal and healing of medication. Aphthous stomatitis involves a painful ulceration. Pyorrhoea
properties having reduced to a minimum infection of is a bacterial infection of the gums that can be associated with pus formation,
gum shrinkage and serious dental problems.
skin injuries, especially abrasions to the hands by metal
14 Impetigo contagiosa is an infection spread via skin contact that has often
filings and turnings. Large quantities of Melaleuca been referred to as ‘school sores’. It is usually due to Staphylococcus aureus
alternifolia oil were used for this purpose in the various and results in red inflamed sores that become pus-filled and itchy (impetigo).
Another form of the disease causes itchy red bullae (fluid-filled blisters)
ammunition annexes during World War II.’ One to form. These crust over and can take a long time to heal. Streptococcal
wonders whether it could be useful for similar modern and fungal contamination can complicate the condition.
chemotype (30–40%) and low cineole levels (under

15%). This has been an important consideration in
improving plantation crops aiming for a high-grade
Tea Tree oil yield (Carson 2006; Russell & Southwell
2003). Overall, there are six recognised chemotypes of
Tea Tree oil.15 Aside from terpinen-4-ol, chemotypes
are also based on their 1,8-cineole or terpinolene
content. This variation appears to have been naturally
influenced by species distribution. Wild populations,
which were limited to north-eastern New South Wales
and the ‘granite belt’ of southeastern Queensland, had
the terpinen-4-ol chemotype predominant in the
centre of this range. Terpinolene dominated in the
northwest and 1,8-cineole in the south. The chemical
intricacies of the situation are complicated by the
fact that within this range there are two other ‘sister
species’ that yield similarly characteristic essential oils:
Melaleuca trichostachya (in the north) – terpinolene
and 1,8-cineole rich chemotypes; and M. linariifolia
(in the south) – terpinen-4-ol and 1,8-cineole rich
chemotypes (Keszel 2010).
Another consideration is that a low cineole content
has long been considered a desirable attribute of oils
Melaleuca linariifolia. used for the treatment of skin disorders. Cineole
has generally been regarded as a skin irritant with
rubefacient properties, and thus its incorporation
into wound healing preparations has been avoided.
However, new research has not shown that 1,8-cineole
has irritant effects. Indeed, cineole may act as a
synergistic agent that can facilitate the antibacterial
effects of other oil components such as terpinen-4-
ol. Even small amounts may contribute to this effect
(Carson 2006; Southwell 1997). The naturally low
content of cineole in these oils therefore could have an
overall beneficial effect.
Research matters
Clinically, Eucalyptus oils that contain fairly high
levels of cineole have been popularly used as local
applications without skin irritant reactions. This
has included the undiluted application of the oil
Melaleuca foliosa to open wounds. It is also interesting to find that
recent research has investigated the suggestion that
The amount of 1,8-cineole and terpinen-4-ol in Tea Tree and Eucalyptus oils could have hormonal
Tea Tree oil are usually inversely proportional to each effects. Experimental studies have established that Tea
other – that is, when the level of one is high, the other
compound will be present in lesser amounts. The 15 In this study there was also one Tea Tree sample (M. alternifolia) from
Bald Rock Creek that yielded a terpinolene and 1,8-cineole based oil that did
officially recognised oil is based on the terpinen-4-ol not match any of the six chemotypes described (Keszel 2010).
Tea Tree Shampoo. Tea Tree oil has can be highly variable – as a recent study, which did
become accepted as an effective not find good virucidal activity in a number of test
antifungal and anti-dandruff systems, indicates. This study did, however, suggest
component in shampoo. A recent
study has also shown that Tea Tree that Tea Tree oil could be useful as an antiviral
oil (25%) combined with Sweet agent for influenzal infections (Garozzo 2009). It is
Almond oil was effective against interesting that another investigation indicated that,
a dermatophyte (Trichophyton while Tea Tree oil had good experimental antiviral
equinum) that affects horses. This activity, terpinen-4-ol was not the active antiviral
fungus belongs to the same family
as those that result in ringworm agent. This compound showed substantially lower
infections. The Tea Tree oil mixture activity than the terpinene component (α-terpinene,
was shown to be as effective as the γ-terpinene) – and the oil complex had a much higher
conventional use of an antifungal activity than any individual component. The skin
shampoo for the treatment of the penetration properties of the oil are an additional
condition (Pisseri 2009). (Image
courtesy: Assad Sarroff, www. important benefit associated with the clinical use of
austproducts.com.au) the oil (Astani 2010).
Tree oil had either an oestrogenic or anti-androgenic The antifungal properties of Tea Tree oil has seen
action. This led to the conclusion that its use could it added into pessaries for cervicitis, bacterial vaginosis
be responsible for cases of gynaecomastia (abnormal and vaginal candidiasis. The clinical potential of Tea
breast tissue development) in young boys. However, Tree oil in the latter condition has been supported by
investigations designed to evaluate the level of skin studies showing activity against Candida species that
penetration of the main constituents of Tea Tree are resistant to azole antifungal drugs (fluconazole,
oil – terpinen-4-ol, α-terpineol and eucalyptol itraconazole). Terpinen-4-ol was identified as the
(cineol) – did not support the suggestion, leading active component (Carson 2006; Mondello 2006).
to the conclusion that although the oil did have an The antifungal properties of this compound and
oestrogenic effect in vitro, none of the bioavailable Tea Tree oil may also be useful for the prevention
constituents demonstrated this activity.16 The local of fungal contaminants in food. An investigation of
application of the oil could not, therefore, have an their antimycotic activity against some pathogenic
oestrogenic action in the body. Because 1,8-cineole fungi that affect cereal grains has shown a useful
was not oestrogenic, Eucalyptus oil was equally devoid broad spectrum of activity (Terzi 2007). Studies
of this effect (Nielsen 2008). have also shown Tea Tree oil (along with Rosemary
The antimicrobial properties of Tea Tree oil are and Peppermint oils) had good activity against the
particularly active against gram-negative bacteria and food-contaminant bacterium Listeria monocytogenes18
diverse types of fungi. The oil also has substantial (Sandasi 2010).
antiviral potential. Tea Tree oil has been incorporated Tea Tree oil can be particularly useful for oral
into acne creams as an antibacterial agent, and into hygiene formulations. While plaque levels were not
antiviral balms for treating cold sores or warts. Tea altered by its incorporation into mouthwashes, the
Tree oil and Eucalyptus oil have shown high levels oil did reduce oral bacterial levels. Conditions such
of activity against the Herpes simplex virus (HSV-1, as halitosis (bad breath), oral infections and gingivitis
HSV-2) with good clinical results in treating these (gum inflammation) have benefited from its use
infections17 (Millar & Moore 2008; Carson 2006; (Carson 2006). Tea Tree oil has an excellent ability
Schnitzler 2001). However, experimental results to counteract the malodour (bad breath) associated
with oral yeast infections. A combination of Tea Tree
16 Other studies of the hormonal potential of essential oil constituents have
shown that citral (geranial and neral), geraniol, nerol and trans-anethole had
oil with the tissue conditioner Coe-Comfort for the
oestrogenic properties, while eugenol was anti-oestrogenic. However, the treatment of denture stomatitis (oral inflammation)
effects were seen only at very high concentrations, and were not active in
vitro. The practical biological significance of these findings was considered
to be uncertain (Howes 2002). Viridiflorol has also been suggested to have 18 This bacterium can be responsible for a flu-like infection known as
oestrogenic properties (Webb 2000). listeriosis that is more likely to affect immune-compromised individuals,
children and pregnant women. The infection can spread to the nervous
17 One study has indicated that 1,8-cineole from Eucalyptus oil had a more system, resulting in a more serious infection of the brain and spinal cord
potent antiviral effect in genital HSV (type 2) infections (Bourne 1999). (meningitis).
suggests it could be of value as an antiseptic mixture

for preventing skin infections due to Staphylococcus
epidermis (Karpanen 2008). Tea Tree oil has also
shown antibacterial properties against Mycoplasma
pneumoniae. This led to the proposition that the
oil could be incorporated into mouthwashes and
inhalations for use as an adjunct in treating this form
of pneumonia (Harkenthal 2000).
The healing, anti-inflammatory and antibacterial
properties of Melaleuca alternifolia could have
potential for use in difficult-to-treat skin conditions.
One study has shown that a water-based concentrate
Leptospermum
morrisonii leaves and could help inhibit Streptococcus pyogens-induced skin
seed capsule. (Courtesy: damage (Tsao 2009). This could have potential in the
Kim & Forest Starr) treatment of necrotising fasciitis, which is due to a
number of ‘flesh-eating’ bacteria that not only damage
the outer skin layers, but progressively affect the deeper
skin tissue.19 The subsequent toxin release causes
irreparable damage that is progressive and usually
treated by surgical excision(Farnan 2005). There have
been reports of the successful clinical use of Melaleuca
oil (a preparation called Megabac) for healing serious
due to Candida albicans infection has given good post-amputation wounds and gangrenous ulceration
results. The product had both anti-inflammatory of the lower limbs,20 particularly in diabetic individuals
and anti-candida activity (Catalan 2008). Oral – as well as the use of a Eucalyptus and Tea Tree oil
candidiasis tends to be a recurrent problem for those mixture (with some other essential oils) for cases of
undergoing cancer treatment, and can be difficult to osteomyelitis that have not responded to surgery or
treat in immune-compromised individuals with drug- multiple courses of antibiotics (Sherry 2001a, 2001b,
resistant forms of Candida. A diluted mixture of Tea 2003). Tea Tree oil has also shown good antibacterial
Tree, peppermint and lemon oil used as a mouthwash activity against a large proportion of the organisms
has shown very good results in reducing the malodour responsible for otitis media (middle ear infection) –
of patients in intensive care situations (Hur 2007; although Pseudomonas aeruginosa showed resistance to
Bagg 2006). the oil. This suggests that further investigations would
A study of the antimicrobial properties of a number be worthwhile (Farnan 2005).
of essential oils (that include Tea Tree) in combination Another interesting area of investigation has been
with a chemical antiseptic (chlorhexidine digluconate) the potential use of Tea Tree oil in the treatment of
demonstrated good potential against cariogenic drug-resistant bacterial infection (MRSA: methicillin-
bacteria. Chlorhexidine is often incorporated into resistant Staphylococcus aureus) and the prevention of
mouthwashes for the treatment of oral bacterial MRSA contamination. A study of Tea Tree oil and
problems. The amount of the antiseptic required terpinen-4-ol has shown a level of anti-staphylococcal
could be reduced 4–10 fold depending on the type activity that was superior to that of the major types
of essential oil it was combined with. The oil from of antibiotic preparations used topically (ointments,
Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium), Leptospermum eye-drops, or preparations used during surgery). It was
morrisonii and Tea Tree oil (Melaleuca alternifolia), 19 Group A Streptococcus (Streptococcus pyogenes), Staphylococcus aureus,
as well as thymol, showed a moderate effect, while Vibrio vulnificus, Clostridium perfringens, Bacteroides fragilis. Individuals with
Cinnamon oil exhibited the greatest antimicrobial compromised immune systems are more likely to be affected. The condition
has become seriously complicated by the development of a drug-resistant
potentiation (Filoche 2005). Eucalyptus oil has also (MRSA) form of the disease.
shown a synergistic activity with chlorhexidine that 20 Importantly, during the use of the local essential oil application the
administration of antibiotics was withheld.
active against strains of the bacterium that have become exposes a pathogenic micro-organism to a range of
resistant to the antibiotics mucopirocin, fusidic acid, different chemicals, rather than a single constituent –
vancomycin, methicillin and linezolid (Ferrini 2006). making it more difficult to develop resistance. Tea Tree
A trial of the incorporation of Tea Tree oil into a nasal oil contains over 100 different components, many of
cream, a body wash, and a cream for local application which have antimicrobial properties. In addition,
to wounds (sores, lesions, leg ulcers) has given excellent there can be benefits from the synergistic activity of
results. This has led to suggestions for its regular use certain chemicals that are naturally present in the oil;
in hand and body washes – particularly in hospitals notably, 1,8-cineole, which has little antimicrobial
and allied health care situations where it could provide activity, has been shown to substantially enhance the
an effective alternative to conventional products. activity of terpinene. It is thought that cineole helps
Certainly the fragrant character and healing qualities to make the bacterial membranes permeable, and this
of Tea Tree oil are appealing. Tea Tree oil formulations allows the terpinene to enter the cell, resulting in a
could easily be considered superior to many of the potent bactericidal effect (Chao 2008).
harsher antibacterial soaps or washes. Sensitisation In the last few years studies have advanced to a
and allergic reactions to numerous chemical agents are stage where researchers are taking the potential of
not uncommon, and people naturally tend to avoid essential oil–antibiotic combinations seriously. The
using substances that exhibit even a mild irritant effect oils can enhance the efficacy of the antibiotics, but
– and those that are aromatically repellent. As the every combination requires individual evaluation.
perception of its benefits as a natural product tends to Synergistic activity has already been demonstrated for
support the popular acceptance of its use, Tea Tree oil clove, jambolan, pomegranate and thyme essential oils
has excellent potential (Carson 2006). with conventional antibiotics (ampicillin, tetracycline,
Tea Tree oil does not adversely affect the normal chloramphenicol)21 (Nascimento 2000). This could
floral bacteria of the skin and dermatological reactions permit the use of lower doses of the drug to get the
are rare, whereas numerous types of antiseptic same (or better) antibacterial effect. It is possible that
agents can cause changes in the normal microbial such combinations could result in a reduced incidence
flora of the skin surface that ultimately damage of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The antibiotic
skin cells. The loss of the normal protective bacteria tobramycin has shown synergistic activity with Tea
on the hands can result in an increased risk of the Tree oil against strains of Staphylococcus aureus and
transmission of pathogenic microorganisms and Escherichia coli responsible for skin lesions (including
associated nail and skin infections (Carson 2006; lesions of the conjunctiva of the eye) and respiratory
Larson 2001). Tea Tree oil has the added benefit of tract infections (D’Arrigo 2009; Carson 2006).
being a useful antifungal agent that is effective against It is important to note that the bioavailability of
nail infections (onychomycosis) which are highly Tea Tree oil can be influenced by the type of product
resistant to treatment. A combination of Tea Tree oil formulation, which needs to be accurately assessed
with butenafine has been shown to be highly effective to ensure the best results (Carson 2006; Biju 2005).
in this condition (Carson 2006). There is another Undoubtedly Tea Tree oil would combine better with
interesting suggestion for the use of the disinfectant some antibiotics than others, and there is evidence
properties of Tea Tree oil appears to have merit. It has to suggest that the oil could be antagonistic to
been shown that the bacterium Legionella pneumophila ciprofloxacin and amphotericin B. On the other hand,
(responsible for legionella or Legionnaire’s disease) is these particular antibiotics had a synergistic effect with
‘exquisitely sensitive’ to the oil. This suggests that it oil of Peppermint (Mentha piperita) and Rosemary
has good potential for preventing contamination of (Rosmarinus officinalis) against Klebsiella penumoniae,
water systems, including spas, small waterlines, or a bacteriim implicated in cases of septicaemia in
even respiratory medical apparatus (Mondello 2009). paediatric care (van Vuuren 2009). Another study has
There is another consideration that has important indicated Tea Tree oil should be used at effective
implications for the use of essential oils in the
treatment of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This is the
complex chemical character of these oils. Their use 21 The activity varied depending on the oil–antibiotic combination and the
bacteria chosen for testing.
antibacterial levels so that the microbes do not

become less responsive to the oil, an effect that could risk of MRSA contamination – notably orthopaedic
compromise the efficacy of an antibiotic–Tea Tree oil operations such as hip replacement and shoulder
combination (McMahon 2008). Certainly studies reconstruction surgery. Staphylococcus epidermis
should focus on ensuring that high quality oils are is associated with infections from contaminated
utilised in correct doses and that the main chemical IV catheters and artificial heart valve replacement
constituents are authenticated. procedures. Other procedures run the risk of
introducing bacteria into the respiratory or urinary
tracts. These drug-resistant microbes complicate the
treatment, resulting in a prolonged recovery period
and increased risk of mortality. Hospitalisation can
MRSA infections be extended up to three times the normal recovery
period, with a very real risk of the development of
side-effects that are non-responsive to treatment. In
addition, there are substantial cost increases in health
care, not only for hospital stays, but also for those who
require long-term care in the community.
The successful use of Manuka and Tea Tree oils
has led to the investigation of a number of other
essential oils for use in chronic infections. Cinnamon
(Cinnamomum verum, syn. C. zeylanicum) and its
active component cinnamaldehyde have shown an
impressive inhibitory activity against both gram-
Cinnamomum verum (syn. C. zeylanicum). negative and gram-positive bacteria. Clove (Syzygium
aromaticum), Lemon (Citrus limon) and Lime (Citrus
aurantifolia) oils demonstrated an equally good range
of activity. In addition, Orange (Citrus sinensis) and
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) oils have given
good results against Proteus vulgaris and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli. Geranium oil
(Pelargonium graveolens) gave similar results, albeit
not as active against Escherichia coli (Prabuseenivasan
2006). Geranium oil was, however, very active
against the Candida yeast and had a synergistic effect
with the antifungal drug amphotericin B (Rosato
2008). Another study of the antimicrobial activity
Cinnamomum verum. (Courtesy US Department of of thirteen essential oils established that Cinnamon,
Agriculture, via Wikimedia Commons Project) Lemon, Lemongrass and Thyme white22 had very
Hospital-acquired MRSA infections result from highly good antibacterial activity (against Staphylococcus,
contagious strains of antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus Streptococcus) and anti-mycotic activity (against
aureus bacteria. They are responsible for substantial Candida) with excellent potential for topical use as
distress and chronic disability in those who suffer an antiseptic (Warnke 2009). An extensive review of
from the infections, which are often associated with 91 essential oils against MRSA found that the most
skin lesions that do not heal well and are very difficult
22 There can be substantial variation in oils of different origins, which
to treat. Staphylococcus aureus is commonly found can have a serious effect on the results of a study. The Thyme white and
in skin abscesses, while dental and mouth abscesses Lemongrass oils were from Australian sources, the Cinnamon oil was from
India, and the Lemon oil from Nepal. Prior investigations have shown that
are often cross-contaminated with Streptococcus the antibacterial activity of Lemon oil from Australia was not as active as that
(viridians group). Many surgical procedures run the from Nepal (Warnke 2009).
effective were Cinnamon, Lemongrass (Cymbopogon virucidal activity. There are two types of Cinnamon,
flexuosus), Lemon Myrtle (Backhousia citriodora), differentiated by the presence or absence of eugenol.
Mountain Savory (Satureja montana) and Melissa Chinese Cinnamon or Cassia bark lacks eugenol
(Melissa officinalis) (Chao 2008). Honey has also – a compound which can be present in Ceylon
shown very good activity against MRSA and Cinnamon in quantities around 10–20 per cent.
antifungal-resistant Candida species (Irish 2006). The content of cinnamic aldehyde (cinnamaldehyde)
Australia has a thriving high quality essential oil in Ceylon Cinnamon ranges from 60–75 per cent
industry, and the use of locally grown and distilled (generally averaging around 70%), while that of
essential oils has excellent potential. However, it Chinese Cinnamon is about 75 per cent. Cassia
does require a change of attitude with regard to buds, the dried immature fruits of Cinnamomum
the use of natural therapies in hospitals and other cassia, also yield about 20 per cent of a volatile oil
health-care facilities. This is particularly important that contains 80 per cent of this compound.
because only ten new antibiotics reached the Cinnamic aldehyde (cinnamaldehyde) possesses
marketplace in the ten years after 1998. Prospects a wide range of pharmacological actions. The
for the development of new antibiotics that are cardiovascular activity of Cassia oil has been
devoid of side-effects do not appear to be good. The attributed to cinnamic aldehyde. Studies have
development of community-acquired (CA) MRSA shown that this compound had anti-thrombotic
complicates matters even further, with drug-resistant actions – inhibiting blood platelet aggregation and
bacteria being transmitted ever more widely in the the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin (a major
community (Chao 2008). There is a need for good step in the blood clotting process). In addition, it
clinical research into the practical application of had hypotensive properties (acting via peripheral
essential oils and widespread education programs for vasodilation), could promote the release of
health-care professionals on these topics. Affected catecholamines (mainly adrenaline) from the adrenal
individuals need to be aware of the fact that there glands into blood, possessed a weak papaverine-like
are some very effective alternative therapies that they activity, and induced bradycardia (slowing of the
can utilise. heart beat) (Matsuda 1987; Evans 1989; Kiyohara
1987; Hikino 1985; De Smet 1992).
Cinnamon oil that contains a high level
of cinnamaldehyde (52.42%) has shown good
antioxidant attributes. Its antimicrobial activity
Medicinal Cinnamon
extends to the inhibition of Helicobacter pylori. The
other main constituents of the oil are benzaldehyde
Cinnamon oil, cinnamon bark and cinnamaldehyde (12.31%), benzyl alcohol (2.23%) and benzoic acid
possess significant antimicrobial properties – (8.2%). Cinnamon bark extracts have been used
showing antiseptic, antibacterial, antifungal and for the prevention of stomach ulcers and the oil has
been employed in the treatment of cancer and as
an effective analgesic for headaches and neuralgia.
It has also been used as an antiseptic in gonorrhoea
and typhoid fevers, and has shown benefits for the
treatment of oral candidiasis in HIV infection. In
addition, cinnamon extracts appear to be of benefit
for regulating blood sugar (regulating blood glucose
and lipid levels) (Prabuseenivasan 2006).
Above: Cinnamon sticks. The usefulness of Tea Tree oil for the treatment
Left: Cinnamon Cassia oil. of inflammatory skin disorders has been confirmed
(Courtesy: Herbs of Mexico) experimentally. The oil has shown a strong
antioxidant23 and anti-inflammatory action that

includes an effect against histamine-induced (allergic) Fragonia essential oil
skin inflammation. It also exerts a protective effect
against oxidative and inflammatory stresses that
appear to be linked to a supportive effect on the
immune system. The use of Tea Tree oil as a cream
for treating irritable forms of skin disorders such as
tinea pedis (characterised by scaling, itching, burning
and inflammation) have been associated with excellent
clinical results (Caldefie-Chezet 2006; Koh 2002;
Tong 1992). Toe nail infections (onychomycosis),
which are extremely difficult to treat, have also
responded well to the use of the oil (Buck 1994).
Another interesting consideration is that Coarse Tea Tree (Taxandria fragrans) plantation (Courtesy:
John & Peta Day, The Paperbark Co.)
older, oxidised oils may actually have a potentised
antimicrobial effect. There are cases of tinea pedis
that have responded extremely well to treatment
with the oxidised oil, although the condition did The Coarse Tea Tree
not respond to the freshly distilled oil (Lassak & (Taxandria fragrans, form-
McCarthy 1992). However, while allergic reactions erly Agonis fragrans) is the
are fairly rare, oxidised oils are more likely to cause source of Fragonia oil. The
irritation. In addition, accidental ingestion of the oil Taxandria genus is closely
by children has caused symptoms of nervous system related to both Melaleuca and
depression (Hammer 2006; Southwell 1997). There Leptospermum. The Coarse
is another interesting suggestion that Tea Tree oil has Tea Tree is a small West
antiprotozoal potential – against Leishmania major, Fragonia oil. (Court- Australian aromatic shrub
Trypanosoma brucei and Trichomonas vaginalis (Carson esy: John & Peta Day,
The Paperbark Co.) that has recently become a
2006). Other studies have begun to investigate the candidate for commercial
anticancer potential of Tea Tree oil and terpinen-4- essential oil exploitation. It
ol against melanoma cells (Greay 2009; Giordani yields a couple of oil types that are characterised
2006; Calcabrini 2004). The findings could open up by either cineole or myrtenol – the latter type
entirely new areas of application for the use of the oil. having a weaker, less distinctive aroma than that
Even if Tea Tree oil is not completely effective alone, of the cineole-rich form. The main components of
its incorporation into formulations to enhance their the cineole form were 1,8-cineole (28–34%) and
effectiveness is another avenue of study that merits α-pinene (14–28%). Other aromatic constituents
serious investigation. included limonene (1–3%), linalool (3–15%),
myrtenol (2–6%), α-terpineol (2–5%) and
terpinen-4-ol (3–4%) – as well as small amounts
of geraniol, β-pinene, terpinene and nerol. The
myrtenol oil type, which was almost devoid of
cineole, had higher concentrations of α-pinene,
linalool and myrtenol (myrtenol 20%).24 It has
attracted interest because some insects (e.g. the vine
weevil and bark beetle) respond to the pheromonal
qualities of myrtenol – which gives the oil
24 Lippia multiflora oil is the only other natural resource that contains
23 The antioxidant components in Tea Tree oil have been identified as (in higher amounts of myrtenol (27%).
decreasing order) α-terpinene > α-terpinolene > γ-terpinene (Kim 2004).
to tea. This was later linked to the development of

potential for use in insect lures and traps. Studies essential oil products with a rather remarkable range
have established that Fragonia oil has substantial of antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral attributes.
antimicrobial properties that are similar to Tea The story of Tea Tree oil shows the pitfalls associated
Tree oil (Melaleuca alternifolia), Lemongrass oil with commercial development – although a product
(Cymbopogon citratus) and Oregano oil (Origanum may be perfectly worthy of its place in medicine,
vulgare). It possesses anti-inflammatory activity sometimes it takes huge leaps in understanding to
– which has suggested its use for treating joint, make it work in the marketplace. For many years the
muscular and arthritic pain, as well as respiratory valid antimicrobial attributes of herbal medicines did
tract disorders. Other applications include the not receive recognition in medical circles. It was only
treatment of skin problems such as acne, and when advanced phytochemical analysis systems were
as a general-purpose antiseptic and disinfectant developed that this changed. The story of Tea Tree oil
(Robinson 2006). illustrates this in a rather extraordinarily successful
manner, akin to that of Ginkgo biloba. While the
Australian Myrtaceae retain other floral attributes
 worthy of investigation, the story of the native Tea
Trees is not yet finished.
The European medicinal use of ‘Tea Trees’ began
with a search for a practical and aromatic alternative
Chapter 10
MELALEUCA: THE PROSAIC

PAPERBARK
Tropical mangrove wetlands and Melaleuca forest. The Weeping Teatree (Melaleuca leucadendra) is a widespread dominant
feature of wetland areas in the Cairns-Tully region, northern Queensland.
The Australian coastline is hedged about in many swamps are part of this heritage. Unfortunately, due
places with mangrove swamps – an environment to increasing salinity, in some areas dieback of the
that has merited little conservation concern until Paperbark swamps has become widespread. In many
the last few decades. These ecosystems are linked to areas the adjacent open forests favoured by Melaleuca
the ancient history of this land, a heritage that has, leucadendra have also been radically cleared.
for a long time, been little appreciated in its own Much of Australia’s coastal lands have become subject
right. The challenges that these habitats face are to environmental damage due to clearing for farming and
serious, for they are an integral part of our frontline urban development. All too often little of the original
defences against the erosion of the vast coastline of wetland or mangrove habitat survives – and just about all
our massive island continent – acting as a buffer and that is left has suffered substantial disturbance. It is in this
providing protection for much of the country’s urban landscape that we find some remarkable medicinal plants
landscape. The marvellous and intriguing Paperbark that most of us take for granted.
280
Chapter 10 MELALEUCA: THE PROSAIC PAPERBARK 281
An ancient history
The story of Australia’s flora is forever intertwined with
the changes that accompanied the break-up of the
ancient supercontinent known as Gondwana. Some
native genera have more direct links to this ancestry
than others. Melaleuca is among those that identify
closely with the ancient ties between Australia’s flora
and the old tropical forests of Gondwana. In many
regions these ‘Paperbarks’ have become a distinctive
component of the landscape, particularly in the
northern tropics – although there are a few species
that range into a more temperate climate. A number
of tropical species also extended their distribution
overseas to Papua New Guinea, Southeast Asia
and New Caledonia. The fact that Melaleuca is a Melaleuca leucadendra flower spikes and detail.
Gondwanan genus links it to a remarkably important
floral ancestry. A 1988 study by Bryan Barlow on
patterns of differentiation in tropical species of
Melaleuca highlighted its botanical significance in the
Wet Tropics region, northern Queensland: ‘Melaleuca
is an old Australian genus which had its origins in
seasonally drowned areas at the margins of tropical
rainforests in the north of the continent … An
Magnificent view of Hinchinbrook Island in tropical north The Weeping Tea Tree (Melaleuca leucadendra) is one of the
Queensland, Australia. Most of the island was declared most widespread in the Melaleuca genus. The pale white-
a national park in 1932 and is the country’s largest island grey paperbark trunk and graceful drooping branches of
national park. It is listed as an endangered ecosystem and this species are very characteristic. The tree is an important
little remains undisturbed along the adjacent coastal areas. resource for wildlife. The white or cream bottlebrush flowers,
Numerous Melaleuca species are found on Hinchinbrook, fairly typical of the genus, have a sweetish caramel scent that
including M. dealbata, M. leucadendra, M. polandii, M. birds, bees and other diverse insects find highly attractive.
quinquenervia, M. viminalis and M. viridiflora. Flying foxes forage the nectar during the nig
is virtually synonymous with an understanding of the

nature of the autochthonous [in situ] sub-element of
the Gondwanan element of the Australian Flora.’ The
Weeping Tea Tree (Melaleuca leucadendra) has been a
pivotal species in investigations that have traced the
evolution of the genus in Australia. It is the most
primitive species in the entire Melaleuca group and
has the longest lineage (Barlow 1988).
A complex classification
The Melaleuca genus provides a good illustration of a
level of botanical complexity that can cause substantial
difficulty with definitive identification at a species level.
The task of classifying these trees has been, at times,
highly perplexing. The early classification of ‘Paperbarks’
was much less exact than it is today. In the old literature
the name Melaleuca leucadendron became a bit muddled
with regard to the species it was used for, and was
sometimes misapplied. In many instances a lack of finer
botanical analysis led to several species simply being
lumped under the ‘Melaleuca leucadendron’ identity – a
term that was eventually scrapped, with the species name The Weeping Tea Tree
being changed to Melaleuca leucadendra. This degree of (Melaleuca leucadendra) fav-
ours swampy locations. The
botanical confusion was not particularly surprising, as bark and the gnarled, twisted
Paperbarks tend to share a common type of habitat and buttress root system are both
can have a very similar appearance. They all have a flaky distinctive.
bark and the flowers are very characteristic of the genus.
Botanical identification becomes more difficult All three species are native to tropical Australia.
when the appearance of some individuals within a The Weeping Tea Tree (Melaleuca leucadendra) ranges
species alter, depending on the growing conditions from northern Australia to Papua New Guinea, Irian
that characterise different habitats. The level of Jaya, nearby Indonesian islands, and Malaysia. The
difficulty is increased when a number of species that Broad-leaved Paperbark (Melaleuca quinquenervia)
look very similar are found sharing the same type of has a more southerly distribution that extends to
habitat. These species can also have similar patterns Sydney in New South Wales, being distributed along
of distribution. In particular, Melaleuca quinquenervia the east coast to tropical Cape York in Queensland –
and M. cajuputi can be difficult to tell apart and both as well as being found in Papua New Guinea and New
trees have had the common name ‘Cajuput’ applied Caledonia. The Cajuput Tea Tree (Melaleuca cajuputi)
to them.1 This certainly enhanced the confusion is found only in the tropics – although it also ranges
surrounding their identification – which was even to Papua New Guinea and Southeast Asia (Indochina,
further compounded by their use for medicinal oil Malaysia, Burma and Indonesia). There are three
production in Southeast Asia. Cajuput oil originated subspecies of Melaleuca cajuputi, with very definite
from Melaleuca cajuputi – but in New Caledonia, geographic distributions that can help to sort out the
Cajuput oil (better known in the region as Niaouli identification of the type used as a medicinal resource
oil) was extracted from Melaleuca quinquenervia. In in specific areas. One subspecies has a limited range
addition, the oil distilled from the two species has very from the Daintree River, spreading north throughout
similar chemical constituents and medicinal uses. the Cape York Peninsula. The second extends from
the Northern Territory to the West Australian tropics,
1 Cajuput is the more common spelling, but it has also been spelt cajaput.
while the third is more common in Southeast Asia

(peninsular Malaysia, Indonesia and Borneo).
The leaf shape of some species can be quite
distinctive and can be used as a clue for their
identification. For instance, the slender, slightly
curved foliage of the Weeping Tea Tree (Melaleuca
leucadendra) contrasts well with the shorter and
broader leaves of the Cajuput Tea Tree (M. cajuputi).
The distinguishing habits of various Tea Trees were
familiar to some of the early explorers. In the mid-
1800s the notes of an expedition by the Jardine
brothers observed these differences. Frederick Byerley,
in his 1867 Narrative of the Overland Expedition of
The Messrs. Jardine, from Rockhampton to Cape York,
Northern Queensland, made the comment:
Stands of the Willow Tea Tree (Melaleuca saligna) line the
This tree, of which there are several varieties, is very banks of a river in northern Queensland.
common to Northern Australia: the drooping kind
(Melaleuca leucadendron) occupying the beds and margins
of the rivers, where its long pendant branches sweep the
stream, as does the graceful willow of Europe. Its bark
is in thin paper-like layers, whilst its leaves are like that
of the gum, but thinner and straighter. It is remarkable
for containing an extraordinary quantity of brackish
water, which pours out in a torrent, when the bark is
cut through, to the extent of from a quart to a galleon.
Another variety is found chiefly in flat sandy country and
shallow swamps. It is much smaller than that of the river,
and the leaves broader, stiff and upright, its blossoms
nearly the same. It is indifferently called weeping gum,
tea-tree gum and tea-tree, although it is in no way allied
to the latter (Byerley 1867).
Table 10.1 overleaf illustrates the complexity of

botanical identification and how easily confusion can
arise as to the correct identification of a species.
The Willow Tea Tree

The Drooping Tea Tree or Willow Tea Tree (Melaleuca stream, sometimes meeting overhead and forming a canopy,
saligna) is an impressive riverine species that is restricted to while charming vistas are produced between the avenues of
northern Queensland, mainly the Cape York Peninsula. papery-barked stems, the water and the pendulous foliage.’
In the early 1900s the botanist Richard Hind Cambage2 Ludwig Leichhardt mentioned sighting the species on
eloquently described it as ‘one of the most beautiful and his northern travels, when he found it useful for making
conspicuous of the large trees along the banks of streams drinks. On 9 June 1845, at the Lynd River, he wrote: ‘We
in tropical Queensland’. These trees play an integral part gathered some blossoms of the drooping tea-tree which were
in the design of a stunning natural habitat: ‘[they] reach full of honey, and when soaked, imparted a very agreeable
a height of from 60–70 feet and hang gracefully over the sweetness to the water.’
Table 10.1 Names of some common medicinal Melaleuca Tea-Trees (including

synonyms, varieties and subspecies)
Botanical name (common
Botanical synonyms Varieties or subspecies
name)
Melaleuca cajuputi Melaleuca saligna 3 subspecies:
Cajuput Tree Myrtus saligna Melaleuca cajuputi subsp. cajuputi
Paperbark Tea tree Melaleuca minor Melaleuca cajuputi subsp. cumingiana
Swamp Tea tree Melaleuca trinervis Melaleuca cajuputi subsp. platyphylla
Melaleuca lancifolia
Melaleuca leucadendron
Melaleuca leucadendron var. lancifolia
Melaleuca leucadendron var. cajuputi
Melaleuca leucadendra var. minor
Melaleuca leucadendra Melaleuca mimosoides A number of varieties, which have now been
Broad-leaved Paperbark or Tea Melaleuca leucadendra var. mimosoides classified as different species, were formerly
Tree Cajuputi leucadendron listed under this classification:
River Tea Tree Leptospermum leucodendron Melaleuca leucadendra var. albida
Weeping Paperbark or Tea Tree now = Melaleuca quinquenervia
Brown Tea Tree Butterscotch Melaleuca leucadendra var. angustifolia
Paperbark now = Melaleuca quinquenervia
Cajaput or Cajuput Melaleuca leucadendra var. coriacea
Long-leaved Paperbark now = Melaleuca quinquenervia
Melaleuca leucadendra var. mimosoides
now = Melaleuca leucadendra
Melaleuca leucadendra var. minor
now = Melaleuca cajuputi
Melaleuca leucadendra var. nervosa
now = Melaleuca nervosa
Melaleuca leucadendra var. parvifolia
now = Melaleuca deanei
Melaleuca leucadendra var. parvifolia
now = Melaleuca nervosa subsp. crosslandiana
Melaleuca leucadendra var. saligna
now = Melaleuca saligna
Melaleuca leucadendra f. ruscifolia
now = Melaleuca arcana
Melaleuca quinquenervia Melaleuca maidenii

Belbowrie Melaleuca smithii
Broadleaf Paperbark Melaleuca leucadendra var. albida
Broad-leaved Paperbark or Melaleuca leucadendra var. angustifolia
Teatree Melaleuca leucadendra var. coriacea
Coastal Tea Tree Melaleuca viridiflora var. angustifolia
Five-veined Paperbark Melaleuca viridiflora var. rubriflora
Paperbarked Tea Tree Metrosideros coriacea
Metrosideros quinquenervia
Melaleuca viridiflora Melaleuca cunninghamii 3 varieties:

Broad-leaved or Coarse-leaved Melaleuca cunninghamii var. glabra Melaleuca viridiflora var. attenuata
Paperbark Melaleuca leucadendra var. Melaleuca viridiflora var. canescens
Broad-leaved Tea Tree cunninghamii Melaleuca viridiflora var. glabra
Swamp Paperbark Melaleuca leucadendra var. latifolia
Melaleuca leucadendra var. sanguinea Varieties now classified as different species,
Melaleuca sanguinea which were formerly placed under this
Melaleuca viridiflora var. attenuata classification include:
Melaleuca viridiflora var. glabra Melaleuca viridiflora var. angustifolia
Melaleuca viridiflora var. canescens now = Melaleuca quinquenervia
Melaleuca viridiflora var. rubriflora
now = Melaleuca quinquenervia
growing in different localities Smith established

two new species, Melaleuca maidenii and Melaleuca
smithii.’ The latter are now classified as Melaleuca
quinquenervia – which is the eastern Australian and
New Caledonian species.3 Melaleuca viridiflora was
ultimately found to be a fairly widespread species with
three varieties – all of which have a similar distribution.
They are found along the Queensland coast, extending
from Brisbane to Cape York, and to the tropics of
the Northern Territory and Western Australia – and
ranging overseas to Papua New Guinea. Melaleuca
viridiflora can colonise diverse habitats, ranging from
The Broad-leaved Paperbark (Melaleuca viridiflora) was riverine sites to drier open forested areas, and this can
identified and named from specimens collected by Banks dramatically influence its appearance. On ideal sites it
and Solander at the Endeavour River in 1770. Melaleuca can reach quite large proportions, although it usually
viridiflora flowers have an interesting colour range – from takes the form of a low shrub or small tree under drier
creamy to yellow-green, to pink or a stunning red. The tree
provides an example of how Melaleuca could have important conditions. Medicinally, the leaves were employed
cultural roles. On Groote Eylandt in the Northern Territory, similarly to the other Paperbarks.
Melaleuca viridiflora was used to make the ‘dress barks’ worn
by women. These dresses were ritually disposed of when a
man wanted to divorce his wife – in which case she was A preference for wetlands
given into the custody of the man to whom she would, by
custom, marry next (Levitt 1981). (Details of medicinal uses
of this species are given in Table 10.2.)
Len Wassell, obtaining water from a bulge in a Melaleuca

viridiflora tree in 1954. The original caption with these
photos reads: ‘The knowledge of aboriginal people expressed
Melaleuca viridiflora provides another example of in this access to fresh water in the dry season in Australia’s
the early botanical difficulties associated with the tropics was often passed on to the early European settlers.
classification of species within the genus. In 1950 The particular deformed shape of the Melaleuca trunk
Arthur Penfold and Richard Morrison commented: is the key. Seasonal swamp with Melaleuca viridiflora.’
(Images courtesy: Len Webb Ecological Collection, Griffith
‘Baker and Smith, in a critical study of the so-called University)
Broad-leaved Tea Trees, not only separated the
Australian tree from the New Caledonian, but declared 3 It is important to note that Melaleuca quinquenervia, which is also known
Melaleuca leucadendron Lin. extra-Australian. By as the Broad-leaved Paperbark, has been incorrectly referred to as Melaleuca
leucadendron var. viridiflora and Melaleuca viridiflora. This can be a source of
reason mainly of differences in chemical composition confusion as these names were used in chemical papers examining the leaf oils
of the essential oils obtained from M. viridiflora prior to 1968 (Lassak & McCarthy 1992).
Eucalypt and Acacia woodlands tended to predominate

in drier regions of the Australian continent. In
contrast, the preference of the ‘Paperbarks’ for wetland
sites along the coast (ranging from New South Wales
to the northern tropics) allowed them to develop
different survival strategies. While Melaleuca trees
can be found in mixed forests and lowland regions,
it is perhaps their essential role in many wetlands and
seasonally flooded area that is the most influential.
Their water-retentive strategies ensured that, from the
early days of the exploration of Australia, they were
valued by travellers in the bush as a water resource.
The Northern Protector of Aboriginals (Queensland),
Walter Roth, observed:
In the hinterland of Princess Charlotte Bay, on the Palmer

and Pennefather Rivers, and elsewhere, the Melaleuca
are the usual trees whence water may be derived. The
butt of this tea-tree is ordinarily more or less circular in
section, but every here and there is to be met one more
or less lozenge-shaped, due to a lateral bulge. From the
bases of these bulges, when cut, a pint or two of water Paperbark trees can host a number of epiphytic species such
is obtainable, which, though of a saltish taste, often as orchids, mistletoes and strangling figs. It is more unusual
to find the rainforest Umbrella Tree (Schefflera actinophylla)
or a Pandanus clinging to a Tea Tree for support. The seeds
have been dropped onto the tree by passing birds and find
the papery bark a convenient place to grow. Sometimes this
relationship can become a full-time arrangement, with the
two plants developing side-by-side into rather large trees
without apparently damaging each other.
Spectacled flying foxes (Pteropus conspicilatus) roosting in

a Melaleuca swamp. These delightful animals perform an
Melaleucas growing in riverine or mangrove situations can important environmental role as a pollinator in the forest,
develop massive root systems that stabilise riverbanks and in particular of Australian hardwood trees. The youngster
retain water rations. pictured is holding onto the flowers of Grevillea baileyana, a
rainforest species of north-eastern Queensland.
In many places Melaleuca-dominated swamps are now

listed as protected wetland sites that are of environmental
and scientific value. They remain under threat from weed
invasions, feral animal damage (particularly from feral pig
populations), agricultural chemical run-off, clearing for
urban development and farming practices. Pandanus and Melaleuca trees can be used as markers for wetland
proves very acceptable. Whether these bulges, which may sites as they tend to grow in areas subject to seasonal inundation,
occasionally be seen bilateral on the tree, are pathological and are therefore useful clues to the presence of water.
or not, I am unable to decide (Roth 1901) An interesting paper on this environment, written
by the entomologist Rowland Illidge in 1899, attests
to the early recognition of their value. The author
Melaleuca argentea, M. cajuputi, M. dealbata, M. nervosa
provided some interesting insights into their ecology
and M. viridiflora have been regarded as equally useful
in a paper entitled ‘Notes on the Entomology of a Tea-
water resources (Lindsay 2001; Yunupinu 1995).
Tree Swamp’:
Today’s extensive recognition of Paperbark swamps
reflects their strategic environmental value along the Sombre and forbidding as is the appearance of a tea-
coastline. Paperbarks have a spreading root system tree swamp, yet there is much of interest to the lover
that acts to stabilise the tree, as well as breathing of nature contained within its limits. Many of the trees
strategies for the roots that allow it withstand a fair are at present in flower, and the leaves themselves have
amount of exposure to waterlogged soils, which a pleasant aromatic smell. Bird life is usually abundant,
can include brackish or saline conditions. These parrots alone, of two or three species, living upon the
environments provide essential natural water-filtering honey contained within the blossoms. Reptiles also are
systems, protect the coast against erosion, act as a well represented, frogs and snakes being plentiful. But
few butterflies are found in the swamp, and these merely
reservoir for fish stocks, and are a refuge for numerous
are attracted by the flowers, not being true denizens of
animals – some of which have become endangered.
it, though members of the Pieridae feed on Loranthus
Melaleuca swamps are particularly important as parasitic on trees around its margin, as do the several
nesting sites for native birds and flying fox colonies, species of skippers and a satyrid [feed] … upon certain
and are a vital food resource for migratory birds. kinds of grass growing within its borders.
Aboriginal people had diverse strategies for finding

water when supplies were short – a skill that was a
well-honed craft. Roth (1901) commented: ‘In
the Pennefather River district, in addition to being
obtained from trees, water is also got by sinking.
This is done in some likely spot – eg. wherever the
Pandanus grows in plenty – by driving a spear some 3
or 4 feet down into the ground and seeing whether the
extremity is moist or not; if the quest be successful, a
bunch of dried grass will then be rammed down. The
grass acts as a strainer to the debris, and thus permits
the water being sucked up by means of a reed.’
Survival strategies
Melaleuca leucadendra following fire; the papery bark has

been reduced to char but enough remains to protect the
trunk.
The layers of flaky bark, which are tightly knit
together, efficiently insulate the wood of the
trunk and limit damage to regenerative abilities
of the tree. In addition, the tree has a water-
retentive capacity that involves the holding of
water deep within the inner bark.
Examples of mature Melaleuca bark.
Unfortunately, the love of the Paperbark for a
Melaleuca trees have retained a biological heritage swampy environment has caused some environmental
that enables them to withstand fire exposure – a mischief in the Florida Everglades in the United States.
rather unusual strategy for a swamp-dwelling
species. In Java in 1894 some interesting
observations were made by the botanist John
Gerard Koenig (a student of Carl Linnaeus) with
regard to a rather drastic form of environmental
management designed specifically to ensure
supplies of Cajuput oil. It involved a rather severe
style of pruning and the use of burning strategies.
This was designed to encourage regeneration of
the local Melaleuca forest: ‘In the dry months
they hew down the full grown trees and cut off
the branches bearing seeds, they let them dry and
then set fire to them; it is said that the burning Stands of Melaleuca quinquenervia lining a waterway
makes the Melaleuca grow more luxuriantly.’ alongside Alligator Alley, a section of Route I75 traversing
the Everglades in Florida. (Courtesy: Kim & Forest Starr)
Melaleuca quinquenervia, introduced as a remedial

planting to dry up large areas of swamp, has naturally
propagated so widely that it has turned into a weedy
environmental nightmare. The scheme failed dismally,
when the Melaleuca trees turned the sawgrass marshes
into inaccessible swamplands. Indeed, the species
adapted so well that their seed production was more
than double that of Australian-grown trees (13,000 as
opposed to 5000 per annum), with a remarkably high
content of viable seed – 1200 per tree compared to 20
for Australian trees (Rayamajhi 2002).
Paperbark and Swamp orchids

Paperbark wetlands are a haven for a great variety of
plants, some of which are of conservation concern
and are classified as rare or endangered. Orchids are
among the most attractive of the numerous epiphytic
inhabitants, and have attracted a lot of interest from
botanists, collectors and conservationists. The Black
or Paperbark Orchid (Cymbidium canaliculatum)
contains an edible starch in its stems (pseudobulbs
and leaf bases) that was once used as a mucilaginous
and soothing ‘Wild Arrowroot’ to treat dysentery.
Today, however, all Australian orchids are protected
Illustration of Cymbidium canaliculatum by Walter

Hood Fitch (1817–1892), published in Curtis’s Botanical
Magazine, Vol. 96, 1870.
and cannot be harvested. A feature of this orchid is

its root system, which can reach rather extensive
proportions – sometimes filling large hollows in tree
trunks. The roots penetrate deeply into the dead tree
to extract nutrients from the decaying wood.
Aboriginal people extracted a sticky fluid from the
crushed stems of the Black Orchid, as well as from
Dendrobium canaliculatum and D. affine. The fluid
was applied directly to skin problems such as cuts,
sores, itching rashes, boils or infected lesions. It was
a useful dressing for minor burns and spear wounds.
In addition, the stem of Dendrobium canaliculatum
was said to be a useful application to loosen a spear
Epiphytic orchid (Cymbidium species) flourishing on a tree embedded in a wound. The stems of Dendrobium
trunk. affine have been eaten as a cough remedy and, when
crushed, they provided a useful packing material for species are found in the northern tropics – Phaius
Macassan pipes (a long form of smoking pipe traded by amboinensis, P. pictus and P. tancarvilleae. The latter
Indonesian fishermen in northern Australia). The stem is a widespread species with a range that extends
liquid, which has antiseptic and emollient properties, from northern Queensland overseas to tropical and
was utilised similarly to the other Dendrobium temperate Asia (including Indo-China), and to Malesia
orchids for treating skin problems (wounds, boils, and the southwest Pacific (Fiji, New Caledonia).
sores, rashes). It was also applied to bruising and arm Phaius pictus was formerly classified as P. amboinensis,
fractures over the damaged site (Marrfurra 1995; Barr but it is now considered to be a separate species with a
1993; Brock 1993; Wightman 1992a). fairly restricted distribution in northern Queensland.
Swamp or Paperbark orchids had a few other There are two other species in this genus that have a
useful applications for Aboriginal people. There more southerly distribution in Queensland – Phaius
were a number with useful glue-like properties. The bernaysii and P. australis. The latter was once classified
liquid has adhesive qualities, and was used to stick under Phaius bernaysii, but is now also recognised as a
feathers to the body for ornamentation. Cymbidium separate species.
canaliculatum, Dendrobium canaliculatum and D. The lovely native Swamp Lily or Swamp Orchid
affine are among those that provided colouring agents (Phaius tancarvilleae) rates highly among the wetland
and fixatives for natural ochre-based paints, which orchids whose collectability illustrate the disregard with
were used for painting artworks, artefacts and as a which swamplands, and their component flora, have
body paint. Today commercial wood glue has replaced been treated in the past. As with many other orchid
the old natural materials for making the traditional species, there are now serious conservation concerns
red, yellow, black and white colourings. The juice (a with regard to its wild survival. Phaius tancarvilleae
green viscous liquid) from the stem of the terrestrial has been listed as an endangered species in northern
Pink Nodding Orchid (Geodorum neocaledonicum) Queensland, while the closely related P. amboinensis is
had similar uses (Yunupinu 1995, Brock 1993). regarded as being vulnerable to disturbance, with the
Dendrobium canaliculatum was among the orchids potential to rate a greater level of conservation concern.
collected by Banks and Solander at the Endeavour These spring-flowering plants have large, long-lasting
River. Today this site is recognised as an important flower spikes that make a colourful and highly visible
tropical swamp and riverine habitat. Related species display. This makes them fairly easy to find in their
included in their collection were Dendrobium discolor swampy habitat – and reasonably accessible to orchid
and D. rigidum. collectors. Keith Williams’ Native Plants of Queensland
Phaius is an Australian genus of highly attractive (1979) highlights the extent of the Swamp Orchid’s
terrestrial orchids that favour swampy sites. Three disappearance from the landscape: ‘[they] were once
Dendrobium canaliculatum (now

Dendrobium rigidum. (Courtesy: KAW Dendrobium discolor. (Courtesy: KAW Cepobaculum canaliculatum). (Court-
Williams, Native Plants of Queensland, Williams, Native Plants of Queensland, esy: KAW Williams, Native Plants of
Vol. 4) Queensland, Vol. 1)
Vol. 1)
Swamp Lily or Swamp Orchid (Phaius tancarvilleae).
very plentiful in the peaty coastal swamps where they it was noted to have ‘mildly toxic’ potential and was
grew among sedges and grasses. They also grew in contraindicated during pregnancy (Li & Lau 1993).
open forest where the soils were moist. Orchid fanciers The Swamp Orchid had a rather unusual reputation in
and other exploiters have exterminated the species Papua New Guinea – the flowers were smoke-heated
from a large number of known habitats and it is now over a wood fire and eaten with food to promote
rarely seen in its natural state.’ Massive collections conception (Holdsworth 1977).
were made. Large dump-trucks were hired to remove
entire populations – which have not regenerated.
Practical Paperbark products
Today, the threat to their survival has been increased
by the predatory nature of wild pigs, who dine on the
tubers. This has resulted in the serious depredation
of plant populations and substantial (sometimes
unsalvageable) habitat degradation.
There are no official records of the medicinal
use of this Swamp Orchid in Australia. However, it is
very likely that Aboriginal people used it in a manner
similar to the Cymbidium and Dendrobium orchids
– the fresh herb poulticed onto traumatic injuries
such as wounds. Asian and Chinese traditions have
similar recommendations. When dried and powdered,
it could be placed directly on an area as a styptic to
stop bleeding, while the fresh herb was useful for
the relief of breast inflammation (mastitis). Little Melaleuca trunk showing Melaleuca displaying sheets
investigation appears to have been done regarding the twisted growth habit. of papery bark.
chemical compounds in the genus, although its use
is suggestive of antibacterial and antibiotic potential.
In Hong Kong the pseudobulb of the orchid had a Melaleuca bark is a valuable natural resource that
reputation as an effective anti-tussive agent4 and was has been extensively utilised as a building material
used for making cough medicine. As well as having (for roofing, walls) and for cooking purposes (to
haemostatic properties, the remedy was useful for wrap food, as a source of tinder) – as well as for
treating haemoptysis (coughing up blood). However, making useful household items such as mats, wall
hangings, bed coverings, clothing, babies’ nappies.
4 In contrast the root of the Southeast Asian species Phaius callosus (Java,
Malay Peninsula), which was noted to have a ‘tart’ flavour, had sternutatory In the bush, trees are sometimes seen with the
properties – that is, it induced sneezing (Burkill 1935).
outer layer of the bark peeling away from the

trunk. These wrap-like sheets have the advantage
of being easily rolled up for transport or storage
purposes. Sometimes Melaleuca leucadendra
trees develop an intriguing rough-twisted grain
that does not split easily – this timber was
particularly valued for canoe-making. Although
this characteristic made the wood more difficult to
work with, the resulting canoes were more likely
to withstand collisions with obstacles such as rocks
and reefs. Cajuput (Melaleuca cajuputi) likewise
yielded a water-resistant wood that was extremely Aboriginal hut in the rainforest, made from paperbark and
durable and useful for making posts, piles, canoes leaves.
and boats. It was also an excellent fuelwood that
burnt well. These qualities made it an extremely
valuable tree, particularly in some Southeast Asian
countries. The durable wood of Niaouli (Melaleuca
quinquenervia) has been similarly valued. It has
the added benefit that it is highly resistant to
insect attack. The timber, stripped of its bark and
worked when green, acquired an extremely hard
character upon drying. This was used for building
works, making tools and manufacturing other
durable items such as carts, anvil blocks, gate poles
and fencing.
only to the selection of the durable materials (palm
fronds, tree bark), but also to the skill of those
making the shelter.
Rainforest building materials
The floral resources of the rainforest were a natural
shopping centre for Aboriginal people – who made
skilful use of these raw materials. Building strategies The medicinal Melaleuca
relied on their ready availability, and weaving was It is fascinating to find that flora used medicinally in
an essential skill for making many household items. centuries past can have equally valid modern uses.
In the late 1800s the explorer Christie Palmerston Melaleuca trees have had a very practical therapeutic
described Aboriginal habitations in the rainforest: repertoire. Melaleuca leucadendra, M. quinquenervia
‘They take particular care to keep the place free and M. cajuputi, the main species of medicinal value,
from jungle, which would creep over it in a few traditionally provided versatile remedies for some of
seasons if allowed. There were several large gunyahs the everyday ills that plague us – aches and pains,
around its margin, one of which we took possession. coughs and colds. The leaves were generally infused
The outlines of these gunyah are oval. They are in hot water or simply crushed in the hands and the
subsequently thatched with fronds and grass of oils thus liberated inhaled. Over a century ago, in
a coarse nature that grows in the pockets. That in 1883, Edward Palmer observed these uses: ‘The large
which we camped was large enough to allow us to tea-tree grows in the beds of all the rivers of North
stand up and walk about comfortably. They keep Queensland; the young leaves are bruised in water and
out the rain admirably’ (quoted in Savage 1989). drunk for headache and colds and general sickness;
Undoubtedly this waterproofing was a tribute not the bark is also used for bedding to lay on the ground,
skin conditions such as ringworm, cuts or sores. This

helped to prevent infection and promote healing.
The bark could provide an absorbent wound dressing
and spongy pads that were used to bathe sore eyes.
An interesting 1902 account from John MacPherson
mentioned the use of paperbark splints for broken
bones:
In the Yukymbul tribe the bark of a special tree, Bugaibil,

was used in setting fractures. Thus, for the forearm,
two sheets of bark were placed along the anterior and
posterior sides of the injured member. These were secured
by tying. The dusky surgeons said that the juice of the
bark penetrated to the seat of the fracture and affects its
healing. In the Bundela race when a limb was fractured,
the old people gathered round and bound it up with
Melaleuca quinquenervia – flowering tree and seed pods. tea-tree bark to keep it warm and comfortable. Around
(Courtesy: Kim & Forest Starr)] this was fastened string made from a scrub tree like the
Black Kurrajong, Yappar, of the Inland Plains (Sterculia
and to form camps with.’ These Paperbark trees had
diversifolia). Thus it was secured until union had taken
a particularly good reputation for use as an analgesic place (quoted in Campbell 1973–74).
remedy. Some Aboriginal traditions utilised a form of
smoke therapy where the mother (sometimes holding
her baby) sat or squatted in the fumes for the relief of The use of paperbark dressings in East Arnhem Land
problems such as colds, aches and pains. The leaves (Northern Territory) was also recorded by T. Theodor
or the infused liquid were rubbed on the head to ease Webb in 1933. His words provide a revealing insight
headaches, or the liquid poured over painful areas such into the difficulty of bush medical treatment at the
as an aching limb (for a summary of these medicinal time:
uses see Table 10.2, page 296; details of essential oil
compositions are provided in Table 10.3, page 313). When a man is speared with a barbed wooden spear great
In northern Queensland, a bark tea from difficulty is often experienced in extracting it, particularly
Melaleuca leucadendra was taken as a cough medicine if the wound be near some vital organ of the body. If
– a remedy that was regularly used by Aboriginal speared in one of the limbs the spear is usually pushed
people at Hopevale, near Cooktown. In many other right through and withdrawn at the side opposite to the
places leaf infusions were utilised similarly. On Groote entry. In the case of a body wound this cannot be done, so
Eylandt in the Northern Territory, a hot infusion of the spear is cut off close to the body and a dress of dzalkor,
the inner bark from Melaleuca cajuputi was applied tree orchid, is applied, after which the man is bound with
locally for headaches, as were preparations made the paper-bark. This dressing is said to penetrate along the
spear-head and loosen it. When, however, I asked how
from M. leucadrandra bark (Isaacs 1994; Smith 1993;
long it would be before the spear could be withdrawn
Wightman 1992; Smith & Wightman 1990; Webb the reply was Bamantha. Narnak barrpamiri (A long
1969a). The inner bark decoction has been used as time. When the flesh becomes putrid). It would therefore
a wash, or it could be drunk as a cure for vomiting appear that the ‘medicine’ does not help matters very
and diarrhoea (Yunupinu 1995). More unusual was much (quoted in Levitt 1981).
the use of the bark as an irritant to facilitate urine flow
in young boys suffering urinary problems. The mother
pricked around the head of the penis with the stiff
fibres of the outer bark (Levitt 1981).
Melaleuca leaves are dotted with oil glands and,
when crushed, provided a useful antiseptic rub for
Asteromyrtus: the Liniment Tree angustifolia, A. arnhemica, A. brassii, A. lysicephala and

Historically, Australia’s geographic separation from A. magnifica. Although the trees in this genus appear
its neighbours resulted in the development of many to be very similar to Melaleuca, there are distinguishing
unique endemic plant species. Only when connections botanical features. However, Asteromyrtus should not
were made via Papua New Guinea to Southeast Asia did be confused with the rainforest trees Austromyrtus.5
some native tropical species migrate to new territories. The Liniment Tree (Asteromyrtus symphyocarpa)
Melaleuca and other closely related ‘Paperbarks’ are ranges from the northern Australian tropics to Papua
among the genera that ventured overseas – including New Guinea. On Groote Eylandt in the Northern
the Liniment Tree, Asteromyrtus symphyocarpa, which Territory the cineole-rich leaves were employed as a
is so closely related to Melaleuca that it was once decongestant. They were crushed to release the natural
classified as Melaleuca symphyocarpa. Asteromyrtus oils, the aroma being inhaled to relieve headaches,
is a tropical genus that was abolished for some time or the oil rubbed on the chest to ease breathing
and reinstated in the late 1990s. There are five other problems. The decoction could be applied locally to
Australian representatives of the genus: Asteromyrtus ease aches and pains (including constipation), while
a steam inhalation provided a useful decongestant
for colds and headaches. The cineole-rich oil also
has a rubefacient activity and can be used for a local
stimulant effect (Yunupinu 1995; Isaacs 1994; Barr
1993; Levitt 1979, 1981; see also Table 10.2, page
296). Liniment Tree essential oil is based on cineole
(39–43%) and pinene (16–18%). Other constituents
include limonene (2%), γ-terpinene (4%), p-cymene
(2%), terpinen-4-ol (5–6%), β-caryophyllene (4–6%),
α-terpineol (3%), globulol (1.6%), spathulenol (1%),
and eudesmols (3–6%) (Brophy & Doran 1996). In
the 1990s the CSIRO provided support to Papua
New Guinea villagers for a venture to make a locally
produced medicinal oil from this species. Portable
stills were designed that could be easily transported
through the forest to sites where the trees grew and fired
Two colour forms of the Liniment Tree (Asteromyrtus up for extraction of the oil (CSIRO Media Release,
symphyocarpa). 7 January1998). The venture proved to be a complete
success and Waria-Waria oil is now offered for sale
throughout the country. It has been popular among
villagers as an antiseptic remedy and for treating colds,
aches and pains – uses that are remarkably similar
to those employed by Australian Aboriginal people.
A number of other species of Asteromyrtus from
tropical Australia have been subject to analysis
of their essential oils (Brophy & Doran 1996):
• Asteromyrtus angustifolia from the Cape York
5 The majority of species in Austromyrtus have been reclassified as Gossia or

Uromyrtus, with only three species now remaining in Austromyrtus: A. dulcis,
A. glabra and A. tenuifolia. These trees are restricted to eastern Queensland
and New South Wales. A couple of species have edible fruit – the Scaly Myrtle
(Austromyrtus hillii, now Gossia hillii) and the Silky Myrtle (Austromyrtus
dulcis). The latter, which is from the border region of New South Wales and
Asteromyrtus symphyocarpa. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Queensland, is the source of the Midgen Berry – a very tasty bush tucker fruit
Native Plants of Queensland ,Vol. 1) (Low 1992; Cribb & Cribb 1981).
Peninsula (ranging to Cooktown) has a similar in individual samples. This was suggestive of some
cineole (31–35%) and pinene (10–13%) based oil trees having a different chemotype. Small amounts of
that also contains β-caryophyllene (21–23%). a number of other components (limonene, terpinen-
• Asteromyrtus arnhemica is only found around the 4-ol, β-caryophyllene, viridiflorol) were also present.
Alligator River in the Northern Territory. The oil This species is a good candidate for revegetation
is characterised by pinene (86–92.4%), although programs due to its ability to tolerate the infertile
the low yield (0.5–1.4%) means that it is not soils and sub-saline conditions characteristic of
commercially viable for extraction purposes. sites near mangroves. It can also be used as a source
• Asteromyrtus brassii (Cape York Peninsula, southern of timber for posts and poles, and as a firewood
Papua New Guinea). The oil is distinguished resource.
by γ-terpinene (15–34%), with good levels of • Asteromyrtus lysicephala, Kennedy’s Heath (Cape
1,8-cineole (24–46%). The bulk oil contained levels York Peninsula, southern Papua New Guinea and
of E-nerolidol (13.7%) that was not always present Irian Jaya). Some varieties have the potential to
produce a ‘Cajuput’ type of oil: α-pinene (11–14%),
1,8-cineole (47–51%), with some α-terpineol
(0.1–4%), α-terpinyl acetate (3.8–5%) and
β-caryophyllene (5–9.3%).
• Asteromyrtus magnifica (Northern Territory –
restricted to Arnhem Land, Groote Eylandt and
adjacent islands) is a species with ornamental
potential due to its lovely yellow globe-like flowers.
The oil contains pinene (α-pinene 14%, β-pinene
19.8%) and 1,8-cineole (35.9%) at levels that could
be of interest for a ‘Cajuput’ style oil. It also contains
small amounts of α-terpineol, β-caryophyllene and
Asteromyrtus brassii. (Courtesy: Mick Jackes, JCU) γ-terpinene.
The tropical Turkey Bushes and March flies (Wightman 1991). Aboriginal
people consider that this shrub is closely related to
Turkey Bush (Calytrix exstipulata): habit,

The pink-flowered Turkey Bush (Calytrix exstipulata) Asteromyrtus symphyocarpa as it has the same type of
is a tropical Myrtaceae species with excellent firewood trunk and bark. The fire-heated wood is particularly
attributes. Its aromatic smoke also has useful insect- durable and will retain a sharp edge, rendering it
repellent effects against mosquitoes, sandflies particularly valuable for making implements such as
fighting sticks, digging sticks and other small tools. The were also valued as liniment remedies – the leaves
white-flowered Turkey Bush (Calytrix achaeta) yields a were simply crushed and applied locally to ease aches
similar hardwood, albeit of smaller size, that has been and pains. Calytrix brownii was utilised similarly to
useful for making items such as fishhooks (Lindsay the Melaleuca Paperbarks as a decongestant. The
2001). A decoction prepared from Turkey Bush leaves stem from the simmering leaf infusion was inhaled
(C. exstipulata) has been used as an external wash to relieve nasal and bronchial congestion – and
(avoiding eye contact) to cleanse the skin and treat sometimes a small amount of the mixture would be
skin sores (Wightman 1992b). The leaves of Calytrix taken to ease the body pain associated with the flu
exstipulata and Calytrix laricina (Star Liniment Plant) (Barr 1993; Levitt 1981).
Table 10.2 Medicinal uses of native ‘Paperbarks’

Species and common names, Medicinal and practical uses Notes and chemical
distribution comments
Austromyrtus symphyocarpa Decoction: symptomatic treatment for colds and flu Cineole-rich oil (50%
(syn. Melaleuca symphyocarpa) • inhalant: leaf decoction used to relieve respiratory cineole)
congestion (Barr 1993).
Tropical Queensland and Northern • cooled liquid taken to ease sore throat, coughing etc.
Territory (Barr 1993)
Papua New Guinea • inhalant: crushed leaf used to relieve sinusitis (Barr
1993).
Root
Crushed root (outer bark removed) decoction: taken internally
for treating cough, sore throat, colds and flu (Barr 1993).
Liniment
Aches and pains: leaves rubbed between hands and applied
locally at Groote Eylandt (Webb 1969b).
Culinary flavouring
Leaves used to flavour cooking (Barr 1993).
Melaleuca acacioides Decoction: respiratory tract infections Oil rich in selinene which
(syns Melaleuca acacioides var. • leaf decoction taken internally as expectorant for colds may have potential for
angustifolia, Myrtoleucodendron (Barr1993) perfumery purposes
acacioides) • inhalation: crushed leaf vapour inhaled as decongestant
for colds (Yunupinu 1995; Barr 1993) Melaleuca acacioides
Tropical Northern Territory and used as substitute for modern cough medicine (Barr 1993) subsp. alsophila
Queensland (Cape York Peninsula) now = Melaleuca
Papua New Guinea Culinary flavouring alsophila
Crushed leaves: very pungent and used to flavour cooking
shellfish; twigs and bark used similarly (Levitt 1981)
Melaleuca alternifolia Crushed leaves: Terpinen-4-ol

Australian Tea Tree • inhaled to treat coughs and colds chemotypes: official ‘Tea
• crushed leaves sprinkled on wounds and a poultice Tree oil’
Northeastern New South Wales applied to the area
Infusion Other species (terpinen-4-
Infusion of leaves to treat sore throat and skin disorders ol chemotypes) have been
(Shemesh 1991) utilised as a source of Tea
Tree Oil:
Melaleuca dissitifolia
Melaleuca linariifolia
Melaleuca uncinata
Species and common names, Notes and chemical

Medicinal and practical uses
Melaleuca argentea Leaf decoction
(formerly Melaleuca acacioides Young leaves decocted and used as body wash for headache,
var. angustifolia) colds, flu and generalised body pain (Barr 1993)
Silver-leaved Paperbark or Tea Practical uses
Tree Bark has numerous domestic uses (Marrfurra 1995, Barr
Silver Cajuput 1993)
Culinary
Northern Territory, West Australia, Leaf used to flavour cooking
northern Queensland
Melaleuca cajuputi Northern Territory: Cajuput oil: main

Cajuput; Small-leaved Paperbark Colds, headaches, respiratory congestion, sinusitis, bronchitis constituents are cineole
(Barr 1993, Yirrkala Community School 1990) and α-terpineol
Tropical Australia (northern Infusion, decoction and inhalant
Queensland, Northern Territory, • young silver-grey leaves crushed and boiled for use
northern West Australia) as inhalation; small amount of infusion also taken
internally and the rest poured over the body, then sit in
Papua New Guinea sun and sweat.
Indonesia • crushed leaves used as inhalant
• eardrops: wash can be used as eardrops for earache
(Barr 1993)
• Practical uses
• Soft papery bark
• dressing for sores
• used for making foods and water carriers (coolamons),
baby carriers, nappies
• waterproof walls and roofing for shelters (Yunupinu
1995, Marrfurra 1995)
Timber resource: yields a very strong and durable timber
Melaleuca citrolens Colds and fevers Lemon-scented citral oil
‘Regarded as an especially effective medicine’ (Barr 1993) varieties are characteristic
Northern Queensland (Cape York Decoction
Peninsula), Northern Territory • young leaves decocted: liquid used as body wash for
severe colds, reduce fever and malaise (Barr 1993).
• decoction of leaves, bark and root: used as wash to treat
colds and fevers, and general sickness, particularly in
children (Barr 1993, Wightman 1992a).
Melaleuca dealbata Decoction Oil has mild antiseptic

Blue-leaved Tea Tree Leaves used to make medicinal wash for skin sores properties
Cloudy Tea Tree (Wightman 1992a)
Inhalant
Queensland (Brisbane to Cape Inhale steam of leaf infusion or simply crush leaf and vapour
York), Northern Territory, West inhaled for respiratory tract (chest) congestion, coughs, colds
Australia (coastal species) (Yunupinu 1995)
Papua New Guinea Culinary
Leaves used as a flavouring: fish was wrapped in leaves, then
placed within a paperbark covering and roasted in a bush
oven (Yunupinu 1995, Wightman 1992a).
Timber: yields a strong hard timber
Melaleuca glomerata Smoking medicine (Latz 1996) Other species in the

and First aid region have been utilised
Melaleuca lasiandra Splints for broken bones, bandages for wounds (Latz 1996) similarly:
Numerous practical uses Melaleuca bracteata
Central Australia (desert species) • sheaths for stone knives; slabs to carry pituri for trade Melaleuca dissitiflora
Ranges from Northern Territory • household items e.g. babies' blankets Melaleuca linophylla
(inland) to the West Australian • bark made into paint brushes Melaleuca corrugata
coast. • branches (leaves retained) used to make shelters and as (the latter is a very rare
Melaleuca glomerata extends a type of fishing net (Latz 1996) species that is highly
further into South Australia than aromatic)
M. lasiandra.

Melaleuca leucadendra Bark preparations Oil: 1,8-cineole and
Broad-leaved Paperbark • cough mixture, drink bark decoction (Hopevale Queensland) α-terpineol are main
(Webb 1969a) constituents (there are other
Queensland (Brisbane to Cape York), • decoction of inner bark applied when hot to head, neck, and ears chemotypes, see text)
Northern Territory, West Australia to cure headache (Groote Eylandt) (Isaacs 1994, Webb 1969a)
(coastal and inland) • papery inner bark decoction: liquid used as body wash, may sip Note: Confusion exists in
Overseas: Papua New Guinea a little at same time, treat fever and headache associated with the older literature. The
infections (Barr 1993) identification of Melaleuca
Leaf infusion or decoction leucadendron (now M.
• leaves crushed, soaked in water and liquid drunk for coughs leucadendra) may refer to
and colds; they were not used as a liniment (Isaacs 1994, Levitt other species with a similar
1981) appearance. Melaleuca
• young leaves of Melaleuca leucadendron were bruised in water cajuputi was also formerly
and the resulting liquid drunk in the Mitchell River district classified under M.
(Colliver 1972) leucadendron.
• decoction of new leaf: used a body wash for colds, fever, and to
alleviate general malaise or any internal ailment (Barr 1993)
• Smoke therapy
• Leafy branches used in smoke therapy for treating malaise,
colds, flu, fever, any sickness of unknown causation (Barr 1993)
• Practical uses
• numerous uses by Aboriginal people: wrapping food for
cooking, making household goods, building materials
• colonial timber resource: construction uses, e.g. shipbuilding
timber, making piles and posts.
• historical: Baron von Mueller advised planting the Bottle Brush
Tea Tree (Melaleuca squarrosa) and the Weeping Tea Tree (M.
leucadendron) ‘for subduing malarian vapours’ in swamps (Low
1990)
Melaleuca linariifolia Cineole-rich oil of use for headache relief, similar to Melaleuca Two oil types:
(syns Melaleuca linariifolia var. quinquenervia (Lassak & McCarthy 1992) 1. Terpinen-4-ol rich variety:
typica, Metrosideros hyssopifolia, Cineole has decongestant and anti-inflammatory properties bactericidal oil similar to
Myrtoleucodendron linariifolium) Melaleuca alternifolia
Flax-leaf Paperbark; Snow-in-Summer; 2. Cineole-rich variety is
Narrow-leaved Honey Myrtle more common.
Southern Queensland, NSW Note: Melaleuca linariifolia

(occasionally in West Australia, central var. alternifolia
Australia, South Australia and Victoria) now = M. alternifolia;
Melaleuca linariifolia var.
Variety: Melaleuca linariifolia var. trichostachya
linariifolia (NSW and Victoria) now = M. trichostachya
Melaleuca minutifolia Honey

• favoured host tree for native bee nests (Smith 1993)
Northern Territory and West Australia • honey and pollen greatly valued in the diet and used as cure for
(tropics only) diarrhoea (Smith 1993).
Cape York (isolated population) Practical uses
Papery bark used to make carrying containers (Smith 1993)
Melaleuca nervosa Decongestant Two subspecies:
(syns Callistemon nervosus, Melaleuca Fresh leaves crushed and inhaled. Crushed leaves also rubbed on Melaleuca nervosa subsp.
crosslandiana, forehead (Webb 1969b) crosslandiana
M. leucadendra var. nervosa, Cold water infusion Melaleuca nervosa subsp.
M. leucadendra var. parvifolia, Inner bark pounded and mixed with water to make a tea to treat nervosa
M.nervosa f. latifolia) depression or vomiting. Particularly useful for babies and old people
(Yunupinu 1995). Melaleuca nervosa
Queensland (Brisbane to Cape York) Honey f. pendulina
Tropical Northern Territory and West Sugar-bag (native honey) found in this tree (Marrfurra 1995). now = M. fluviatilis
Australia
Papua New Guinea

Melaleuca quinquenervia Infusion Source of cineole-rich (65–
Niaouli Leaf infusion used as decongestant for head colds, headaches, and 70%) Niaouli oil
general sickness (Cribb & Cribb 1981).
NSW and Queensland (coastal) There are four other
Papua New Guinea, New Caledonia chemotypes (see text)
Melaleuca sericea Inhalant and wash

Aromatic leaves crushed and inhaled, or made into decoction and used
Northern Territory (north-west) and as external wash for treating colds, congestion and influenza (Smith
West Australia (northern tropics) 1993).
Practical uses
Bark used to make coolamons for carrying fruit and yams, general
goods and babies (Smith 1993).
Melaleuca stenostachya Decoction Chemotypes:

Small-leaved Paperbark • leaves and bark used to make medicinal wash for coughs, colds pinene- or cineole-rich
and influenza chemotypes
Northern Queensland (throughout Cape • highly regarded medicine: used in preference to ‘clinic
York Peninsula) and Northern Territory medicine’ (pharmaceutical drugs) (Wightman 1991, 1992a)
Decongestant
Leaf decocted to make dark, strong smelling liquid, taken before going
to bed as external wash for coughs, colds and head congestion (plus
drink a small amount) (Wightman 1991)
Practical uses
Timber and bark used to make coolamons and carrying vessels).
(Wightman 1991)
Melaleuca uncinata JGO Tepper (Proc Royal Soc SA, iii, 174): ‘The leaves of this plant, if There can be substantial
(syns Melaleuca drummondii, chewed, are very useful in alleviating and curing ordinary catarrh. This variation of the oils within
Myrtoleucodendron uncinatum) observation is well worth repeating, especially as this peculiar species this classification, as eleven
Broom Honey-Myrtle is widely distributed, and as there is no reason to suppose that this species were formerly listed
property is confined to this species’ (Maiden 1889). as Melaleuca uncinata. Some
Widespread: Queensland, western oils are very cineole-rich.
NSW, Victoria, South Australia and
southern West Australia
Melaleuca viridiflora Leaf infusion for coughs and colds Various chemotypes:
Broad-leaved Paperbark • crushed leaves infused in water in a bailer shell or coolamon. cineole rich (30-60% cineole)
The liquid was drunk to alleviate coughing (Levitt 1981). methyl cinnmate (82%) rich
Queensland (Brisbane to Cape York) • leaves crushed or the steam (infused, boiled) used as an inhalant terpinolene and terpinene
Tropical Northern Territory and West to clear sinus troubles and head colds (Yunupinu 1995; Barr
Australia 1993; Wightman & Smith 1989). Essential oil has shown high
Papua New Guinea • leaf infusion used as a body wash to ease the aches and pains of inhibitory effect against
the flu (Barr 1993). gram-positive bacteria
Decoction (Ramanoelina 1987).
• Leaf decoction: cooled and used for treating coughs, colds and
chest congestion. Also used as external wash for same purpose
(Wightman 1994, 1991)
Liniment and wash
• leaves occasionally used as a liniment (Levitt 1981).
• leaf infusion (boiled and cooled) used as a wash for skin sores
(Lindsay 2001)
Bark infusion
• Eye-drops or an eye-wash were made from a carefully filtered
infusion of the inner bark (Barr 1993)
Honey
• Favoured host tree for native bee nests. Honey and pollen have
nutritional, as well as medicinal, value (Smith 1993).
Practical uses
• bark used for building shelters, wrapping food, as fire tinder,
to make fish traps, or as a body-wrap for the dead (Barr 1993,
Levitt 1981).
• bark used for making canoe-shaped coolamon for carrying lily
roots (Lindsay 2001; Yunupinu 1995; Wightman 1991).
Sign describing Melaleuca argentea.

Kimberley region of Western Australia). This
fire-tolerant riverine tree was utilised as a water
resource in times of hardship. Its nectar-laden
flowers are favoured by wildlife, as well as
providing a useful bush snack – simply sucked,
or made into an infusion with hot or cold water.
Paperbark trees (Melaleuca species) at Buley Rockhole, The papery bark is harvested for use as a covering
Litchfield National Park, near Darwin in the Northern
Territory. for cooking purposes or for wrapping food
collections (Brock 1993), and was also used as
a construction material for making houses and
The Silver-leaved Paperbark shelters. Flying foxes camp in these trees by the
riverbank. Sometimes the youngsters fall from the
trees and are eaten by crocodiles lurking in the
stream – which Aboriginal people teach is a good
warning not to camp too close to the river (Smith
1993). (See Table 10.2, page 296 for medicinal
uses of this tree.)
Unique essential oils

The Yellow-barked Paperbark (Melaleuca nervosa) is a
narrow-leaved tropical Paperbark with yellow-green
and red flowering forms. It is a useful tree as the bark
can be used to make coolamons for carrying food
and other goods, while water can be sourced from
chopping into the tree trunk. The leaves have been
The Silver-leaved Paperbark (Melaleuca argentea). used medicinally as a decongestant remedy (for details
of medicinal uses see Table 10.2, page 296). The oil
has been used similarly to Tea Tree oil, although the
The Silver-leaved Paperbark (Melaleuca argentea) active constituents differ. The sesquiterpene-rich
is a tropical species found throughout northern oil is reported to contain spathulenol (20–40%),
Australia (Cape York, Northern Territory, β-caryophyllene (6–18%), and caryophyllene oxide
(7–9%), along with numerous other constituents

(up to 59 components have been identified – www.
boysfromthebush.org.au).
The Bracteate Honey Myrtle, Melaleuca bracteata. (Courtesy: Kim

& Forest Starr)
Yellow-barked Paperbark (Melaleuca nervosa): red-flowered

form.
Melaleuca bracteata. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native

Territory and for making numerous household items
(Latz 1996). It is a widely distributed species, found
in northern Western Australia and central Australia. It
also ranges from the northern Queensland coast into
northern New South Wales. There are four chemotypes
of the oil that are based on either elemicin or eugenol.
The dominant component is present at a high level
(over 40%), with the other components present in
The Bracteate Honey Myrtle (Melaleuca bracteata) has significantly less amounts (see also Tables 10.3, page
been utilised as a smoking medicine in the Northern 313, and Table 10.5, page 316).
In the 1940s Dr Nancy Atkinson and co-workers

Blue-leaved Paperbark initiated an ambitious project examining the antibiotic
potential of the Australian flora at the University of
Adelaide. This extremely important undertaking was
to investigate over a thousand different native plants,
with research papers reporting the results published in
1949, 1955 and 1956. Almost a hundred species with
significant antibacterial properties were discovered.
Among the Melaleucas, in addition to M. alternifolia
a number of other species were found to be active
against Staphylococcus aureus bacteria – the flowers of
M. hypericifolia, M. squarrosa6 and M. wilsonii; and
the leaves of M. platycalyx and M. violacea.
An interesting aspect of Dr Atkinson’s work
involved instances where the crushed plant material
had more effective antibacterial effects than the
Blue-leaved Paperbark extract preparation. Similar results have been seen
(Melaleuca dealbata): bark in later studies. This may, in part, be due to the fact
and unusual blue-grey that the constituents of some oils often work better
foliage. in a synergistic form. Indeed, Queensland researchers
have demonstrated that the oil of the Lemon-scented
The Blue-leaved Paper- Gum (Eucalyptus citriodora) was substantially more
bark (Melaleuca dealbata) effective against Staphylococcus than the major
ranges along the east coast ingredient citronellal (Cribb & Cribb 1981). Clearly,
from Brisbane to the whole plant extracts should be examined if one seeks
northern tropics (Cape to accurately evaluate herbal remedies, for extracted
York, the Northern Ter- ‘active’ principles cannot be assumed to have exactly
ritory) and into Western the same effect. This consideration may also help to
Australia. It is also explain the variations in toxicity and effectiveness of
found in Papua New herbal medicines in different types of studies.
Guinea. The tree, which The clinical use of Melaleuca-based remedies, in
favours a typical swampy habitat, has been useful a herbal sense, has achieved limited acceptance in
for stabilising coastal environments and for urban modern times. There does not appear to be a great deal
vegetation projects. Although it has the creamy of research in this regard, although the information
white flowers characteristic of many Melaleuca that is available is very interesting. In Australia,
species, it is distinguished by its unusual blue-grey where Dr Wojciech Kielczynski has utilised Melaleuca
foliage. In the Northern Territory an infusion of preparations clinically, he has found the leaf useful for
the leaves (crushed and boiled) was utilised as a wound infections, including ‘any prolonged infections,
medicinal wash or inhalant medicine (for additional including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
details of medicinal uses see Table 10.2, page 296). infections’ (Kielczynski 1997). An extract of the young
The very strong wood is particularly useful because leaves was applied locally as a dressing – a remedy that
it is durable and does not rot easily – although the has long been regarded by Aboriginal people as being
bark, which has been employed as a roofing material, highly effective. Internally, up to 10g daily of dried
is not as durable as that of Melaleuca leucadendra leaf was taken, albeit for no longer than one month.
(Yunupinu 1995; Wightman 1992). In addition, the cream was found to be an effective
treatment for acne, although its action was somewhat
6 Later studies have indicated that flavonoids and ellagitannins from
Melaleuca squarrosa (leaf extracts) have good antioxidant activity (Yoshimura
2008).
Niaouli oil
The Melaleuca genus aptly
illustrates the subject of
chemical variation within a
species and the need for an
accurate appraisal of the active
constituents of their essential
oils. In New Caledonia, ‘Niaouli’
oil is sourced from Melaleuca
quinquenervia – a tree that
has, at times, been mistakenly
identified as M. cajuputi, M.
Niaouli oil. (Courtesy:
viridiflora and M. leucadendra.
Esoteric oils at www. Niaouli oil has had a reputation
EssentialOils.co.za) similar to that of Eucalyptus oil,
and has been used extensively
White Feather Honey Myrtle (Melaleuca decora). Studies as a traditional medicine. The essential oil has a good
in 1955 of the antibacterial action of essential oils from antiseptic effect and is valuable for treating respiratory
some Australian plants by Nancy Atkinson and Helen tract disorders. It was used as a tea (the leaves boiled
Brice showed that Melaleuca decora (flower oil, with some to make an infusion) or as an inhalation (3 to5 drops
leaf content) had fairly good activity against Staphylococcus
aureus and Mycobacterium phlei, as well as a fair level of of oil in steaming water). Studies of the antibacterial
activity against Salmonella typhi. They considered this activity of New Caledonian samples of Niaouli oil
species worthy of further examination. (Image courtesy: showed an activity comparable to, or stronger than,
KAW Williams, Native Plants of Queensland, Vol. 1) Eucalyptus and Tea Tree oils.
The French Pharmacopoeia contains a number of
slow. However, the internal use of the leaf may require a
official preparations that are based on an aldehyde-free
measure of caution with regard to liver function as the
preparation of the essential oil – which has been known
oil contains cineole (similar to Eucalyptus oil) in varying
as ‘gomenol’. The name was derived from the site of
concentrations. Cineole can be toxic in large doses. This
its original production, Gomen in New Caledonia.
is probably an unlikely side-effect with regard to the
The product was originally exported to Marseilles in
use of dried leaf preparations; however, precautionary
France for distribution in Europe and trans-shipment
monitoring has been recommended.
to the United States. The oil was quite highly priced
There is one other caution associated with the use
and prized as an antiseptic agent. Its use in respiratory
of Melaleuca products. Although these trees have been
tract disorders, particularly as an anti-tubercular
used extensively in traditional medicine, it is worth
agent, was diverse, and it was sometimes used as an
noting that some individuals can be sensitive to the
intramuscular injection. The oil was recommended ‘in
genus. Although infrequent, sensitivities to the pollen
the treatment of chronic catarrhs of the pulmonary
can occur, and can be responsible for irritation of the
membrane and especially of whooping cough.
respiratory tract. In some cases, the reaction has been
Behrens reported on the application of a mixture of
serious. In addition, handling the foliage can cause an
5g of niaouli oil and 95g of paraffin oil when building
irritant form of dermatitis. Julia Morton mentions a
an oleothorax.7 Morin claimed that a solution of 0.5g
serious allergic reaction to Melaleuca quinquenervia:
of niaouli oil in 100cc of olive oil retards development
‘children have been known to lick the spikes of seed
of the tuberculosis bacillus. Bernou recommends
capsules as though they were lollipops: [they] may
stronger solutions, ranging from 2 to 4 percent, for
break out in a stinging rash from head to foot; or
blocking the development of the tuberculosis bacillus,
even just from climbing the trees. Scratches inflicted
7 Oleothorax refers to the medicinal use of an injection of oil into the thorax
by broken branches of roots or tree have become to provide compression on the lung. It was formerly used in the treatment of
inflamed and blistered’ (Morton 1982). tuberculosis or in surgical procedures that involved removal of lung tissue.
and 4 to 10 per cent solutions in cases of tubercular Five chemical forms of Niaouli oil have been
empyema’8 (Penfold & Morrison 1950). identified in New Caledonia. The medicinal oil
(chemotype I) is high in 1,8-cineole (60–75%) and
has an aroma like eucalyptus oil.9 The other four
chemotypes contain different primary constituents
(Trilles 1999):
I. γ-terpinene (20%), globulol (18%), and low

levels of 1,8-cineole (10%)
II. globulol (up to 30%), p-cymene (13%), and low
levels of 1,8-cineole (4%)
III. α-terpineol (up to 30%), moderate 1,8-cineole
levels (35%)
IV. globulol (10-20%) and p-cymene (10-30%).
The antibacterial attributes of α-terpineol support

the popular use of terpineol-rich oil types (such
as chemotype IV above) as antiseptics. Certainly,
Australian studies of leaf extracts of Melaleuca
quinquenervia have shown a moderate level of
antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas fluorescens
Broad-leafed Paperbark (Melaleuca quinquenervia).The (Cock 2008). In addition, there are a couple of
decongestant attributes of the cineole-containing leaves of this other Melaleuca quinquenervia chemotypes that are
species were prepared as an infusion by Aboriginal people. The characterised by viridiflorol or nerolidol/linalool.
remedy was taken for the relief of headaches, colds and general Australian studies of the linalool-rich chemotype have
sickness. The new leaves were often simply chewed for the relief
of the congestive symptoms of head colds. shown good antibacterial activity against Salmonella
typhimurium (Wilkinson 2005).
In his 1960 review of the natural plant products
industry of Australia, Professor H.H. McKern
commented:
Another ‘tea-tree’, the well-known paper-barked broadleaf

tea-tree of the eastern coast of Australia, has recently
been exploited as a source of the tertiary terpene alcohol
linalool and its sesquiterpene analogue, nerolidol. The
species … exists in chemical varieties … one of which
yields an oil consisting almost entirely of (+)nerolidol, the
other consisting of a mixture of nerolidol and linalool.
Both these types of oil have in recent years been distilled
9 Cajuput oil (Melaleuca cajuputi) closely resembles the cineole-rich form of
Niaouli (Melaleuca quinquenervia) oil – which has comparable anthelmintic
(worm removal) properties. Melaleuca oils with a high cineole content are
listed in Table 10.4, page 315.
10 Cabreuva oil is distilled from Myrocarpus frondosus and M. fastigiatus wood
chips and is rich in benzyl benzoate (70%) and benzyl cinnamate (32%). The
former is used as a fixative in perfumery, as a chemical solvent, a plasticiser in
polymers (e.g. cellulose) and as a food additive for artificial flavours. It also
8 Empyema refers to a collection of pus in an internal cavity. It is usually has antiparasitic and insecticidal properties that kill lice and mites, including
associated with the lung (effusion into the surrounding pleural space) and scabies. Benzyl cinnamate is an aromatic flavouring and fragrance. Cabreuva
can result from infections such as pneumonia. In the long term it can cause oil has been highly regarded as a healing agent for wounds and ulcers, as well
substantial scarring and compromised lung function. as for preventing the formation of scar tissue.
commercially from the leaves of this tree on the north

coast of NSW, but they are at present meeting strong Melaleuca oil: potential pest fumigant
competition from Cabreuva oils10 from Brazil and from Investigations of the fumigant potential of
synthetic preparations.
essential oils has shown that Cajuput (Melaleuca
cajuputi) oil sourced from Bangkok, Thailand,
The antiparasitic potential of Melaleuca oil had good fumigant activity against stored grain
Nerolidol appears to have diverse antiparasitic pests (Ko 2009). Melaleuca armillaris and M.
attributes. It also has synergistic properties that could fulgens, which are rich in 1,8-cineole, likewise
make it useful as an additive in formulations. It had good fumigant activity. A number of other
can be incorporated into shampoos for treating lice active Myrtaceae species (and their essential oil
infestation, as it was effective against the egg stage constituents) were also identified: Eucalyptus
of the pest, but not the adult larvae. Nerolidol has nichollii (1,8-cineole), E. codonocarpa (p-cymene,
also shown anti-leishmanial activity that helped to piperitone), E. blakelyi (1,8-cineole, terpineol)
promote healing in this condition, although it was and Callistemon sieberi (1,8-cineole, pinene and
not completely effective at eradicating the parasite. terpineol) (Lee 2004). The essential oil of the
Neridolol and linalool have also shown activity against Thyme Honey Myrtle (Melaleuca thymifolia),
the Trypanosoma parasite (T. brucei brucei) that is
responsible for African sleeping sickness, and also
have antiprotozoal potential. Nerolidol was one of
the active constituents identified from an antimalarial
remedy of Amazonian origins that was sourced from
the leaves of Virola surinamensis (Hoet 2006; Priestly
2006; Arruda 2005; Rodrigues Goulart 2004; Lopes
1999).
Eucalyptus whitei. The essential oils of a few Eucalyptus

species contain good levels of the aromatic compound
nerolidol. They include Eucalyptus nova-anglica (78%), E. Thyme Honey Myrtle (Melaleuca thymifolia) is a
deglupta (68%) and E. whitei (55%). (Image courtesy: KAW particularly attractive New South Wales coastal shrub that
Williams, Native Plants of Queensland, Vol. 4) extends its range into southern Queensland.
which was examined by Baker and Smith in 1906,

Medicinal fragrance components
Linalool and nerolidol are fragrance components that
was also evaluated in these studies – although it
are probably more widely utilised than is generally
was found to be inactive against the common
appreciated.11 They are commercially important
insect pests found in grain stores. Little appears
ingredients for the flavour and fragrance industry.
to be known about the potential usefulness of this
Linalool, which has a sweet floral and citrus aroma,
attractive species. The original oil analysis showed
has been a popular addition to personal care items
a low yield (2.28 per cent): ‘The crude oil was
(shampoo, soaps) and household cleaning products
slightly yellowish in tint, while the rectified oil
(e.g. detergents). It is a chemical intermediate for
was colourless. In appearance, odour and taste it
the production of vitamin E. In addition, it has
differed but slightly from those of Eucalyptus oils,
insecticidal properties that are effective against fleas
which are rich in eucalyptol, and which do not
and cockroaches. Linalool has a strong antibacterial
contain either the aldehyde aromadendral or the
activity and pharmacological studies have shown
terpene phellandrene. The oil was rich in cineole
antiviral, narcotic, sedative, anti-inflammatory,
[eucalyptol]'. Later investigations have shown
anticonvulsant and anticancer potential (Webb 2000).
that the leaves and twigs can have a much higher
Nerolidol, which has a woody, fresh bark scent,
essential oil yield (7.59%) (Lee 2004).
has attracted serious clinical interest due to its potent
ability to enhance transdermal drug penetration.
Recent studies have established that the compound
Lemony oils has a significant anti-ulcer activity – as well as
There are a couple of chemotypes
antifungal and antibacterial properties that are useful
of the Honey Myrtle that yield
for promoting wound healing. Its incorporation
different oil forms. They can be
into antibiotic drug formulations therefore has
cineole-rich or lemon-scented
the potential to increase the susceptibility of
due to their citral (neral and
bacteria to the treatment (Klopell 2007; Lee 2007;
geranial) content (see Table
Nokhodchi 2007; Inoue 2004; Brehm-Stecher &
10.4, page XXX, and Table
Johnson 2003). A study of the enhancement of skin
10.5, page XXX).
penetration of oestradiol by Niaouli oil sourced from
Honey Myrtle oil. (Courtesy: Peta Melaleuca viridiflora has also shown good results
& John Day, The Paperbark Co.)
in a comparison of four different forms of the oil,
with variations in their chemical constituents. This
Melaleuca citrolens yields a citronellol-rich oil (40% established that the main components responsible
citronellol) that also contains citronellal (16%), were 1,8-cineole, δ-limonene and α-pinene (in
geranial (4.8%), iso- descending order of efficacy)12 (Monti 2009).
pulegol (4.3%) and
neral (3.6%). The oil Oil of Cajuput
has excellent aromatic The recognition of three subspecies within Melaleuca
attributes and insect cajuputi is linked with differences in their oil
repellent properties chemistry.This provides another illustration of the
(See Table 10.2, page great variation in the levels of the oil components
XXX, for medicinal that can occur – even when the overall chemical
uses of this species.) constituents appear to be very similar. Thus the
Citral- and cit- 11 Linalool was formerly sourced from Rosewood (species of Aniba) until
ronellal-based oils a cheaper alternative (Chinese Ho oil) became available from Cinnamomum
camphora (Brophy 2004). Chinese Ho oil has characteristics similar to
Melaleuca oil derived from are discussed in camphor and contains a high concentration (80–90%) of linalool – which
detail in chapter 5 can also be produced from α- and β-pinene.
Melaleuca citrolens. (Courtesy:
Milton James, www. under natural insect 12 α-terpineol is another component of the oil that is known to enhance
the skin penetration of certain drugs, although in this instance it did not
boysfromthebush.org.au) repellents. significantly improve absorption (Monti 2009).
chemotypes. Chemotype I,
from Papua New Guinea
(Wondo village, Bensbach
River), is characterised by
platyphyllol (a β-triketone,
22–80%), cajeputol (3–57%)
plus terpenes (spathulenol,
α-copaene, β-caryophyllene,
allomadendrene, humulene).
Chemotype II (from all other
sample collection sites), is pinene-
Oil of Cajuput, British Pharmacopoeia, 1867. based (12–70%), with small
‘cajuput oil’ of the marketplace can vary substantially Cajuput oil. (Courtesy: amounts of 1,8-cineole (0.1–
depending on where it was harvested and distilled. Esoteric oils at www. 10%) as well as lesser amounts
EssentialOils.co.za) of γ-terpinene, p-cymene,
The cineole-based oil is considered to be the highest
terpinolene, β-caryophyllene,
grade, although there can be substantial differences aromadendrene, humulene,
in the product, depending on the other components viridiflorene, caryophyllene oxide, globulol,
(and the amount) that are present. There is also the viridiflorol, spathulenol.
problem of adulteration of lower grade oils, sometimes
with eucalyptus oil, but at other times with synthetic Over the centuries, Southeast Asian healers have
chemicals (Brophy & Doran 1996) regarded Melaleuca as a valuable medicinal resource.
Cajuput oil from Southeast Asian Melaleuca cajuputi
• The oil of Melaleuca cajuputi subsp. cajuputi, is a cineole-rich oil that also contains α-terpineol. It
from northwestern Australia and eastern has been an extremely popular household remedy that
Indonesia, is cineole-rich (15–50%). This can be achieved substantial economic importance. Primarily
a chemically complex oil with variable amounts it was utilised as a general remedy for skin diseases
of other components being present: globulol (particularly those due to parasites), as a healing agent,
(0.2–8%), viridiflorol (0.2–10%), spathulenol and as an external analgesic. The oil could be applied
(0.4–30%), and smaller amounts of limonene, locally to ease a toothache, or was added to liniments
humulene, viridiflorene, α-terpineol, selinenes, and ointments for the relief of headaches, leg cramps,
and caryophyllene oxide. rheumatic and neuralgic pain. In addition, it was
• The oil of Melaleuca cajuputi subsp. cumingiana, applied externally to help relieve colic or earache,
from Vietnam to western Indonesia, varies and to heal fresh wounds and burns. It has long been
across its range. Samples from Thailand and
reputed to have excellent insect-repellent properties,
Vietnam were characterised by γ-terpinene
as well as being a powerful antispasmodic and useful
(14–17%) and terpinolene (10–23%). Lesser
anthelmintic, particularly against roundworm (Perry
amount of other components included: α-thujene,
α-pinene, α-phellandrene, α-terpinene, limonene, & Metzger 1981).
p-cymene, terpinen-4-ol, α-terpineol, eudesmols,
caryophyllene oxide, selinenes, aromadendrene,
viridiflorene, humulene, β-caryophyllene.
Samples from Kalimantan (Indonesia) had the
same overall chemical pattern but included
large amounts of β-caryophyllene (23–44%) and
humulene (9–14%), as well as significant amounts
of cajeputol (2–18%).
• The oil of Melaleuca cajuputi subsp. platyphylla,
from northern Queensland, southern Papua
New Guinea and nearby islands has two Spirits of Cajuput, British Pharmacopoeia, 1914.
Cajuput gained a measure of ‘official’ recognition.

The British Pharmaceutical Codex of 1949 listed
Oleum Cajuputi: ‘Oil of cajuput has the typical actions
of a volatile oil and is employed as a carminative.
Externally, it acts as a stimulant and mild counter-
irritant. It is applied, diluted with two parts of olive oil
or liniment of turpentine, to inflamed and rheumatic
joints. The oil is administered on sugar, in capsules, or
as Spiritus Cajuputi, sometimes in combination with
spirit of chloroform and aromatic spirit of ammonia.’
Some of these recommendations are very similar to the
use of the cineole-rich Cajuput (Melaleuca cajuputi)
leaves by Aboriginal people in the Northern Territory
as a rubefacient and analgesic. The leaf infusion was
rubbed locally onto the chest or aching joints, or Melaleuca cajuputi subsp. platyphylla wetlands, Daintree,
utilised as an inhalant (the leaves crushed or the steam northern Queensland.
from the infusion inhaled) to relieve the congestion Records of the medicinal use of Melaleuca cajuputi in
various other countries appear to be fairly similar. In
Burma the oil was combined with camphor and applied
externally for the treatment of gout. In Vietnam it
was popular as a local analgesic for joint pain and
rheumatism, while in Cambodia the leaf infusion of
a special variety was taken to treat dropsy. In eastern
Malaysia, Cajuput bark (softened by chewing) was
applied locally to suppurating wounds to draw out the
pus, and in the Philippines the leaves were employed
as a remedy for asthma. A few other medicinal uses
were less common. In Papua New Guinea the oil was
rubbed on the body to prevent malaria. Although this
may appear somewhat unusual, the oil has excellent
insect-repellent actions that would have been effective
against mosquitoes; it probably also eased the aches
and pains associated with this condition. In addition,
in Asian traditions the oil had a reputation for being
a useful fragrant stomachic with anodyne properties.
In Indonesia, it was used in a mixture with the leaves
of Baeckea frutescens which was said to be effective
for treating stomach disorders. Over a century ago,
in Johore in 1892, another interesting remedy, for
treating colic and cholera, involved putting drops of
the oil (only 1 to 5 drops) on sugar and taking it. The
Flowers of Melaleuca cajuputi. oil was not generally recommended for internal use,
however, as it could have side-effects – it produced
a ‘warm’ sensation, increased heart rate and could
associated with colds and influenza. In addition, it induce excessive sweating. Higher doses have the
was successfully used for the treatment of respiratory potential to cause kidney dysfunction and gastro-
infections such as sinusitis and bronchitis (Yunupinu intestinal irritation (Perry & Metzger 1981; Burkill
1995; Barr 1993; Smith & Wightman 1990). 1935).
Modern investigations leucadendron13 and M. ericifolia was only slightly less

More recently there have been studies of the Melaleuca active. Melaleuca leucadendron is a richer 1,8-cineole
genus that hint at therapeutic potential that has not source, and contains α-terpineol (Farag 2004). The oil
previously been considered for some species. Melaleuca has also shown antifungal activity against Aspergillus
ericifolia, the essential oil of which is rich in methyl fumigatus and Fusarium moniliforme (Misra & Misra
eugenol, has shown good antimicrobial activity 1989). In addition, ethanolic plant extracts have shown
against Bacillus subtilis and Aspergillus niger. It also a low level of antifungal activity against Microsporum
had strong activity against Salmonella typhimurium canis (ringworm) and antiprotozoal activity against
– as did Melaleuca quinquenervia (linalool-based oil) Trypanosoma brucei brucei (Valdes 2008). Certainly,
(Farag 2004; Wilkinson 2005). Investigations have there is good potential for the clinical use of Melaleuca
identified unique polyphenolic constituents from oil against candidiasis. A couple of studies have
Melaleuca ericifolia leaf extracts with antibacterial evaluated AIDS patients with oral candidiasis that
activity (Hussein 2007). In addition, methyl eugenol was unresponsive to standard antifungal treatment
from M. ericifolia has been utilised in anticancer drug with fluconazole. Around 50–60 per cent of the
design studies (Abdel Barr 2010). patients had a good response to treatment with an oral
Melaleuca-based solution14 (Jandourek 1998, Vazquez
Rosalina oil is sourced from
& Zawawi 2002).
Melaleuca ericifolia. This species
yields two forms of essential
oil – one that is rich in cineole,
the other is the linalool-
rich Rosalina oil. The latter
is the desirable form for use
medicinally. It is an excellent
decongestant (respiratory tract
congestion, sinusitis) and anti-
septic for skin disorders (acne,
boils, tinea, herpes) – as well as
being a useful local anaesthetic
for insect bites. Inhaled, it can
also be helpful as a relaxant to
help promote sleep (Webb 2000). (Courtesy: Peta & John
Day, The Paperbark Co.)
An interesting study on Melaleuca quinquenervia

leaf extracts isolated a phenolic component called
grandinin with significant antioxidant activity and
anti-diabetic potential. Gallic and ellagic acids (and
derivatives) were also present (Moharram 2003). A
number of vasorelaxant compounds have also been
isolated from M. quinquenervia (Lee 2002).
Melaleuca armillaris oil, which contains good Melaleuca leucadendra, from Köhler’s Medicinal Plants, 1887.
levels of terpinen-4-ol and some 1,8-cineole, has 13 The oil of Melaleuca leucadendron is rich in 1,8-cineole (64.30%) – and
demonstrated antioxidant activity and a strong had the highest oil concentration in the leaf among the four species examined
in this study. Seasonal variations in the oil content of the fresh leaves were
virucidal effect. An evaluation of its antimicrobial apparent – the overall oil yield increased from February (1.2%) to May
properties showed that it was not effective against (1.58%) and decreased slightly in November (1.55%). Similar seasonal
influences in the oil content of Melaleuca armillaris (0.39–0.92%), M.
Aspergillus (which was probably due to the low ericifolia (0.38–0.79%) and M. styphelioides – with the latter containing the
1,8-cineole level), although it had very good activity least amount (0.1–0.4%) (Farag 2004).
against Candida albicans due to the terpinen-4- 14 Subsequent studies have shown that gentian violent had particularly
potent antifungal activity against fluconazole-resistant strains of Candida.
ol component. The antiviral activity of Melaleuca Further evaluation studies are underway (Traboulsi 2008).
Japanese studies have shown that extracts of However, although this species did not display any
Melaleuca leucadendron fruit had a potent anti- antimicrobial or antiviral properties of interest,
histaminic action with useful anti-allergic potential. caryophyllene15 has shown antiparasitic potential
Ursolic acid was identified as the main active component against Leishmania parasites and antiplasmodial
in chloroform extracts, while stilbenes (piceatannol activity against the malaria parasite (Zheljazkov 2008;
and oxyresveratrol) were active in the methanol extracts Kanokmedhakul 2007). Other studies have shown
(Tsuruga 1991). In addition, extracts of Melaleuca β-caryophyllene has local anaesthetic, anticancer, anti-
leucadendra fruit have shown strong antiviral properties inflammatory and antibiotic properties. In particular,
against the Herpes simplex virus (Nawawi 1999). it had a strong antimutagenic effect that suggested
potential as a chemopreventive agent. It can potentiate
the anticancer activity of other compounds, that is,
α-humulene, isocaryophyllene and the anticancer
drug paclitaxel. β-caryophyllene has also shown
potential for the treatment of an inflammatory bowel
disorder, colitis (Di Sotto 2008, Legault & Pichette
2007, Cho 2007, Ghelardini 2001).
Melaleuca tamariscina has two subspecies that
Prickly Paperbark, Melaleuca styphelioides. (Courtesy: Kim

& Forest Starr)
Weeping Paperbark (Melaleuca tamariscina subsp. irbyana).
Melaleuca styphelioides. (Courtesy: KAW Williams, Native are native to central and southern Queensland. A
third subspecies, the Weeping Paperbark (Melaleuca
tamariscina subsp. irbyana), extends into northern New
South Wales. This useful garden ornamental is popularly
Other species have good levels of different active used for screening purposes. The oil composition
constituents with medicinal potential. Melaleuca can vary according to the subspecies. Melaleuca
styphelioides was rich in caryophyllene oxide and
15 Caryophyllene is one of the components of a number of important
contained good amounts of spathulenol (Farag 2004). aromatic herbs, including Holy Basil and Clove oils.
tamariscina subsp. tamariscina yields a pinene-rich

oil (α-pinene 85%), that also contains limonene

(3–5%). Melaleuca tamariscina subsp. pallescens has
In sum, the story of the medicinal potential of
substantially lower levels of α-pinene (21–42%),
the Australian flora is deeply intertwined with
with small amounts of α-terpineol (3–5%), trans-
traditional uses of a wide range of native plants.
pinocarveol (1–3%) and limonene (1%). An unusual
The early chemical investigations not only opened
component, pinocamphone (7–14%) was tentatively
a phytochemical gateway that provided support for
identified in the latter (Brophy & Doran 1996).
the many uses of plants in native practice, but later
research built upon these foundations to expand the
The Broom Honey Myrtle knowledge surrounding their therapeutic potential.
Along the way, new doors have opened with regard
to the medicinal, commercial and culinary value of
Australia’s floral riches. The future of these plants
will not only be linked with empirical knowledge, as
there is now good science available to back up many
traditional claims. The future could also hold some
surprising discoveries, if only we have the vision to
look.
This appreciation of our native flora should extend
beyond the topics already discussed – the Eucalypts,
Wattles, Tea Trees – and their multitudinous valuable
contributions to our welfare. A great diversity of
native plants have medicinal potential that has
hitherto remained unexploited. Some species have
been remarkably important to the medical profession
Broom Honey Myrtle, Melaleuca uncinata. (Courtesy:
– albeit that a reliance on plants for drug production
has largely been forgotten with advances in chemical
synthesis. Even so, the story of drug discoveries from
The Broom Honey Myrtle (Melaleuca uncinata) is native plants with toxic potential is an extremely
a widespread species found almost throughout the interesting topic that is worthy of a volume (or more)
Australian continent, although it does not range in its own right. As Len Webb (1969b) commented:
to the northern regions of Western Australia and ‘There are Australian plants to nourish, shelter or
the Northern Territory. It is, however, found in poison animals; plants which are fragrant or foetid;
northern Queensland. In addition, eleven different plant which sting, blister or blind; plants to heal or
species have been identified in the West Australian stupify; plants elegant or grotesque; useful for timber,
‘Broombush complex’, which was formerly simply shade and decoration, fibre and honey – there seems
classified as Melaleuca unicata. The essential oil no end to their versatility.’ This is a topic that I will
of Melaleuca uncinata can have an interesting attempt to do justice to in Volume 3 of this series:
level of complexity and there are a number of oil Plants, Potions and Poisons.
chemotypes. It can yield a cineole-rich oil – as well Beyond that, there have been visions of discovery
as containing other components of interest such as that lead to an extraordinary effort to evaluate the
eudesmol, pinene, terpinene and p-cymene. There flora of the rainforest and the tropical outposts of the
is a form that is rich in α-pinene, and one that Australian continent – a subject that is also more than
contains good amounts of terpinen-4-ol (Brophy worthy of its own volume.
2006). Table 10.3 overleaf provides details of these
chemotypes. For details of medicinal uses see Table
10.2, page 296.)
Moonrise over Melaleuca Swamp. (Original artwork, courtesy: Peter Brooke).
Table 10.3 Variations in oil composition: Melaleuca species with different essential
oil chemotypes, varieties or subspecies
Species Main essential oil components (comment)
Melaleuca acacioides Two chemotypes, plus oils with intermediate characteristics:
subsp. alsophila (now = I: p inene-rich (8-65%); with cineole (15-66%), limonene (1–3%), and trans-pinocarveol (1–17%).
M. alsophila) II: n eral (2–10%), geranial (2–19%), terpinen-4-ol (13–32%), α-terpineol (1–7%), p-cymene
Coastal Paperbark (2–40%; the majority of samples were around 20%), geraniol (1–3%)
Melaleuca argentea Two chemotypes

Silver-leaved Paperbark I: α -pinene (0.3–20%), sabinene (6–19%), γ-terpinene (7–10%), ether 1,8-cineole (2–26%),
terpinen-4-ol (13–18%)
II: globulol, viridiflorol, spathulenol, bicyclogermacrene, E-methyl cinnamate (low levels)
Melaleuca bracteata Four chemical forms
I: elemicin (57.4%); plus β-caryophyllene (21.4%)
II: iso-elemicin (45.4%); plus α-phellandrene (12.7%)
III: E-methyl isoeugenol (75.9%); plus methyl eugenol (17.5%)
IV: methyl eugenol (45.7%); plus E-methyl isoeugenol (43%) & E -methyl cinnamate (8.6%)
Melaleuca citrolens Three, possibly four, distinct chemotypes.
Paperbark I: 1,8-cineole (34–50%), terpinolene (10–20%)
II: piperitenone-based oil: piperitenone (9–14%), 1,8 cineole (8–32%), terpinolene (13–27%).
Lesser amounts of α-thujene (4–7%), α-phellandrene (5–9%), y-terpenine (2-11%), α-terpineol
92-5%), terpinen4-ol (2–4%).
III: neral/geranial-based oil: neral (7–16%), geranial (9–26%), 1,8-cineole (12–28%), terpinolene
(0.1–7%)
IV: lemon-scented chemotype: 1,8-cineole (1–12%), citronellal (20–30%), isopulegol (4–13%),
geranial (trace–22%), neral (0.9–14%), geraniol (0.7–2%)
Melaleuca dealbata Oil variation according to location:
Soapy Tea Tree • Gympie grown (seed collection from Humpty Doo, NT): spathulenol (11–19%), globulol (3–6
%), viridiflorol (0.7–2%) cryophyllene oxide (6–19%), β-caryophyllene (13–33%)
• Mount Molloy (northern Qld): α-pinene (10–30%), β-pinene (4–7%), limonene (5–7%),
1,8-cinole (2–12%), p-cymene (2–9%)
Melaleuca dissitiflora Two chemical forms:
I: 1,8-cineole (63–66%), limonene (5–7%)
II: terpinen-4-ol (38-52%), α-pinene (2–11%), β-pinene (0.5–15%), sabinene (1–15%), γ-terpinene
(12–18%)
312
Species Main essential oil components (comment)

Melaleuca foliolosa Two chemotypes:
I: terpinen-4-ol (23–30%), α-terpineol (5–10%)
II: α-pinene (26–28%), 1,8-cineole (5–11%)
Melaleuca leucadendra Two chemical forms (geographically separate) although intermediate oil types can occur where the
Weeping Paperbark two forms cross over their range:
I: Western Australia (WA) to Northern Territory (NT) – 1,8-cineole (10–45%), p-cymene (5–22%),
limonene (3–6%), α-terpineol (6-9%)
II: Northern Territory (NT) to Queensland (Qld) – two chemical forms:
methyl eugenol (95–97%)
E-methyl isoeugenol (74–88%), methyl eugenol (6–24%)
Melaleuca linariifolia Two chemotypes; chemotype II qualifies as official ‘Australian Tea Tree oil’.
Narrow-leaved Paperbark I: cineol-rich (1,8-cineol 55.5%), α-pinene (5.9%), limonene (11.3%)
II: terpinen-4-ol rich (36-48%), γ-terpinene (20.3%), α-terpinene (8%)
Melaleuca minutifolia Two subspecies:
• subsp. minutifolia: α-pinene (16–19%) plus β-pinene, limonene (low levels), aromadendrene
(3–11%), bicyclogermacrene (7–10%), globulol (7–8%), eudesmols (γ-: 7–11%; α-: 5–7%; β-:
8–12%)
• subsp. monantha: pine-based oil (α-pinene: 20–54%; β-pinene: 14–30%), plus myrcene,
limonene, p-cymene, α-terpineol
Melaleuca Two chemotypes:
quinquenervia I: E-nerolidol (up to 95%)
Broadleaved Paperbark II: Niaouli oil from New Caledonia:
a) 1,8-cineole (50–65%), α-pinene (2–9%), limonene (6–8%)
b) there is a chemotype variant with viridiflorol (80%), α-pinene (10%)
Melaleuca saligna 1,8-cineole (8–30%), low pinene (α-:2–3%; β-:1–2%), limonene (4–8%), β-caryophyllene (5–7%),
Paperbark selinenes (β-:3–10%; α-:3–8%)
Note: cineole-rich samples: 1,8-cineole (66–70%), low pinene (α-pinene 2–9%)
Melaleuca sericea • pinene-rich: α-pinene (73–77%), 1,8-cineole (11–14%)
Paperbark • other samples: 1,8-cineole (26–36%), limonene (6–12%), α-terpineol (5–8%),
isovaleraldehyde (1–2%)
Melaleuca squamophloia Two chemotypes:
I: elemicin chemotype: elemicin (93–97%)
II: E-isoelemicin chemotype: E-isoelemicin (65-79%); elemicin (12–15%), Z-isoelemicin (3.1%)
Melaleuca stenostachya • cineole-rich: 1,8-cineole (53–62%), α-pinene (19–29%), limonene (4–6%), β-caryophyllene
Paperbark (2–6%)
• pinene-rich sample: α-pinene (27–28%), β-pinene (41–44%), 1,8-cineole (11–13%)
Melaleuca trichostachya Two chemotypes:
I: 1,8-cineole (45–57%), terpinen-4-ol (11–16%), limonene (4–5%), γ-terpinene (8–12%),
α-terpineol (5–7%)
II: terpinolene (47–65%), 1,8-cineole (9–24%), plus low levels α-pinene, limonene, terpenin-4-ol,
α-terpineol
Melaleuca uncinata Four chemotypes:
I: 1,8-cineole (30–60%), eudesmol (α-, β- and γ-eudesmol total 30–60%)
- minor amounts of α-pinene, α-terpineol, globulol ans spathulenol
II: 1,8-cineol (80–85%); α-pinene and α-terpineol (3–7%)
III: terpinen-4-ol (24-42%), 1,8-cineole (low), p-cymene (11–26%), sabinene (3–7%), α-terpinene
(4–5%), γ-terpinene (6–9%), terpinolene (2-4%)
IV: pinene-rich sample: α-pinene (> 85%)
Melaleuca viridiflora Two chemotypes
Broadleaved Paperbark I: highly variable character of oil, three main types:
• γ-terpinene (39–47%), terpinolene (26–33%), α-terpinene (7–9%), α-pinene (7–9%)
• 1,8-cineole (30–60%), low pinene, limonene (5–10%), α-terpineol (5–8%), β-caryophyllene
(0.5–3%), globulol (1–8%), viridiflorol (3–9%), spathulenol (3–14%)
• low cineole (1,8-cineole 6–12%), β-caryophyllene (2–10%), spathulenol (4–15%), globulol
(2–13%)
II: potential as a methyl cinnamate resource: E-methyl cinnamate (81%), E-β-ocimene (12%),
trimethoxyisobutyrophenone (5%)
Sources: Brophy 1999; Brophy & Doran 1996.

Table 10.4 Melaleuca species of medicinal interest due to their 1,8-cineole content
Notes:
1. Species and 1,8-cineole levels (other major constituents of interest and reference source).
2. If the resource refers to a chemotype (chemical type) of the species this is noted. There may be various chemotypes that have
different chemical characteristics associated with an individual species. The information in some references may differ according to
the author (in brackets).
Main species with medicinal uses

Melaleuca cajuputi (Cajuput oil):
Melaleuca cajuputi subsp. cajuputi chemotype (Australia and Indonesia): 3–60% cineole; plus α-terpineol, globulol, viridiflorol
and spathulenol (Doran 1999). The cineole-rich chemotype is the main source of the commercial oil.
• Melaleuca cajuputi subsp. cumingiana chemotype (Vietnam): 41-48% cineole; plus α-terpineol, limonene and p-cymene
(Doran 1999).
• Note: There is another chemotype, sourced from Melaleuca cajuputi subsp. platyphylla from Papua New Guinea. It is rich
in the β-triketone platyphyllol (21–80%) and can contain substantial amounts of cajeputol (an aromatic ether, levels up to
51%). These compounds have antimicrobial properties. Some Asian samples of Melaleuca cajuputi subsp. cumingiana also
contained cajeputol (2–17.5%) (Doran 1999).
• Melaleuca linariifolia
• Cineole-rich form: 61% cineole; plus limonene (Southwell 1999).
Melaleuca leucadendron
• Egyptian- sourced material: 1,8-cineole 64.3% and α-terpineol 11.02% (Farag 2004).
• chemotype: 10–45% cineole; plus p-cymene 5–22%, α-pinene 4–19%, limonene and α-terpineol (Brophy 1999).
Melaleuca linophylla: medicinal oil with potential similar to Eucalyptus oil or Cajuput
71–88% cineole; plus limonene, α-terpineol, α-pinene, p-cymene (Brophy 1999).
Melaleuca quinquenervia (Broad-leaved Paperbark)

• cineole-rich (60–75%) chemotype is the source of Niaouli oil.
• chemotype: 40–60%; plus α-pinene 9% and limonene 9.2% (Webb 2000).
• chemotype: 50–65%; plus α-pinene, limonene, α-terpineol, etc. (Brophy 1999).
Additional cineole-rich species with potential for commercial use

Melaleuca alternifolia: cineole chemotype: 54–64%; not used medicinally (Southwell 1999).
Melaleuca alsophila: chemotype: 1,8-cineole 15–66% and α-pinene 8–65% (plus limonene, ocimene, pinocarvone and pinocarveol
(Brophy 1999).
Melaleuca armillaris:
• Egyptian-sourced material: cineole 33.93% (Farag 2004).
• Australian material, Canberra: cineole 42.77%; plus terpinen-4-ol 15.97%, terpinene, terpineol, limonene, sabinene (Lee
2004).
Melaleuca atroviridis: chemotype: cineole 73.2%; plus 11% pinene (Brophy 2006)
Melaleuca citrolens:
• chemotype: cineole 34–50%; plus terpinolene 10–20% (Southwell 2003; Brophy 1999).
• chemotype: cineole 8–32%; plus terpinolene 13–27%, piperitenone 9–14%, thujene, α-phellandrene, γ-terpinene, terpinen-
4-ol and α-terpineol (Brophy 1999).
Melaleuca concreta: chemotype: cineole 58–81% (Brophy 2006).
Melaleuca dissitiflora: chemotype: cineole 63–66%; plus limonene 5–7%, α-pinene, terpinolene, terpinen-4-ol, α-terpineol
(Brophy 1999).
Melaleuca ericifolia: cineole-rich 34.5%, linalool-poor (Brophy 2004).
Melaleuca exuvia:
• chemotype: cineole 56–67%; plus pinene 13–23% (Brophy 2006).
• chemotype: cineole 28–38%; plus terpinen-4-ol 11–17% (Brophy 2006).
Melaleuca hamata: chemotype: cineole 40%; plus linalool 33.9% (Brophy 2006).
Melaleuca hypericifolia: around 80% 1,8-cineole (Lassak & McCarthy 1991).
Melaleuca scalena: cineole 43–55%; plus pinene 25–31% (Brophy 2006).
Melaleuca stereophloia: cineole 78–83% (Brophy 2006).
Melaleuca stenostachya: cineole 53–62%; plus α-pinene 19–29% and limonene 4–6% (Brophy 1999).
Melaleuca (Asteroymyrtus) symphyocarpa: 39–70%; plus α-pinene 7–18% (Brophy 1999).
Melaleuca teretifolia: chemotype: cineole 81–87%; low oil yield (Southwell 2003).
Melaleuca trichostachya: cineole 45–57%; plus terpinen-4-ol 11–16%, γ-terpinene 8–12% (Brophy 1999).
Melaleuca uncinata:
• chemotype: cineole 44–56% (Brophy 2006).
• chemotype: cineole 80–85%; plus α-pinene and α-terpineol (Brophy 1999).
Melaleuca viridiflora: cineole 30–60%; plus pinene, limonene, α-terpineol, spathulenol, viridiflorol (Brophy 1999).
Melaleuca vinnula: chemotype: cineole 60–66% (Brophy 2006).
Melaleuca zeteticorum: chemotype: cineole 63–68% (Brophy 2006).
Table 10.5 Essential oil components: native Melaleuca species with commercial or
medicinal potential
Compound Activity of chemical
Species
constituent
Caryophyllene Caryophyllene oxide: Melaleuca cajuputi subsp. cumingiana (Cajuput oil)
Widely used preservative for Chemotype, low-cineole form (Asia: Indonesia, Vietnam and Thailand):
foods and drugs β-caryophyllene 7–44%; plus α-pinene 34–73%, γ-terpinene 0–19%,
Antifungal α-pinene, α-thujene (Doran 1999).
Melaleuca nervosa (Yellow-barked Paperbark)
β-caryophyllene (6–18%), caryophyllene oxide (7–9%), spathulenol
(20–40%) (Brophy & Doran 1996).
Melaleuca styphelioides
Caryophyllene oxide 43.7%; plus spathulenol 9.65% (Farag 2004).
Citral Geranial (β-citral): Melaleuca alsophila

Antimicrobial (antiseptic, Chemotype: neral 2–10%, geranial 2–19%; plus terpinen-4-ol 13–32%,
antibacterial) p-cymene 2–40%, α-terpineol and geraniol (Brophy 1999).
Anticancer Melaleuca citrolens
Lemon varieties: 36–42% citral (Southwell 2003).
Neral (α-citral): Chemotype: neral 7–16%, geranial 9–26%; plus 1,8-cineole 12–28% and
Antiseptic terpinolene (Brophy 1999).
Antibacterial Melaleuca stipitata
Aromatic (perfumery) Lemon form: 43.5% citral (Southwell 2003)
Chemotype: neral 14%, geranial 30%; plus terpinen-4-ol 11% (Brophy
1999).
Melaleuca teretifolia
Lemon form: neral 29.1%, geranial 38.8% (Southwell 2003).
Citronellol and Antimicrobial (antiseptic, Melaleuca citrolens
citronellal antibacterial, antifungal, anti- Chemotype: citronellol 30% and citronellyl acetate 21% (Southwell
candida) 2003).
Sedative Chemotype: citronellal 20–30%; plus isopulegol, geranial, neral,
Pesticidal, insecticidal and geraniol, 1,8-cineole (Brophy 1999).
insect-repellent
Perfumery
Elemicin Antibacterial Melaleuca bracteata (Bracteate Honey Myrtle)
Anti-inflammatory Chemotype: 57.4%; plus β-caryophyllene 21.4% (Webb 2000).
Narcotic potential Melaleuca squamophloia
Chemotype: 93–97% (Brophy 1999).
Eudesmol Β-eudesmol: Melaleuca uncinata
Anticancer (anti-tumour Eudesmols 30–60%; plus 1,8-cineole 30–60% (Brophy 1999).
promoter) and antimutagenic
Antibacterial
Antiulcer, hepatoprotective
CNS: inhibitory effect, sedative
Isoelemicin Narcotic potential Melaleuca bracteata (Bracteate Honey Myrtle)
Aromatic fragrance Chemotype: 76.5%; plus elemicin 15.2% (Webb 2000)
Melaleuca squamophloia (Prickly-leafed Tea Tree)
Chemotype: isoelemicin 65–79%; plus elemicin 12–15% (Brophy 1999).
Limonene Anticancer, chemopreventive, Melaleuca lasiandra (Cadjibut) [sic]

detoxicant and antimutagenic Limonene (28–32%); plus α-pinene 24–31%, β-pinene 8–11%,
Antibacterial, antiseptic β-phellandrene 0.3–7% (Brophy & Doran 1996).
Antifungal and anti-candidal
Antiviral and anti-influenzal
Anti-inflammatory
Antiasthmatic and
antispasmodic
Expectorant
Sedative
Muscle relaxant
Immunomodulatory

Species
constituent
Linalool Antimicrobial (antiseptic, Melaleuca ericifolia (Lavender Tea Tree)
antibacterial, antifungal) Linalool-rich > 50%, cineole-poor type (Brophy 2004, 1999; Webb
Antiviral 2000).
Anticancer Melaleuca quinquenervia (Broad-leaved Paperbark)
Antispasmodic and sedative Chemotype: 30–50%; plus nerolidol 30–60% (Webb 2000).
Flavour and fragrance Melaleuca hamata
Aromatherapy Chemotype: linalool 33.9% and 1,8-cineole 40% (Brophy 2006).
Methyl cinnamate* Flavouring and fragrance Melaleuca viridiflora
Methyl cinnamate: Basil Chemotype: 82%; plus ocimene 12% (Brophy 1999).
chemotype for flavouring Note: Methyl cinnamate can also be found in high levels (98%) in
purposes Eucalyptus olida (Southwell 2005).
Methyl eugenol Antibacterial (antiseptic, Melaleuca bracteata (Bracteate Honey Myrtle)
antibacterial, antifungal) Chemotype: 50% (Webb 2000).
Analgesic and local anaesthetic Melaleuca ericifolia (Lavender Tea Tree)
Nervous system activity Egyptian-sourced material: 96.84% (Farag 2004).
(sedative, narcotic, Melaleuca leucadendron
anticonvulsant) Chemotype (chemical form): 95–97% (Brophy 1999).
Muscle relaxant
Methyl isoeugenol Antimicrobial (antibacterial, Melaleuca bracteata (Bracteate Honey Myrtle)
anti-candida) Chemotype: 87.7% (Webb 2000).
Antihistaminic Melaleuca leucadendron (Broad-leaved Paperbark)
Local anaesthetic Chemotype, chemical form I: 74–88%; plus methyl eugenol 6–24%
Anticancer (Brophy 1999).
Spasmolytic and expectorant
Nerolidol Anticancer Melaleuca quinquenervia (Broad-leaved Paperbark)
Antibacterial and anti- Chemotype: 30–60%; plus linalool 30–50% (Webb 2000).
cariogenic Chemotype: up to 95%; plus farnesol, farnesene, β-caryophyllene, etc.
Antiprotozoal (inhibit growth (Brophy 1999).
of malaria parasite)
Pinene Anti-inflammatory Melaleuca alsophila
Anti-spasmodic and Chemotype: α-pinene 8–65% and 1,8-cineole 15–66% (Brophy 1999).
spasmogenic Melaleuca arcana (Winti)
Antiseptic α-pinene-based oil (26–50%)
Pesticidal and herbicidal Other constituents: 1,8-cineole 1–40%, limonene 4–8%, γ-terpinene
Flavour, fragrance and 0.6–11%, α-terpineol 1–7%, terpinene-4-ol 0.3–33% (Brophy & Doran
perfumery 1996).
Melaleuca cajuputi subsp. platyphylla (Cajuput oil)
α-pinene: 34–73%; plus β-caryophyllene, aromadendrene and globulol
(Doran 1999).
Melaleuca stenostachya
α-pinene 27–28%, β-pinene 41–44%; plus 1,8-cineole 11–13% (Brophy
1999).
Melaleuca uncinata
Chemotype: > 85% α-pinene (Brophy 1999).
Melaleuca vinnula
Chemotype: 65.3% (Brophy 2006).
Selinene Flavouring and fragrance: Melaleuca acacioides

important component of Celery β-selinene 21–30% and α-selinene 53–54% (Brophy 1999).
Seed oil (20%)
β-selinene:
Antimalarial, antiplasmodial
Perfumery
RESOURCES 317

Species
constituent
Sabinene Sabinene: Melaleuca alternifolia (Australian Tea Tree)
Antibacterial and antiseptic Cis-sabinene may be present in good quantities in the early leaf growth
Anti-helicobacter and has potential as a Sweet Marjoram (Origanum majorana) substitute
Anti-ulcer (Southwell 2005).
Perfumery and flavouring Leptospermum wooroonooran
Note: cis-sabinene hydrate Sabinene 9–19%; plus humulene 11–20% (Brophy 2000).
has flavouring qualities, e.g.
imparts a spicy quality to black
pepper. It is also is a major
constituent of Carrot Seed oil.
Terpinen-4-ol Anti-inflammatory Melaleuca alsophila
Anti-allergic Lemon-scented chemotype: 23–32%; plus citral 2–29% (Southwell
Anti-asthmatic 2003).
Antimicrobial (antiseptic, Melaleuca alternifolia (Tea Tree oil)
antibacterial) 23–46%; plus p-cymene 4–35% and γ-terpinene trace–18% (Southwell
Antitussive, expectorant 1999).
Melaleuca armillaris
Egyptian sourced material: 18.79% (Farag 2004).
Melaleuca concreta
Melaleuca dissitiflora
Chemotype: 38–52%; plus pinene, sabinene, 1,8-cineole, γ-terpinene,
terpinolene, α-terpineol (Brophy 1999).
Melaleuca hamata
Melaleuca linariifolia (Narrow-leaved Honey Myrtle)
Chemotype: 32–38%; plus γ-terpinene 17–18%, α-terpinene 9-10%
(Southwell 1999).
Melaleuca uncinata
Chemotype: 21–31%; plus terpinene 10–14% (Brophy 2006)
Chemotype: 24–42%; plus p-cymene 11–26%; α- and γ-terpinenes
(Brophy 1999).
Terpinolene Fragrance Melaleuca cajuputi subsp. cumingiana (Cajuput oil)
Chemotype, low-cineole form (Asia: Indonesia, Vietnam & Thailand):
0–20%; plus β-caryophyllene 7–44%, γ-terpinene 0–19%, α-pinene,
α-thujene (Doran 1999).
Melaleuca trichostachya
47–65%; plus 1,8-cineole 9–24% (Brophy 1999).
Melaleuca viridiflora
26–33%; plus γ-terpinene 39-47% (Brophy 1999).
Viridiflorol Venous tonic Melaleuca quinquenervia (Broad-leafed Paperbark)
Acetylcholinesterase inhibitiona Viridifloral chemotype: 43.6% viridiflorol; plus 1,8-cineole 13.7%,
Fragrance α-pinene 9.1% and limonene 10.7% (Webb 2000).
Chemotype: 80%; plus α-pinene, limonene (Brophy 1999).)
Note:
a Compounds that inhibit acetylcholinesterase activity have attracted researchinterest due to their potential to treat Alzheimer’s disease (Miyazawa 1998).
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INDEX
Abies cochlocarpa subsp. velutinosa, irrorata, 179 pallidifolia, 204

excelsa, 120, 126 225 ixiophylla, 235, 236 papyrocarpa, 211
pectinata, 120 colei, 211, 217, 231 karroo, 204, 224, 229 paradoxa, 222, 225
Acacia concinna, 236 kempeana, 232 parramattensis, 183, 225
acuminata, 211, 235 coriacea, 218 kingiana, 225 pedunculata, 204
adsurgens, 231, 236 cowleana, 217 lanuginophylla, 225 pellita, 233, 235
albida, 227, 229 crassicarpa, 178, 207, 209, legnota, 207 pennata, 204
albizioides, 204 211, 212, 213, 217, 222, leiocalyx, 207, 235 pennata subsp. insuavis, 204
ancistrocarpa, 230, 231, 236 223 leiophylla, 240 pennata subsp. kerrii, 204
aneura, 211, 231, 233, 235 curassavica, 204 lenticellata, 204 penninervis, 205, 235
angustissima, 204 cyperophylla, 214 leptalea, 225 peregrinalis, 211
anthelmintica, 248 dealbata, 178, 181, 182, leptocarpa, 202, 230, 232, petraea, 213
aprica, 225 210, 211, 224, 240, 241 235 pharangites, 225
argentea, 235 decora, 208, 209, 244 leptoclada var. polyphylla, 204 pinguifolia, 225
aristulata, 225 decurrens, 178, 180, 181, ligulata, 232, 233, 234, 235 podalyriifolia, 222, 225
ataxiphylla subsp. magna, 215, 216, 224, 229, 231, lobulata, 225 polystachya, 230, 235
225 239, 240, 244 longifolia, 207, 218, 224 porcata, 225
aulacocarpa, 207, 208, 222 decurrens var. dealbata, 155 longissima, 235 prismifolia, 225
auratiflora, 225 decurrens var. mollis, 181, lysiphloia, 232, 234, 235 pruinocarpa, 233, 236
auriculiformis, 210, 211, 182 maidenii, 205 pycnantha, 178, 179, 180,
212, 213, 223, 231, 233, dictyophleba, 231, 236 mangium, 207, 210, 211, 181, 183, 209, 218, 225,
235 ditricha, 204 213, 217, 224 229, 239, 240
baileyana, 202, 222, 223, doratoxylon, 213 mearnsii, 178, 179, 182, pygmaea, 225
226, 240 elata, 215, 224 183, 211, 222, 224 pyrifolia, 230
bancroftii, 22 enterocarpa, 225 melaleucoides, 204 raddeana, 227
bancroftiorum, 22 erioloba, 222, 224 melanoxylon, 203, 211, 212, randelliana, 208
bidwillii, 204, 205 estrophiolata, 230, 231, 233 213, 214, 221, 224, 228, recurvata, 225
bidwillii var. bidwillii, 204 falcata, 230, 235 232 retinodes, 218, 225
bidwillii var. major, 204 falciformis, 183, 211 mellifera, 236 rhamphophylla, 225
bidwillii var. polytricha, 204 farnesiana, 206, 216, 222, microbotrya, 241 ruppii, 225
bidwillii var. typica, 204 224, 230, 232 mollissima, 178, 182 salicina, 211, 215, 233, 235
bivenosa subsp. wayi, 231 farnesiana var. cavernia, 216 monticola, 105, 232 saligna, 210, 211, 225
brachypoda, 225 farnesiana var. farnesiana, muelleri, 14 sciophanes, 225
brunioides subsp. gordonii, 204 muelleriana, 14 senegal, 227, 228, 229, 238,
225 farnesiana var. lenticellata, multisiliqua, 207, 233, 235 239, 240
burkittii, 208 204 murrayana, 217, 218 seyal, 229
caffra, 243 fimbriata, 218, 235 nilotica, 203, 205, 225, 227, shirleyi, 213
calcigera, 204 flavescens, 207, 209 228, 229, 236 sieberiana, 229
calyculata, 207 floribunda, 215, 224 notabilis, 218, 233 simsii, 235, 236
cambagei, 283 giraffae, 222, 224 oncinocarpa, 233 sp. Graveside Gorge, 225
catechu, 188, 204, 229 gordonii, 225 oraria, 214 splendens, 225
catechu var. sundra, 204 holosericea, 207, 217, 229, orthocarpa, 233 stenophylla, 211, 219, 225
celsa, 211, 212, 213 230, 231, 232, 234, 235 oxycedrus, 235 suaveolens, 207
chapmanii subsp. australis, holosericea var. pubescens, 233 pachyphloia, 204 subcaerulea, 215
225 homalophylla, 244 pachyphloia subsp. suberosa, 204
cibaria, 105 humifusa, 207 brevipinnula, 204 subflexuosa subsp. capillata,
cincinnata, 207, 227 imitans, 225 pachyphloia subsp. 225
clarksoniana, 204 implexa, 211, 224, 230, 234 pachyphloia, 204 sutherlandii, 204
cochlocarpa subsp. inaequilatera, 230 pachyphloia subsp. puberula, tenuissima, 233
cochlocarpa, 225 insolita subsp. recurva, 225 204 terminalis, 207
335
terminalis subsp. terminalis, almaciga, 115 armentoflavone, 122 195, 196, 199, 200
225 Alpine Ash, 156 aromadendrene, 16, 26, 30, Beach Barringtonia, 191
tetragonophylla, 206, 229, American copal, 66 53, 79, 267, 269, 307, Beef Silky Oak, 94
233 Ammi majus, 91 313, 316 Beefwood, 5, 83, 94
texensis, 204 amphotericin B, 150, 276, 277 allo-aromadendrene, 35, 122 Bell-fruited Mallee, 169
tortilis, 203, 227 amyrins, 118 Artemisia benzaldehyde, 44, 172
torulosa, 233 Amyris abiritium, 41 benzoate, 304
trachycarpa, 230, 233 balsamifera, 103 herbo-alba, 41 benzyl benzoate, 150
translucens, 230, 233 elemifera, 103 mexicana, 29 Berberis tinctoria, 121
tumida, 217 plumieri, 103 pontica, 41 betulinic acid, 159, 160
turbata, 204 Andropogon nardus var. scoparia, 157 betulonic acid, 160
ulicifolia, 207 flexuosus, 148 Ascophyllum nodosum, 238 Beyeria leschenaultii, 105
unguicula, 225 Angophora Asimia triloba, 261 bicyclogermacrene, 47, 53, 76,
verticillata, 225 bakeri, 84 Aspergillus 122, 151, 167, 259, 266,
victoriae, 217, 218, 235, 241 costata, 84, 85, 86, 251 flavus, 150, 167 267, 312, 313
volubilis, 225 floribunda, 84 niger, 150, 167, 309 Bilberry, 191
whibleyana, 225 intermedia, 84, 85 Asteromyrtus Billygoat Plum, 192
xanthophloea, 203 lanceolata, 67, 76, 83, 84, angustifolia, 294, 295 bisabolenol, 136
Acaciella 85, 86, 219 arnhemica, 294, 295 Black Canarium, 106
angustissima, 204 melanoxylon, 84, 235 brassii, 294, 295 Black Cutch, 177
angustissima var. texensis, 204 subvelutina, 67, 85, 86 lysicephala, 294, 295 Black Kauri, 112
glauca, 204 woodsiana, 67, 84, 85 magnifica, 294 Black Kurrajong, 293
Achillea millefolium, 135 anisole, 261 symphyocarpa, 294, 295, 314 Black Orchid, 289
Acmena graveolens, 185 Anopheles Astragalus gummifer, 238 Black Pencil Cedar, 242
Aedes darlingi, 150 Athrotaxis Black Sally Wattle, 215
aegypti, 151, 152 gambiae, 150 cupressoides, 131 Black Tea Tree, 260
albopictus, 151 pharoensis, 147 laxifolia, 131 Black Wattle, 180, 181, 182,
Aeromonas hydrophilia, 208, stephensi, 151, 152 selaginoides, 131 203, 206, 212, 213, 216,
257 sundaicus, 148 Australian Elemi, 103 219, 223, 224, 231, 235,
African sandarac, 140 anthocyanidins, 70, 188, 191 Australian Kauri copal, 66 241
agathalic acid, 118 Anthoxanthum odoratum, 92 Australian Marking Nut Tree, Blackbutt, 17
agathic acid, 118 Apple 96 Blackwood, 190, 203, 211,
Agathis Argyle, 83 Australian Peanut Tree, 249 213, 214, 224, 228, 232
alba, 66, 114 Broad-leaved, 84 Australian Tick Bush, 266 Blister Bush, 96
atropurpurea, 112, 114, 122 Brown, 84 Austromyrtus Bloodwood, 5, 57, 76, 85, 87
australis, 66, 114, 117, 118, Malay, 161 dulcis, 294 Brush, 87
122 Moonbi Box, 83 glabra, 294 Desert, 76
borneensis, 121 Narrow-leaved or Small- Pink, 74
celebica, 121 leaved, 84 Bacillus Red, 55
dammara, 66, 114, 118, 122 Red-barked, 84 cereus, 30, 31, 94, 257 West Australian, 82
lanceolata, 66, 118 Rough-barked or Smudgy, subtilis, 29, 81, 165, 208, Bloodwood kino, 59
macrophylla, 122 84 254, 257, 309 Blue Gum
microstachya, 113, 114, 122 Smooth-barked, 84, 86 Backhousia citriodora, 277 Mountain, 153
moorei, 122 Apple Box, 84 Baeckea Sydney, 31, 32
palmerstonii, 113, 114 Apple Gum, 84 calycina, 264 Blue Mallee, 23
philippinensis, 114, 115, 118 arabiensis, 147 crenulata, 264 Blueberry, 191
robusta, 66, 110, 113, 114, Araucaria frutescens, 262, 263, 264, Bocconia arborea, 29
117, 118, 119, 122 araucana, 116, 121 267, 308 Boophilus annulatus, 149
vitiensis, 114 bidwillii, 116, 117, 120, imbricata, 252, 263, 264 borneol, 100, 134, 175
Agathis copal, 66 121, 122, 129 linearis, 266, 267 Boswellia
agglomerone, 169, 255 brasiliensis, 116 stenophylla, 262, 263, 264 freriana, 103
Agonis columnaris, 116, 117, 122 virgata, 262, 263 serrata, 64
flexuosa, 17 cookii, 116 baeckol, 263, 264 Botany Bay Gum, 75
fragrans, 278 cunninghamii, 110, 116, Baloghia Botany Bay Kino, 60, 75
linearis, 265 117, 119, 120, 123, 127, inophylla, 87, 88 Bracteate Honey Myrtle, 301,
Albizia 128 lucida, 87, 88 315, 316
adianthifolia, 248 excelsa, 116, 119, 126 marmorata, 87 Brisbane Wattle, 218
amara, 248 heterophylla, 123, 126 Balsam, 62 Broad-leaved Paperbark, 282,
gummifera, 248 husteinii, 123 Balsam of Peru, 62, 63 284, 285, 298, 299, 304,
lebbeck, 247, 248 luxurians, 123 Barbwire Grass, 148 314, 316, 317
Albizzia lebbeck, 248 mirabilis, 110 Barringtonia asiatica, 191 Brown Mallet, 183
Alchemilla xanthochlora, 190 montana, 114, 123 Basil, 29, 33, 39, 41, 159, 162, Brown Myrtle, 162, 163
Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris, muelleri, 123 174, 310, 316 Brown Salwood, 210, 212, 217
31 scopulorum, 123 Batrocera tryoni, 112 Brush Cypress, 141, 142
Allium sativum, 29 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, 253 Beach Almond, 6, 193, 194, Brush Ironbark, 212
INDEX 337
Brush Turpentine, 105, 107, preissii, 132, 138, 139, 140 Casuarina stricta, 190 verum, 276
162 quadrivalvis, 65, 132 catechin, 68, 76, 80, 187, zeylanicum, 90, 276
Buckwheat, 154 rhomboidea, 132, 134, 135, 188, 190 Cinnamon, 89, 90, 174, 266,
Bull Kauri, 113 137, 138, 139, 140 epicatechin, 80, 188 277, 278
bulnesol, 136 robusta, 140 catechol, 34, 70, 184 ciprofloxacin, 276
Bumpy Satinash, 184 roei, 139 pyrocatechol, 34 citral, 34, 50, 148, 150, 154,
Burkitt’s Wattle, 208 tasmanica, 134, 135, 140 Catechu, 68, 177, 186, 188, 172, 257, 258, 259, 260,
Butea tuberulata, 138 223 268, 273, 297, 306, 315,
frondosa, 51, 63 verrucosa, 132, 134, 138, Catharanthus roseus, 39 317
monosperma, 51, 63 140, 143 Centella asiatica, 151 α-citral, 268
Callitropsis auraucarioides, 136 Cepobaculum canaliculatum, citridiol, 149
Cadagai, 159 Calluna vulgaris, 159 290 Citronella, 24, 148, 149, 150,
cadinene, 53, 70, 100, 147 Calytrix Ceratopetalum 258
δ-cadinene, 122, 123, 172, 269 achaeta, 296 apetalum, 83, 88, 90, 93 Citronella grass, 147
cadinol, 70, 147 brownii, 296 gummiferum, 83, 88, 89, citronellal, 33, 46, 139, 145,
T-cadinol, 259, 268 exstipulata, 295, 296 90, 93 146, 147, 154, 156, 173,
caffeic acid, 191 laricina, 296 succirubrum, 88 259, 260, 262, 268, 302,
Cajeput, 152, 269 camaldulin, 159 virchowii, 88 306, 312, 315
Cajuput Tea Tree, 282, 283 campholenic aldehyde, 32 Cercartetus nanus, 171 citronellol, 46, 145, 146, 149,
Cajuputi leucadendron, 284 camphor, 27, 29, 100, 143, Cetraria islandica, 238 150, 151, 154, 173, 306,
calamene, 258, 268 146, 173, 174, 175, 266, Chamaemelum nobile, 135 315
Calamus 306, 308 Chaste Tree, 159 β-citronellol, 150
draco, 51 Canarium chloramphenicol, 31, 32, 81, citronellyl acetate, 79, 139,
rotang, 51 acutifolium, 103 256, 275 268, 315
roxburghii, 51 album, 99, 105, 106 chlorothymol, 262 Citrus
Callicoma serratifolia, 206 australasicum, 103, 104, 105 Choricarpia aurantifolia, 276
Callistemon australianum, 103, 104, leptopetala, 105, 107, 162, limon, 154, 276
citrinus, 255 105, 134 163 sinensis, 276
nervosus, 298 benghalense, 106 subargentea, 107, 162, 163 clerodane diterpenoids, 81
sieberi, 305 commune, 66, 99, 105, 106 Chrysanthemum Clostridium perfringens, 200,
viminalis, 252 grandiflorum, 99 cinerariaefolium, 153 274
Callitris indicum, 106 cineole, 6, 16, 18, 19, 20, 22, Clove oil, 149
arenosa, 132, 133 luzonicum, 99 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, Clover, 91
baileyi, 138, 139 mannii, 122 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 39, 40, Coachwood, 83, 88, 93
calcarata, 131, 137 muelleri, 66, 99, 103 41, 42, 45, 50, 55, 70, 79, Coarse Tea Tree, 278
canescens, 138, 139 nitidum, 99 146, 147, 153, 156, 160, Coast Cypress, 132
columellaris, 65, 132, 133, ovatum, 99 162, 164, 166, 167, 169, Coast or Bribie Island Cypress,
138, 139, 140, 143 pimela, 106 170, 171, 173, 259, 266, 132, 143
columellaris var. campestris, schweinfurthii, 66, 99 267, 269, 272, 273, 275, Coastal Tea Tree, 256, 284
131 strictum, 66, 105 278, 294, 295, 296, 297, Coccoloba uveifera, 63
cupressiformis, 137 vitiense, 103 298, 299, 303, 304, 305, Cochin Kino, 71
drummondii, 138, 139, 140 zephyrenum, 103 306, 307, 308, 309, 311, Cochlospermum
endlicheri, 65, 131, 133, Candida albicans, 30, 32, 39, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, gossypium, 238, 249
134, 138, 139, 140 163, 167, 274, 309 317 religiosum, 238, 249
glauca, 131, 133 candinene, 70 1,4-cineole, 41 Colletotrichum gloeosporioides,
glaucophylla, 131, 133, 136, Cannabis sativa, 47, 173 1,8-cineole, 16, 18, 19, 27, 236
138, 139 Carbeen, 76 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, Colocasia esculenta var.
gracilis subsp. gracilis, 138, Cardiaspina tenuitella, 38 40, 42, 45, 70, 79, 147, antiquorum, 103
139 Carduus marianus, 158, 159 152, 162, 164, 167, Commiphora
gracilis subsp. murrayensis, carene, 112 168, 170, 254, 255, molmol, 64
138 Carica papaya, 261 258, 259, 261, 263, myrrha, 64
gunnii, 132 carvacrol, 153 267, 269, 272, 273, Common Brushtail Possum,
hugelii, 132 caryophyllene, 45, 47, 172, 275, 278, 295, 298, 170, 171
intratropica, 131, 132, 133, 267, 268, 310, 313, 315 304, 305, 306, 307, Common Hookthorn, 243
134, 135, 136, 138, 139, α-caryophyllene, 45, 47 309, 312, 313 communic acid, 118, 119
143 caryophyllene oxide, 45, 79, cinnamaldehyde, 79, 151, Convallaria majalis, 149
macleayana, 132, 138, 139, 122, 160, 164, 172, 259, 276, 277 Convolvulus scammonia, 65
140, 141, 142 300, 307, 310, 312, 315 cinnamic acid, 62, 63, 70 Coolibah, 52, 84
muelleri, 132, 136, 137, 138 isocaryophyllene, 310 cinnamic aldehyde, 277 Cootamundra Wattle, 202,
oblonga, 132, 136, 137, 138 ß-caryophyllene, 76, 151, 154, Cinnamomon 222, 223, 226
oblonga subsp. corangensis, 172, 258, 259, 260, 267, cassia, 89, 90 Coowarra Box, 283
138 268, 294, 295, 300, 307, zeylanicum, 89 copaene
oblonga subsp. oblonga, 137, 310, 312, 313, 315, 316, Cinnamomum α-copaene, 123, 307
139 317 camphora, 27 copaent, 268
oblonga subsp. parva, 139 Cassia Cinnamon, 90 cassia, 151, 277 Copaifera
guibourtiana, 66 refractus, 148 Elegant Wattle, 217, 218, 241 bancroftii, 22, 45
officinalis, 66 winterianus, 148 elemene, 135 baueriana var. conica, 17
reticulata, 66 cypellocarpin, 164, 165 Elemi, 5, 63, 66, 82, 99, 100, bensonii, 169
copal, 5, 66, 118 103, 136 beyeri, 173
corosolic acid, 160 Dacrydium franklinii, 112 African, 66, 99, 103 blakelyi, 164, 305
Corylus heterophylla, 190 Daemonorops Australian, 66, 99, 103 bleeseri, 172
Corymbia didymophylla, 51 Brazilian, 103 bloxsomei, 173
abergiana, 33 draco, 51, 79, 80, 81 East Indian, 103 botryoides, 42, 48
calophylla, 82 micranthus, 51 Manila, 66, 99 brassiana, 17
citriodora, 24, 32, 33, 70, Daintree Wattle, 207, 227 Mexican, 103 brevistylis, 47
145, 146, 147 Dalby Wattle, 219, 225 Yucatan, 103 bridgesiana, 83, 173
clarksoniana, 33, 74 dammaradienol, 79 elemicin, 112, 162, 301, 312, brookeriana, 166
erythrophloia, 33 Darwinia 313, 315 brownii, 25, 45
ficifolia, 33 citriodora, 265, 266 E-isoelemicin, 313 caesia subsp. caesia, 44, 169
grandiflora, 33 fascicularis, 265 isoelemicin, 313, 315 caesia subsp. magna, 169
gummifera, 55, 76, 251 grandifolia, 264 Z-isoelemicin, 313 calcicola, 50, 176
haematoxylon, 33 leijostyla, 265 elemol, 136, 147, 151, 168 caleyi, 172
intermedia, 33, 74 macrostegia, 265 Elettaria cardamomum, 41 calophylla, 46, 49, 60, 82,
leichhardtii, 33 meeboldii, 265 ellagic acid, 34, 67, 70, 106, 175
maculata, 42, 67, 69, 145, oxylepis, 265 146, 165, 187, 188, 199 camaldulensis, 30, 32, 33,
146, 158 procera, 264 ellago-tannic acid, 84 34, 36, 37, 42, 45, 55,
nesophila, 33 squarrosa, 265 Emblica officinalis, 195, 198 73, 74, 77, 78, 79, 147,
paracolpica, 33 daucosterol, 160 emphloin, 75 151, 152, 160, 169, 261,
setosa, 33 Dead Finish, 169, 206, 233 English Oak, 182 271
terminalis, 76, 181 Deet, 147, 149, 150, 153 Enterococcus faecalis, 31 camaldulensis var. brevirostris,
tessellaris, 33, 67, 74, 76 Demodex folliculorum, 39 Ephedra 34
Corynobacterium diphtheriae, Dendrobium equisetina, 40, 41 camaldulensis var.
27 affine, 10, 289, 290 intermedia, 41 camaldulensi, 79
coumarin, 89, 90, 91, 92 bigibbum, 10 sinica, 41 camaldulensis var. catharine,
Coumarouna odorata, 92 bigibbum var. phalaenopsis, Eremophila fraseri, 105 30
Crimson Bottlebrush, 255 10, 11 eriodyctiol, 157 camaldulensis var. mysore, 30
Croton canaliculatum, 10, 289, 290 Erythrophleum chlorostachys, 94 camaldulensis var. obtusa,
draco, 51, 81 discolor, 290 Escherichia coli, 29, 30, 31, 32, 79, 159
erythrochilus, 52, 81 phalaenopsis, 10 81, 167, 200, 254, 275, cambageana, 283
lechleri, 51, 81 rigidum, 290 276, 277 camphora subsp. camphora,
urucurana, 51, 81 schroederanum, 10 ether, 62, 118, 312, 314 46
cryptone, 16, 33, 79, 164, 169 Dermanyssus gallinae, 154 Ethrel, 60 camphora subsp. relicta, 45
Cubebs, 74 Dermatophagoides ethylgallate, 198, 200 canaliculata, 50
Culex farinae, 150 etoposide, 140 capitellata, 16
pipiens, 151 pteronyssinus, 150, 154, 261, eucalyptol, 19, 21, 22, 27, 28, capitosa, 175
quinquefasciatus, 152 262 35, 40, 41, 45, 50, 101, catenaria, 49, 174
cuminal, 164 Desert Bloodwood, 181 173, 269, 273, 306 cephalocarpa, 45
Cupressus Desert Mulga, 231 eucalyptone, 35 chlorophylla, 45
macrocarpa, 140 dicoumarol, 91, 92 Eucalyptus cinerea, 25, 45, 83, 147,
sempervirens, 136 diosmin, 157 absita, 169 152, 164, 166, 261
Curcuma longa, 151 dipentene, 70, 103, 134, 147 acaciiformis, 17 citriodora, 5, 24, 32, 33,
Cyamopsis tetragonolobus, 238 Diphylleia grayi, 140 acies, 47, 50 36, 39, 46, 70, 82, 145,
Cyathea Dipteryx alba, 30, 32 146, 150, 151, 154, 173,
cooperi, 227 odorata, 92 amplifolia, 163, 164 261, 302
rebeccae, 227 oppositifolia, 92 amygdalina, 17, 18, 48, 49, cladocalyx, 45, 160, 172
Cycas circinalis, 247 dodecanol, 261 73, 175 clarksoniana, 33
Cymbidium canaliculatum, Dorema ammoniacum, 65 amygdalina var. nitida, 19 cloeziana, 169
289, 290 Dracaena andrewsii, 17, 47 coccifera, 48
Cymbopogan martinii martinii, cinnabari, 80 andrewsii subsp. codonocarpa, 305
148 cochinchinensis, 80 campanulata, 48 conglobata, 45, 175
Cymbopogon draco, 51, 80, 81 angustissima, 45 consideniana, 16
ambiguus, 148, 149 dracorhodin, 79 apodophylla, 47, 174 coolabah subsp. coolabah,
bombycinus, 148 Dragon’s blood, 5, 88, 252 aspratilis, 175 174
citratus, 32, 148, 261, 279 Drooping Tea Tree, 283 astringens, 45, 172, 183 coolabah subsp. microtheca,
flexuosus, 148, 277 Drosera whittakeri, 157 australis, 17 47, 172
martini, 148 Ducula spilorrhoa, 103 badjensis, 25 cornuta, 166
nardus, 147 dundatholic acid, 119 baileyana, 31 corymbosa, 55, 67, 76, 85
obtectus, 148 bakeri, 25, 45 corynocladyx, 160
procerus, 148 Eastern Pygmy Possum, 171 balladoniensis subsp. sedens, cosmophylla, 164
proximus, 148 Eclipta alba, 193 46 crebra, 49, 67
INDEX 339
crenulata, 174 granitica, 45 moorei var. latiuscula, 46 pumila, 25

croajingolensis, 17, 50, 176 gregsoniana, 46 multicaulis, 46 punctata, 42
cullenii, 48 guilfoylei, 169 myriadena, 25, 166 quadrangularis, 48
curtipes, 175 gummifera, 172 nesophila, 173 quadrangulata, 46, 175
cyanophylla, 44 gunnii, 152 nicholii, 17, 25, 42, 45, 305 quadrans, 175
cypellocarpa, 165 haemastoma, 42, 67 niphophila, 168 racemosa, 42
dalrympleana, 83, 175 haematoxylon, 175 nitens, 23, 190 radiata, 17, 19, 23, 24, 48,
dawsonii, 46, 50, 169, 173 halophila, 46, 173 nitida, 19, 48 49, 154, 164
dealbata, 45 hamersleyana, 172 normantonensis, 175 radiata subsp. radiata, 49
deanei, 153 horistes, 45 nova-anglica, 17, 26, 44, 46, radiata subsp. sejuncta, 174
deglupta, 30, 32, 48, 161, incerata, 47, 172 48, 172, 173, 174, 305 raveretiana, 49, 174
174 incrassata, 164 numerosa, 17 recurva, 111
delegatensis, 156 intermedia, 49, 74 obliqua, 15, 42 regnans, 42, 46
delegatensis subsp. jensenii, 163, 170, 171 oblonga, 46 remota, 46
tasmaniensis, 48 kartzoffiana, 166 obtusiflora, 172, 175 resinifera, 9, 42, 61, 67, 75,
denticulata, 48, 175 kochii, 25 occidentalis, 160 77, 83
desquammata, 45 kochii subsp. kochii, 45 odorata, 17, 45 rhombica, 173
dichromophloia, 181 laevopinea, 46, 49 oleosa, 25 risdonii, 19
diversicolor, 175 lansdowneana subsp. olida, 168, 174, 316 robertsonii, 17, 50
diversifolia, 47 albopurpurea, 172 olsenii, 48 robusta, 9, 32, 61, 164, 165,
dives, 17, 18, 25, 45, 48, 49, largiflorens, 30 opaca, 181 175
174, 175 lateritica, 169 orophila, 176 rodwayi, 19, 48
dumosa, 175 lehmannii, 29 ovata, 42, 47, 49, 70, 83, rostrata, 37, 73, 74, 78, 79
dunnii, 152 leichhardtii, 49, 174 170, 171 rubida, 42, 175
dura, 48 lenziana, 172 paliformis, 48, 49 rudis, 47, 172
elaeophloia, 175 leptoloma, 49, 174 paniculata, 9 saligna, 25, 30, 31, 32, 49,
elata, 49, 175 leptopoda, 45, 166 papuana, 57, 58, 175 67, 152, 261
erythrocorys, 50, 176 leucoxylon, 29, 44 papuana vel aff, 44, 172, 175 salmonophloia, 16, 49, 175
erythronema var. marginata, leucoxylon var. macrocarpa, paracolpica, 47 saxatilis, 25
175 29 parviflora, 164 sclerophylla, 173, 175
eugenioides, 67 ligustrina, 46 parvifolia, 45 sepulcralis, 29
ewartiana, 45 loxophleba, 25, 44, 166, 170 patellaris, 50, 176 setosa, 173
exilipes, 47 loxophleba subsp. gratiae, 25 patellis, 44 siberi, 48
exserta, 17 loxophleba subsp. lissophloiea, patens, 47, 174 siderophloia, 8, 49, 67, 73,
falcata, 175 25 pauciflora, 46, 167, 168 75
famelica, 45 macarthurii, 24, 173 pauciflora subsp. debuzevillei, sideroxylon, 152, 166, 167,
fascicularis, 29 macrocarpa, 34, 163, 165 46, 168 261
fastigata, 46 macrocarpa subsp. pauciflora subsp. niphophila, sieberi, 184
ficifolia, 46, 47, 49, 82, 172, macrocarpa, 44 46, 48, 168 sieberiana, 184
175 macrorhyncha, 155, 156, 180 pauciflora subsp. pauciflora, signata, 48
gamophylla, 47, 172 macrorhyncha subsp. 168 smithii, 45
gardneri subsp. gardneri, cannonii, 50, 173, 176 pellita, 49 sparsa, 47, 172
50, 169 maculata, 31, 33, 67, 68, perangusta, 172 staigeriana, 50, 150, 176
gardneri subsp. 69, 70, 71, 86, 145, 146, perriniana, 45 stannicola, 46
ravensthorpensis, 50, 169 147, 158 petalophylla, 173 stellulata, 48
georgei, 48, 175 maculata citriodon, 147, 153 phaenophylla, 175 stenostoma, 49
gigantea, 156 maculata var. citriodora, 146 phaenophylla subsp. striaticalyx subsp. beadellii,
globoidea, 160 major, 31 interjacens, 175 175
globulus, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, malacoxylon, 83 phoenicea, 166 striaticalyx subsp. gypsophila,
29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, mannensis, 45 pilularis, 42, 48, 67 175
36, 39, 41, 42, 70, 102, mannifera, 166, 173 piperita, 15, 16, 18, 48, 49, stricklandii, 169
146, 147, 149, 151, 152, mannifera subsp. maculosa, 55, 175 sturgissiana, 25, 45
153, 154, 156, 158, 159, 47 piperita subsp. piperita, 25 sturtiana, 83
161, 163, 164, 165, 166, marginata, 47, 73 piperita subsp. urceolaris, 25 subangusta subsp. cerina, 45,
167, 170, 190 megacarpa, 29 platyphylla, 30, 47, 49 48, 172
globulus subsp. globulus, 26, melanophitra, 175 plenissima, 25 subcrenulata, 25
152, 261 melanophloia, 172 polyanthemos, 42, 170 suberea, 169
globulus subsp. maidenii, 26, melliodora, 30, 37, 38, 42, polybractea, 23, 45 suggrandis, 45, 172
152, 261 56, 170 polycarpa, 30 tasmanica, 19
globulus subsp. microcorys, 42, 67, 76 preissiana, 169 tenuiramis, 19, 48
pseudoglobulus, 26 microtheca, 52 propinqua, 32, 42 tereticornis, 32, 36, 42, 67,
goniocalyx, 45 miniata, 49, 53, 174 pruinosa, 52 151, 152, 159, 164, 169,
gracilis, 169 mitchelliana, 46 pryoriana, 42 261
grandis, 42, 152, 163, 164, moluccana, 42, 45, 169 pterocarpa, 44 terminalis, 76, 181
255 moorei, 46 pulverulenta, 25, 166 tessellaris, 67, 76
tetrodonta, 49, 52 Filipendula ulmaria, 190 224, 231 Gum Tragacanth, 239
thozetiana, 50 flavanols, 70, 188, 191, 192 Grevillea Gundabluey, 218
torelliana, 49, 159, 160 flavanones, 70, 82, 188, 191, angulata, 96
torquata, 167, 169 192 baileyana, 98, 286 Haemophilus
trachyphloia, 172 flavesone, 254, 255 banksii, 97, 98 influenzae, 31, 161
tricarpa, 166 Flinders or Notable Wattle, bipinnatifida, 95, 97 parainfluenzae, 31, 161
triflora, 48, 49 218 coriacae, 95 Hawthorn, 188
umbonata, 169 Flindersia dimidiata, 96 head louse, 261, 262
uncinata, 175 australis, 128, 247 heliosperma, 95 Heather, 159
urophylla, 32, 48, 151, 174 maculosa, 245, 246, 247 hilliana, 98 Hedaroma latifolium, 265, 266
varia subsp. salsuginosa, 172 oxyleyana, 247 juncifolia, 94 Hedychium flavum, 41
varia subsp. varia, 47, 172 pimenteliana, 247 leucadendron, 95 Helicobacter pylori, 160, 190,
vegrandis, 25 schottiana, 247 mimosoides, 96 277
viminalis, 23, 31, 42, 55, Forest Berry, 168 papuana, 95 Herpes
152, 164, 166, 170, 261 Frankincense, 62, 64, 99, 103, parallela, 94 simplex, 136, 161, 273, 310
virens, 49, 174 118, 119 pteridifolia, 98 zoster, 136
viridis, 45 Frenela pyramidalis, 95, 96, 105 hesperetin, 157
wandoo, 48, 174, 175, 183, calcarata, 131 pyramidalis subsp. hesperidin, 154, 157, 192
184 columellaris, 132 leucadendron, 95 hibaene, 122, 123
watsoniana subsp. capillata, endlicheri, 131 robusta, 94, 97, 98 hillone, 108
47 gunnii, 132 striata, 83, 94 hillyl acetate, 108
watsoniana subsp. microcarpa, 132 ‘Robyn Gordon’, 97 Honey Grevillea, 94
watsoniana, 172, 173 Fucus Guaiacum Honeysuckle, 173
wetarensis, 48, 175 serratusm, 238 officinale, 65, 173 house dust mite, 261, 262
whitei, 48, 174, 305 vesiculosus, 238 sanctum, 65 humulene, 47, 258, 259, 267,
williamsiana, 46 guaiazulene, 135 269, 307, 317
yarraensis, 44, 49, 172 Galip Nut, 106 guaiol, 70, 135, 136, 143, 146, α-humulene, 47, 151, 310
youmanii, 155, 156 Galium triflorum, 92 147, 151 Humulus lupulus, 47
Eucalyptus kino, 52, 73, 75, gallic acid, 34, 68, 70, 165, Guava, 188 Hymenolepis diminuta, 235
79, 187, 239 186, 188, 189, 190, 191, Gum
eudesmol, 19, 27, 33, 46, 70, 198, 199, 200, 201, 236, Blue, 5, 23, 24, 26, 29, 31, Indian Gooseberry, 198
135, 136, 151, 164, 167, 309 34, 35, 39, 41, 42, 151, Ipecacuanha, 188
168, 169, 173, 254, 256, Garlic, 29 152, 158, 159 Ipomoea
258, 259, 267, 268, 294, Garuga Flooded, 163, 164 operculata, 65
307, 311, 313, 315 floribunda, 106, 107 Forest Red, 36, 42, 151, purga, 65
ß-eudesmol, 136, 151, 160, pinnata, 107 152, 159, 164 isopulegol, 150, 268, 306,
167, 259 Geodorum neocaledonicum, 290 Ghost, 58 312, 315
Eugenia geranial, 259, 268, 273, 306, Hairy-leaved Bolly, 119 Isotoma petraea, 231
aromatica, 153 312, 315 Lemon-scented, 5, 24, 145, isovaleric aldehyde, 23
banksii, 252 geraniol, 34, 37, 50, 134, 147, 146, 147, 149, 150 Ixodes ricinus, 149, 150
caryophylla, 190 148, 149, 150, 259, 268, Manna, 23, 31, 42
jambolana, 162 273, 278, 312, 315 Mountain Grey, 165 Jambolan, 275
eugenol, 50, 105, 112, 147, geranyl acetate, 24, 134, 136, Murray Red, 37, 77, 78 Jambul, 159, 162
149, 260, 273, 277, 301, 154, 172, 259, 265, 268 Orange, 22 Java Almond Tree, 66, 99
309, 312, 313, 316 germacrene B, 151 Peppermint-leaved White, 17 Jellybush, 256
isoeugenol, 260, 316 germacrene-D, 122, 123 Port Gregory, 82 jensenone, 162, 163
methyl eugenol, 162, 309 Ghost Gum, 57 Red, 56, 73, 74 Jointed Baloghia, 87
methyl isoeugenol, 112, 147, Giant Ironwood, 162, 163 Red-flowering, 82 Juglans nigra, 214
162, 312, 313 Ginkgo River Red, 36, 37, 77, 78, Juniperus sabina, 140
adiantoides, 124 79, 151
Fagopyrum esculentum, 154 biloba, 122, 123, 124, 125, Rose, 163 kaempferol, 34, 157, 158
farnesene, 316 279 Salmon, 16 Kakadu Plum, 192, 193, 194,
farnesol, 33, 46, 82, 153, 268, Glechoma hederacea, 159 Scarlet, 166 245
316 globoidnan A, 160 Snow, 167, 168 Kamarere, 161
E,E-farnesol, 46, 82, 173 globulol, 33, 35, 53, 70, 76, Spotted, 68, 69, 70, 86, Kangaroo Thorn, 222, 225
Feather Honey Myrtle, 251, 108, 164, 165, 167, 168, 146, 158 Kanuka Tree, 253
303 169, 171, 259, 266, 267, Sugar, 160 kaurene, 112, 122, 123
fenchyl acetate, 139 268, 269, 294, 304, 307, Swamp, 42, 170 16-kaurene, 123
Fennel, 39 312, 313, 314, 316 Sydney Peppermint, 16, 55 Kauri resin, 118, 119
Ferula Golden-flowered Salwood, 207 White, 55 Kerosene Tree, 119
alliacea, 64 Gossamer Wattle, 215 York, 166, 170 ketoconazole, 150
asafoetida, 64 Gossia hillii, 294 Gum Acacia, 75, 245 kinotannic acid, 67, 69
foetida, 64 Gotu Kola, 151 Gum Animi, 118 Klebsiella pneumoniae, 29, 276
galbaniflua, 64 grandiflorone, 259 Gum Arabic, 90, 119 Koala, 42, 43, 170
narthex, 64 Green Wattle, 180, 215, 216, Gum Tragacanth, 89, 240 Krameria
INDEX 341
argentea, 63 morrisonii, 259, 268, 274 luxuriadiene, 122, 123 foliolosa, 313
triandra, 63 pallidum, 259 Lyme disease, 149 foliosa, 271, 272
Kunzea parviflorum, 253, 258 fulgens, 305
ambigua, 265, 266, 267 petersonii, 253, 256, 258, Ma Huang, 41 glomerata, 297
ericoides, 253, 255 260, 268 Madagascan copal, 66 hamata, 314, 316
petraeum, 259 Mahogany hypericifolia, 302, 314
Lady’s Mantle, 190 polyanthum, 259 Central American, 61 lancifolia, 284
Lagarostrobos franklinii, 111, polygalifolium, 256, 257, 268 Red, 9, 61, 75, 77, 83 lasiandra, 297, 315
112 polygalifolium subsp. Swamp, 9, 61 leucadendra, 152, 159, 280,
Large-fruited Mallee, 169 ‘wallum’, 268 Malus sylvestris, 190 281, 282, 283, 284, 288,
Laurus nobilis, 166 polygalifolium subsp. howense, Mangifera indica, 39 291, 292, 293, 298, 302,
Lavandula 268 Manila copal, 66 303, 309, 313, 314
angustifolia, 92 polygalifolium subsp. manna, 200 leucadendra f. ruscifolia, 284
latifolia, 92 polygalifolium, 268 Manuka, 6, 253, 254, 255, leucadendra var. albida, 284
officinalis, 153, 262 purpurascens, 259 268, 269, 274 leucadendra var. angustifolia,
Lavender, 153, 262, 316 riparium, 259 Marri, 60, 82 284
English, 92 rotundifolium, 259 Marshmallow, 228 leucadendra var. coriacea, 284
Spike, 92 rupestre, 259 melacacidin, 214 leucadendra var.
Legionella pneumophila, 275 rupicola, 259 Melaleuca cunninghamii, 284
Leishmania major, 278 scoparium, 252, 253, 254, acacioides, 296, 312, 316 leucadendra var. latifolia, 284
Lemon Myrtle, 277 268, 274 acacioides subsp. alsophila, leucadendra var. mimosoides,
Lemongrass, 147, 148, 261, sejunctum, 268 296 284
276, 277 speciosum, 259 acacioides var. angustifolia, leucadendra var. minor, 284
Lemon-scented Grass, 148, spectabile, 259 296, 297 leucadendra var. nervosa,
149 squarrosum, 251 alsophila, 296, 314, 315, 284, 298
Lemon-scented Ironbark, 150 thompsonii, 259, 268 316, 317 leucadendra var. parvifolia,
Lemon-scented Paperbark, 150 trinervium, 251, 259 alternifolia, 152, 161, 255, 284
Lemon-scented Tea Tree, 256, turbinatum, 259 260, 261, 269, 271, 272, leucadendra var. saligna, 284
268 variable, 259 274, 279, 296, 298, 302, leucadendra var. sanguinea,
Leopard Tree, 6, 244, 245, 246 whitei, 259 314, 317 284
leptospermone, 254, 255, wooroonooran, 266, 317 angustifolia, 252 leucadendron, 152, 282, 283,
260, 267 leucocyanidins, 70 arcana, 284, 316 284, 285, 298, 309, 310,
iso-leptospermone, 254 Libocedrus argentea, 287, 297, 300, 312 314, 316
Leptospermum bidwillii, 140 armillaris, 251, 305, 309, leucadendron var. cajuputi,
arachnoides, 251, 259 chilensis, 140 314, 317 284
blakelyi, 267 plumosa, 140 atroviridis, 314 leucadendron var. lancifolia,
brachyandrum, 259, 267, Lily-of-the-Valley, 149 bracteata, 260, 297, 301, 284
269 limonene, 20, 25, 27, 29, 32, 312, 315, 316 leucadendron var. viridiflora,
bracteata, 256 33, 37, 38, 39, 70, 112, cajuputi, 269, 282, 283, 285
brevipes, 267 134, 136, 137, 143, 146, 284, 287, 292, 293, 297, linariifolia, 271, 272, 296,
citratum, 256, 258 147, 154, 162, 169, 170, 298, 303, 304, 305, 307, 298, 313, 314, 317
crassifolium, 259 172, 267, 269, 278, 294, 308, 314 linariifolia var. alternifolia,
deanei, 267 295, 307, 310, 311, 312, cajuputi subsp. cajuputi, 284, 298
deuense, 259 313, 314, 316, 317 307, 314 linariifolia var. linariifolia,
epacridoideum, 259 δ-limonene, 306 cajuputi subsp. cumingiana, 298
ericoides, 253 dioxide, 174 284, 307, 314, 315, 317 linariifolia var. trichostachya,
fabricia, 252 D-limonene, 174 cajuputi subsp. platyphylla, 298
flavescens, 253, 257 L-limonene, 174 284, 307, 308, 314, 316 linariifolia var. typica, 298
grandifolium, 259 monoxide, 174 citrolens, 150, 297, 306, 312, linophylla, 297, 314
juniperinum, 251, 257, 259 linalol, 267 314, 315 maidenii, 284, 285
laevigatum, 251, 256, 268 linalool, 34, 171, 254, 262, concreta, 314, 317 mimosoides, 284
lamellatum, 259 266, 268, 278, 304, 305, corrugata, 297 minor, 284
lanigerum, 259, 260 306, 309, 314, 316 crosslandiana, 298 minutifolia, 298, 313
leucodendron, 284 linalyl acetate, 262 cunninghamii, 284 minutifolia subsp.
liversidgei, 256, 257 Liniment Tree, 6, 294 cunninghamii var. glabra, minutifolia, 313
longifolium, 257, 258 Lippia multiflora, 278 284 minutifolia subsp. monantha,
luehmannii, 259 Liquorice, 89 dealbata, 2, 281, 287, 297, 313
macrocarpum, 259 Listeria monocytogenes, 273 302, 312 nervosa, 284, 287, 298, 300,
madidum, 257, 258 Litsea, 152 deanei, 284 301, 315
madidum subsp. madidum, cubeba, 152 dissitiflora, 271, 296, 297, nervosa f. latifolia, 298
257, 258, 259 salicifolia, 152 314, 317 nervosa f. pendulina, 298
madidum subsp. sativum, Lomatia tasmanica, 111 drummondii, 299 nervosa subsp. crosslandiana,
258 Lophostemon suaveolens, 105 ericifolia, 309, 314, 316 284, 298
micromyrtus, 259 Lunasia amara, 247 exuvia, 314 nervosa subsp. nervosa, 298
minutifolium, 259 luteolin, 192, 199, 200 fluviatilis, 298 nodosa, 251
platycalyx, 302 methyl chavicol, 267 neryl acetate, 137 majorana, 317
polandii, 281 methyl cinnamate, 174, 268, New England Peppermint, vulgare, 279
quinquenervia, 152, 269, 316 17, 26 Osbornia octodonta, 150
281, 282, 284, 285, 288, methyl citronellate, 139 New Zealand Kauri, 114
292, 293, 298, 299, 303, methyl geranate, 266 New Zealand Kauri copal, 66 Pacific Yew, 126
304, 309, 313, 314, 316, methyl myrtenate, 266 New Zealand Manuka, 253 paclitaxel, 45, 310
317 Metrosideros Niaouli, 6, 152, 292, 299, 303, palustrol, 53
saligna, 283, 284, 313 coriacea, 284 313, 314 Panax elegans, 242
scalena, 314 hyssopifolia, 298 Nicotiana tabacum, 154 Paperbark Orchid, 289
sericea, 299, 313 quinquenervia, 284 Norfolk Island Pine, 116, 126 para-menthane-3,8-diol, 150,
smithii, 284, 285 Mexican copal, 66 North Queensland 261
squamophloia, 313, 315 Microsporum canis, 309 Coachwood, 88 p-cymene, 16, 19, 27, 32, 33,
squarrosa, 298, 302 Milk Thistle, 158, 159 Northern Black Wattle, 207 34, 37, 48, 53, 79, 156,
stenostachya, 299, 313, 314, Mimosa Northern Wattle, 207, 209, 160, 162, 164, 170, 174,
316 catechu, 204 222, 223 267, 269, 294, 304, 305,
stereophloia, 314 nilotica, 203 NSW Christmas Tree, 88 307, 311, 312, 313, 314,
stipitata, 315 Mimosa Bush, 206, 216, 224, 315, 317
styphelioides, 309, 310, 315 232 Ochrosperma lineare, 266, 267 Pediculus
symphyocarpa, 294, 296, 314 Mongarlowe Mallees, 111 ocimene, 313, 314, 316 humanus, 260
tamariscina subsp. irbyana, Monodora myristica, 32 Ocimum humanus capitis, 261, 262
310 Moreton Bay Ash, 76 americanum, 32 schaeffi, 260
tamariscina subsp. pallescens, Mottlecah, 34 basilicum, 41, 147 Pelargonium
310 Mountain Tea Tree, 266 gratissimum, 33 australe, 150
tamariscina subsp. MRSA, 31, 39, 190, 274, 275, sanctum, 159, 162 graveolens, 150, 276
tamariscina, 310 276, 277 suave, 147 roseum, 149
teretifolia, 314, 315 Musca domestica, 147 Octoclinis backhousei, 132 Penicillin, 81
thymifolia, 251, 305 Mycobacterium Oil Pennyroyal, 20, 261
trichostachya, 272, 298, 313, communis, 31 Cabreuva, 304 Pepper Tree Wattle, 215
314, 317 phlei, 112, 247, 303 Cajuput, 282, 288, 297, Peppermint
trinervis, 284 myrcene, 122, 151, 268, 313 304, 307, 314, 315, 316, Black, 17
uncinata, 271, 296, 299, Myrcianthes cisplatensis, 261 317 Broadleaf or Blue, 17
311, 313, 314, 315, 316, Myrobalan, 198, 199 Camphor, 147 Coast, 17
317 Belleric, 195 Citronella, 147, 173 Fuzzy Box or White, 17
viminalis, 281 Chebulic, 195, 200 Eucalyptus, 14, 15, 16, 17, Gully, 17
vinnula, 314, 316 Emblic, 195, 198 18, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, Gum-topped, 17
violacea, 302 Myroxylon 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, Narrow-leaved, 17
viridiflora, 281, 284, 285, balsamum, 62, 92 39, 40, 44, 50, 146, 147, New England, 17, 26
287, 299, 303, 306, 313, pereirae, 62 148, 150, 151, 153, 161, Queensland, 17
314, 316, 317 Myrrh, 62, 63, 64, 99, 118 166, 261, 272, 273, 274, Risdon, 19
viridiflora var. angustifolia, Myrtella obtusa, 252 303, 304, 306, 307, 314 River, 17
284 myrtenal, 258, 266 Fragonia, 278 Robertson’s, 17
viridiflora var. attenuata, 284 myrtenol, 258, 259, 266, 268, Kanuka, 255 Shining or Shining-leaved,
viridiflora var. canescens, 284 278 Lemon, 154, 172, 276 19
viridiflora var. glabra, 284 myrtillin, 158 Lemon Tea Tree, 258 Silver, 19
viridiflora var. rubriflora, 284 Myrtoleucodendron Lemongrass, 279 Smithton, 19
wilsonii, 302 acacioides, 296 Manuka, 255, 276 Swamp, 19
zeteticorum, 314 linariifolium, 298 Melaleuca, 152, 274, 305, Sydney, 15
melilot, 92 uncinatum, 299 306 Urn-fruited, 15
Melilotus Myrtus saligna, 284 Niaouli, 269, 282, 303, Wattle-leaved, 17
albus, 92 304, 306 Western, 17
officinalis, 92 N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide, 147 Peppermint, 20, 21, 40 Willow or Small-leaved, 17
Melissa officinalis, 277 naringen, 157 Rosalina, 309 Peppermint Box, 17
Mentha Narrow-leaved Peppermint, 17 Rosemary, 262 Peru Balsam, 92
arvensis, 20 Native Sandalwood, 131 Tea Tree, 8, 13, 31, 50, 149, Pestalotiopsis guepinii, 126
piperita, 15, 21, 41, 276 Neisseria gonorrhoeae, 199 255, 261, 262, 269, 270, Phaius
piperita var. officinalis, 21 Neocallitropsis pancheri, 136 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, amboinensis, 290
pulegium, 20, 261 Neofabricia myrtifolia, 252 276, 278, 279, 300, 313, australis, 290
spicata, 20, 21, 41 Neolitsea dealbata, 119 317 bernaysii, 290
spicata x piperita, 21 Nepea cataria, 152 Tea-Tree, 161 pictus, 290
menthane-3,8-diol, 150 neral, 150, 259, 268, 273, 306, Oil of Cajuput, 306, 307 tancarvilleae, 290, 291
menthol 312, 315 oleanolic acid, 159, 160, 161, Phascolarctos cinereus, 42
trans-menth-2-en-1-ol, 19 nerolidol, 26, 48, 139, 147, 162 phellandrene, 19, 23, 26, 33,
menthone, 20 171, 174, 267, 268, 304, Orchid 48, 100, 156, 164, 174,
isomenthone, 20 305, 306, 313, 316 Cooktown, 10, 11 306, 312, 315
mesotrione, 255 E-nerolidol, 295 Origanum 1-α-phellandrene, 103
INDEX 343
α-phellandrene, 18, 19, 156, Pink Nodding Orchid, 290 punicalin, 199 procera, 263
174, 258, 307, 314 pinocarveol, 175 pyrethrum, 153 tozerensis, 263
ß-phellandrene, 79 trans-pinocarveol, 175, 258, pyrogallol, 70, 184 virgata, 263
phenylalanine, 255 259, 311, 312 santalol, 151
Phyllanthus emblica, 198 pinocarvone, 258, 314 Queensland Kauri, 113 Santalum
phyllocladanol Pinus Queensland Messmate, 169 album, 151
α-phyllocladanol, 123 caribbaea var. hondurensis, 64 quercetin, 34, 125, 156, 157, lanceolatum, 150
phyllocladene, 112, 122, 123 elliottii var. elliottii, 64 158, 192 Sarcoptes
Pine halepensis, 64 Quercus scabiei, 39, 63, 95, 261
Black Cypress, 131, 134 longaeva, 110 robur, 61 scabiei var. hominis, 261
Brazilian, 116, 121 longifolia, 64 tinctoria, 155 Satureja montana, 277
Brush Cypress, 141 maritima, 64 Schefflera actinophylla, 286
Bunya, 5, 116, 120, 121, massoniana, 64 Rainbow Eucalyptus, 161 Schinopsis
129, 130 oocarpa, 64 Red Clover, 92 balansae, 183
Chili, 129 palustris, 64 Red Manuka, 253 lorentzii, 183
Cypress, 131, 141, 142, 143 pinaster, 64, 190 Red or Yellow Wattle, 209 sclarene, 112, 122, 123
Dundathu, 119 radiata, 64 Red Stringybark, 42, 155 Scrub Turpentine, 103, 104,
Hoop, 116, 117, 119, 121, radicans, 110 Redstem Wormwood, 157 105
127, 128 roxburghii, 64 resenes, 63, 118 Semecarpus australianum, 96
Huon, 111, 112 tabuliformis, 64 Resina de pinheiro, 116 Senegalia
Illawarra, 136 piperitol, 168 Rhatany, 63 albizioides, 204
Moreton Bay, 116, 128 piperitone, 15, 16, 18, 23, 25, Rhipicephalus annulatus, 149 angustissima, 204
Mueller’s Cypress, 132 33, 168, 175, 305 Rhodamnia maideniana, 105 catechu, 204
New Caledonian or Cook, Pistacia Rhodomyrtus macrocarpa, 247, sericoside, 194
117 lentiscus var. china, 65 252 sesquiterpene, 26, 70, 76, 122,
Norfolk Island, 119, 126, terebinthus, 65 Rhus toxicodendron, 96 125, 135, 168, 300, 304
127 Pituri, 53, 233, 297 rimulene, 122 Shorea robusta, 66
Northern Cypress, 135 Plantago robustaflavone, 122 Showy Wattle, 244
Port Jackson or Oyster Bay, afra, 238 Roman Chamomile, 135 sideroxylonal, 43, 166, 170
132 indica, 238 Rosa canina, 190 Silky Oak, 96, 97, 98
Port Macquarie, 132 ovata, 238 rosadiene, 122, 123 Bailey’s, 98
Pygmy Cypress, 136 Plumbago zeylanica, 247 Rose Geranium, 149, 150 Black, 97
Richmond River, 116 podophyllotoxin, 140, 141 Rose of the West, 34 Briar, 98
Rottnest or Slender Cypress, Podophyllum Rosemary, 29, 41, 153, 176, Dwarf, 98
132 emodi, 140, 141 188, 276 Ferny-leaved, 98
Stringybark, 142 hexandrum, 140, 141 rosin, 63, 102 Findlay’s, 98
Tasmanian Cypress, 132, peltatum, 141 rosmarinic acid, 188 Hill’s, 98
136, 137 pleianthum, 141 Rosmarinus officinalis, 41, 153, Red-flowered or Red, 98
Tasmanian Pencil, 131 Poison Ivy, 96 188, 262, 276 Southern or Beef, 97
Western, 131 Polygonatum multiflorum, 188 Rottnest or Slender Cypress, White, 97, 98
White Cypress, 142 Polyscias 132 Silkyheads, 148
Wollemi, 122, 125, 126 elegans, 242 Ruta graveolens, 153, 154, 155 Silver Oak, 94
pinene, 16, 29, 33, 36, 37, murrayi, 242, 243 rutin, 5, 154, 155, 157 Silvery Honeysuckle, 94
49, 70, 79, 82, 100, 108, Porphyromonas gingivalis, 163 Silvery or Blue-leaved Acacia,
122, 134, 136, 137, 143, Prickly Acacia, 225, 228 sabinene, 267, 269, 312, 313, 215
146, 152, 160, 162, 164, Prickly Wattle, 218 314, 317 silybin, 159
168, 169, 171, 174, 254, proanthocyanins, 81 Sage, 41, 166 Silybum marianum, 158, 159
256, 257, 258, 259, 263, Propionibacterium acnes, 31 Spanish, 41 silychristin, 159
266, 267, 268, 269, 294, propolis, 121 Salisburia adiantifolia, 124 silydianin, 159
295, 299, 305, 307, 310, Proteus vulgaris, 29, 276 Salmonella sitosterol, 81
311, 312, 313, 314, 315, Protium heptaphyllum, 103 typhi, 112, 247, 265, 303 ß-sitosterol, 159, 160, 165
316, 317 Prunus dulcis, 190 typhimurium, 264, 304, 309 Small-fruited Grey Gum, 42
1-α-pinene, 103 Pseudocheirus peregrinus, 170 Salvia Smooth-barked Kauri, 113
α-pinene, 25, 27, 30, 32, Pseudomonas lavandulaefolia, 41 Soapbush Wattle or Strap
33, 34, 35, 37, 42, 70, aeruginosa, 29, 30, 31, 32, officinalis, 41, 166 Wattle, 217
76, 79, 82, 103, 108, 39, 274, 276 Sandalwood oil, 151 Sophora japonica, 154
112, 117, 122, 123, 146, fluorescens, 31, 208, 256, 304 sandarac, 5, 65, 130, 131, South American copal, 116
147, 152, 156, 167, 169, putida, 31 132, 322 South American Monkey
170, 176, 255, 258, 259, Psoralea corylifolia, 193 sandarcopimaric acid, 118 Puzzle Tree, 121
266, 267, 268, 278, 295, Pterocarpus Sangre de drago, 80 spathulenol, 79, 122, 160,
306, 307, 310, 311, 313, indicus, 63, 72, 73 Sangre de grado, 51 164, 168, 268, 294, 300,
316, 317 marsupium, 63, 71, 72, 73 Sannantha 307, 310, 312, 313, 314,
ß-pinene, 32, 34, 37, 76, Pteropus conspicillatus, 286 crenulata, 264 315
100, 152, 169, 267, 278, Punica granatum, 29, 193 cunninghamii, 263 Stachyurus praecox, 190
295, 306, 312, 313, 316 punicalagin, 199 leratii, 263 Staphylococcus
aureus, 29, 30, 31, 39, 85, terchebulin, 199 Thryptomene pachyphloia subsp.
112, 136, 145, 200, 247, Terminalia calycina, 264 pachyphloia, 204
256, 264, 266, 271, 274, arjuna, 190, 198, 199, 200 oligandra, 252 pallidifolia, 204
275, 276, 302, 303 arostrata, 192 saxicola, 264 suberosa, 204
epidermis, 39, 274, 276 bursarina, 244 Thuja articulata, 132 sutherlandii, 204
Sterculia canescens, 245 thujene, 108, 307, 312, 314, valida, 204
diversifolia, 293 carpentariae, 192, 245 315, 317 Vappode bigibba, 10
quadrifida, 249 catappa, 6, 193, 195, 196, Thyme Honey Myrtle, 251, verbenone, 50, 176
urens, 238, 248 199, 200, 201 305 Vibrio vulnificus, 274
stigmasterol, 165 chebula, 193, 195, 198, 199, thymol, 18, 33, 39, 153, 175, Viola odorata, 152
Stinking Gidgee, 283 200 261, 274 viridiflorene, 169, 255, 307
Storax, 62, 63 edulis, 193 tinea pedis, 263, 278 viridiflorol, 30, 168, 255, 266,
Straggly Baeckea, 266, 267 ferdinandiana, 192, 193, Tolu Balsam, 62, 63 267, 268, 269, 295, 304,
Streptococcus 244, 245 toluamide, 149 307, 312, 313, 314, 317
mutans, 263 grandiflora, 193 Tonka beans, 89, 92 Virola surinamensis, 305
pneumoniae, 31, 161 hadleyana, 193 Tonkin beans, 92 Vitex
Stringybark, 5, 52 hadleyana subsp. carpenteriae, torquatone, 76, 167, 169 agnus-castus, 261
Prickly, 15 245 torulosic acid, 118 negundo, 159
Styphnolobium japonicum, 154 latipes, 193 Toxicodendron radicans, 96 Vitis vinifera, 190
Styptic Tree, 103, 104, 106, 134 macroptera, 199 tragacanth, 238, 239, 240,
sugar-bag, 298 microcarpa, 193, 194 248, 250 Wandoo, 184
Swamp Mahogany, 61 muelleri, 194 trans-anethole, 273 Weeping Tea Tree, 257, 269,
Sweet Acacia, 216 platyphylla, 244 Tribolium castaneum, 261 281, 282, 283, 298
Sweet Venal Grass, 92 sericocarpa, 193, 194 Trichomonas vaginalis, 79, 278 West African copal, 66
Swietenia macrophylla, 77 superba, 199 Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Western Silver Wattle, 208,
Sydney Green Wattle, 179 triflora, 200 31, 254 209, 244
Sydney Peppermint, 19 volucris, 244 Trichosurus vulpecula, 170, 171 Western Tasmanian Cedar, 131
Syncarpia terpene, 22, 158, 170, 171, Trifolium pratense, 92 White Cockatoo, 144
glomulifera, 105, 107, 108 263, 267, 304, 306 triketone, 254, 255, 307, 314 White Cypress, 131, 133, 134
glomulifera subsp. terpinen-4-ol, 34, 35, 50, 171, Triphala, 194, 195, 198, 199 White Manuka, 253
glomulifera, 108 255, 261, 268, 269, 271, Tristania suaveolens, 252 White Stringybark, 160
hillii, 105, 107, 108 272, 273, 275, 278, 294, Trypanosoma brucei, 278, 305, White Wood, 257
laurifolia, 107 295, 296, 307, 309, 311, 309 Wild Geranium, 150
leptopetala, 105, 107 312, 313, 314, 315 Tulip Sterculia, 249 Wild Peach, 192, 245
subargentea, 107, 162 terpinene, 82, 151, 153, 154, Turkey Bush, 295, 296 Willings Tree, 96
verecunda, 107, 108 156, 172, 175, 273, 275, Turmeric, 151 Willow Tea Tree, 283
Syzygium 278, 294, 299, 304, 307, turpentine, 21, 60, 83, 100, Witchetty Bush, 232
aromaticum, 152, 276 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 101, 102, 103, 107, 116, Wollemia nobilis, 122, 125
banksii, 252 316, 317 117, 118, 136, 174, 308 Woolly Tea Tree, 260
buxifolium, 160 α-terpinene, 32, 37, 175, Turpentine oleoresin, 5 Woollybutt, 53, 156
claviflorum, 160 269, 273, 278, 307, 313, Tyrophagus putrescentiae, 150
cormiflorum, 184 317 tyrosine, 255 xanthine oxidase, 161
cumini, 159 y-terpinene, 82, 268, 269, Xanthomonas campestris, 238
malaccense, 161 273, 295, 307 Umbrella Acacia, 203 Xanthorrhoea arborea, 120
paniculatum, 251 terpineol, 24, 32, 37, 50, 156, Umbrella Tree, 286
tierneyanum, 184 169, 176, 267, 273, 278, ursolic acid, 159, 160, 162, Yellow Box, 37, 38, 56, 170
298, 304, 305, 312, 313, 199, 310 Yellow Fever Tree, 203
Tallowwood, 42 314, 315, 316, 317 Yellow Tea Tree, 252
Tamarind, 29 4-terpineol, 37, 79 Vaccinium myrtillus, 191 Yellow Tingle, 169
Tamarindus indica, 29 α-terpineol, 30, 32, 38, 41, Vachellia Yellow-barked Paperbark, 300,
tannic acid, 68, 69, 72, 76, 85, 50, 100, 103, 164, 259, bidwillii, 204, 205 301, 315
89, 90, 177, 179, 184, 186, 266, 268, 269, 271, 294, clarksoniana, 204 Yertchuk, 15
200, 203, 234 295, 297, 304, 306, 307, ditricha, 204 ylangene, 268
Taro, 103, 106 309, 311, 314 douglasica, 204 Youman’s Stringybark, 155
Tarwood, 83 terpinolene, 30, 268, 269, 272, farnesiana, 204, 222
tasmanone, 169, 263, 267 278, 299, 307, 312, 313, farnesiana var. farnesiana, Zea mays, 92
Taxandria 314, 315, 317 204 Zingiber
fragrans, 278 Tetraclinis articulata, 65, 132, karroo, 204 cassamunar, 152
linearifolia, 265 140 pachyphloia, 204 officinale, 193
Taxus brevifolia, 126 Theobroma cacao, 190 pachyphloia subsp. Zizyphus jujuba, 92
teniposide, 140 Thick-podded Salwood, 211, 212 brevipinnula, 204

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MEDICINAL PLANTS IN AUSTRALIA

Volume 2 Gums, Resins, Tannin and Essential Oils

Copyright © Cheryll J. Williams 2011

National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data:

Author: Williams, Cheryll.

Title: Medicinal plants in Australia, Vol. 2 : gums, resins, tannin

and essential oils / Cheryll Williams.

Edition: 1st ed.

Print ISBN: 9781877058943 (hbk. : Vol. 2)

Epdf ISBN: 9781925078060

Notes: Includes bibliographical references and index. Subjects:

Materia medica, Vegetable–Australia.

Dewey Number: 615.321

Printed in China by Everbest Printing Co Limited

Introduction 7 Beefwood and Grevillea Resins 94

6 Tannin and Trees: Native Floral Resources 177 9 T

TAMING THE GREAT ISLAND:

Even today the evaluation of the oils from Eucalypts

Dendrobium bigibbum var. phalaenopsis. The fact that

These stories serve to illustrate the fact that Author’s acknowledgments

The study of essential oil chemistry in Australian

Portrait of Ferdinand von Mueller as President of the

development. They were followed by fellow scientists

Eucalyptus piperita. (Courtesy: HelloMojo, Wikimedia

Discovery of the Native Peppermint

one occasion, but I now dedicate to his memory a species

Governor Phillip sent a sample of the oil to Sir Joseph

Plate 23 from John White’s Journal of a Voyage to New South

botanical name for reasons of historical interest when

A diversity of Eucalypt Peppermints

• Wattle-leaved Peppermint (Eucalyptus

The Black Peppermint, Eucalyptus radiata (under the

A beautiful and health-promoting tree. – It is this tree,

or, if emitted, it at once ascends, and is not evident to

The oils of different samples of this species were found

(Boland 1991). Phellandrene-rich oils have excellent

In the late 1800s, international optimism

Flowers of the Field Mint, Mentha arvensis.

Drawings of Mentha spicata and M. piperita from Köhler’s

A cure for malaria?

regarding eucalyptol, and not terpene, as the medicinal

There is a mistake often made in regarding eucalyptus

Steam distillation is a common method utilised

changes in its chemical composition. Erich Lassak

Eucalypt oil chemistry

Eucalyptus polybractea (Blue Mallee). (Courtesy: HelloMojo,

The Eucalypts’ international fame subsequently

• Oils rich in phellandrine provide useful

• Oils employed in the perfume industry. Eucalyptus

During the twentieth century new medical discoveries

Eucalyptus Oil. (Courtesy: Eucalyptus oil from Eucalyptus

Lassak 2004; Bartle & Brennan 2002; Lassak 2002;

The fact that cineole-based oils can dissolve grease and

The Australian Blue Gum

New England Peppermint (Eucalyptus nova-anglica). The

as a respiratory antiseptic. In Australia, Aboriginal

Eucalypt leaves have even been given to poultry and

Eucalyptus globulus seedling in the Chelsea Physic Garden,

Eucalyptus globulus, Maui, Hawaii. (Courtesy: Kim & Forest Starr)

variation could be the result of harvest time, extraction

Eucalyptus platyphylla (formerly E. alba).

identified five that were active against Escherichia coli.

Sydney Blue Gum, Eucalyptus saligna. (Courtesy: Peter