Aeroponics. Growing Vertical

Aeroponics
Taylor & Francis

Taylor & Francis Group
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Aeroponics
Growing Vertical
Thomas W. Gurley
First edition published 2020
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Contents
Preface....................................................................................................................... ix
Author ....................................................................................................................... xi
Chapter 1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 1

Professor Despommier ......................................................................... 1
Other TED Talks .................................................................................. 3
New Technology ................................................................................... 3
Vertical Farming Trends ...................................................................... 5
Aeroponics at NASA ............................................................................ 5
Aeroponics at Disneyworld .................................................................. 7
Ugly Food ............................................................................................. 8
Vertical Farming Definition ................................................................. 8
Aeroponic Crops .................................................................................. 9
Aeroponic Container Farms ............................................................... 10
References .......................................................................................... 11
Chapter 2 History of Aeroponics ........................................................................ 13

References .......................................................................................... 20
Chapter 3 The Aeroponic Value Proposition ...................................................... 21

Upsides ............................................................................................... 25
Downsides .......................................................................................... 26
References .......................................................................................... 27
Chapter 4 Aeroponic Science .............................................................................. 29

Acacia ................................................................................................. 32
Alfalfa................................................................................................. 34
Alpine Penny-Cress ............................................................................ 35
Aonla .................................................................................................. 35
Antioxidants........................................................................................ 36
Arugula............................................................................................... 36
Asparagus ........................................................................................... 37
Barley ................................................................................................. 38
Basil .................................................................................................... 39
Bean.................................................................................................... 40
Begonia................................................................................................ 40
Biomass .............................................................................................. 41
Blackberry .......................................................................................... 42
v
vi Contents
Broccoli .............................................................................................. 42
Camphor ............................................................................................. 43
Carbon Dioxide .................................................................................. 43
Carpetweed ........................................................................................ 44
Chickpea ............................................................................................. 44
Chrysanthemum ................................................................................. 44
Corn..................................................................................................... 45
Cowpea ............................................................................................... 45
Cranberry ........................................................................................... 46
Cucumbers.......................................................................................... 47
Elm ..................................................................................................... 47
Eucalyptus .......................................................................................... 48
Evergreen............................................................................................ 50
Fir ....................................................................................................... 50
Food Security...................................................................................... 51
Fungi................................................................................................... 55
Grape .................................................................................................. 59
Iris ...................................................................................................... 60
Chinese Cabbage ................................................................................ 60
Lettuce ................................................................................................ 61
Lotus ................................................................................................... 66
Maize................................................................................................... 67
Medicinal............................................................................................ 72
Muskmelon ......................................................................................... 76
Nutrients.............................................................................................. 78
Olive.................................................................................................... 82
Pea ...................................................................................................... 83
Peanut ................................................................................................. 84
Pepper ................................................................................................. 84
Petunia ................................................................................................ 85
Potatoes .............................................................................................. 85
Radish ................................................................................................. 98
Review ................................................................................................ 98
Rice..................................................................................................... 99
Roots................................................................................................. 101
Saffron .............................................................................................. 105
Seed .................................................................................................. 106
Shallot............................................................................................... 106
Social Impact .................................................................................... 107
Soybeans........................................................................................... 107
Space Applications ........................................................................... 110
Spruce ............................................................................................... 112
Strawberry ........................................................................................ 113
Sunflower .......................................................................................... 113
Technology ....................................................................................... 114
Tomato .............................................................................................. 120
Contents vii
Trees.................................................................................................. 123
Vegetables......................................................................................... 125
Wheat ............................................................................................... 126
Yams ................................................................................................. 127
References ........................................................................................ 128
Chapter 5 Aeroponics Innovations .................................................................... 141

Aeroponics at Disney World............................................................. 141
Aeroponics at NASA ........................................................................ 142
References ........................................................................................ 165
Chapter 6 Aeroponic Business .......................................................................... 167

Tower Gardens (www.towergardens.com) ........................................ 167
Alaska .......................................................................................... 168
Arizona ........................................................................................ 168
California..................................................................................... 169
Colorado ...................................................................................... 169
Florida ......................................................................................... 169
Illinois.......................................................................................... 170
Indiana ......................................................................................... 170
Louisana ...................................................................................... 171
New York ..................................................................................... 171
Oklahoma .................................................................................... 172
Start-up Aeroponic Companies ........................................................ 172
Aero Development Corp (www.thinkaero.co) ............................. 172
Aerofarms (www.aerofarms.com) ............................................... 175
Aero Spring Gardens (www.aerospringgardens.com) ................. 181
AEssenseGrows (www.aessensegrows.com) ............................... 181
Agricool (www.agricool.com)...................................................... 185
Agrihouse (www.agrihouse.com) ................................................ 186
Amplified Ag (www.amplifiedaginc.com) .................................. 187
Cloudponics (www.cloudponics.com) ......................................... 187
80 Acres Farms (80acresfarm.com) ............................................ 190
FarmedHere ................................................................................. 191
Green Hygenics Holdings (www.greenhygienicsholdings.com).....192
Grow Anywhere .......................................................................... 192
Gro-pod (www.gro-pod.co.uk) .................................................... 195
Growx (www.growx.co)............................................................... 198
Helioponics (www.heliponix.com) .............................................. 199
Indoor Farms of America (www.indoorfarmsamerica.com)........ 200
Indoor Harvest Corporation (www.indoorharvestcorp.com)....... 202
James E. Wagner (www.jwc.ca) ................................................... 204
Just Green .................................................................................... 207
Lettuce Abound Farms (www.lettuceabound.com) ..................... 207
viii Contents
Living Greens (www.thelivinggreens.com) ................................. 208

Plenty (www.plenty.ag) ................................................................ 210
PodPlants (www.podplants.com) ................................................. 213
Riviera Creek (www.rivieracreek.com) ....................................... 215
Treevo (www.treevo.co) ............................................................... 216
True Garden (www.truegarden.com) ........................................... 216
References ........................................................................................ 217
Chapter 7 Practice of Aeroponics ..................................................................... 221

Aeroponics vs. Hydroponics............................................................. 221
Role of Roots and the Uptake of Water and Nutrients ..................... 222
Essential Nutrients ........................................................................... 223
Group I: C, H, O, N, and S .......................................................... 223
Group II: P, B............................................................................... 223
Group III: K, Mg, Ca, Mn, Cl ..................................................... 223
Group IV: Fe, Cu, Zn, Mo ........................................................... 223
Key Features of a Commercial Aeroponic System .......................... 228
Nutrient Solution Main Tank............................................................ 229
Transfer Lines................................................................................... 231
Sensors ............................................................................................. 232
Water ................................................................................................ 235
References ........................................................................................ 236
Chapter 8 Aeroponics Current Research .......................................................... 239

Lettuce Nutrient Study ..................................................................... 240
Leaf Tissue Samples......................................................................... 244
Kale Photoperiod Study ................................................................... 252
Experimental..................................................................................... 252
Kale Results...................................................................................... 255
Conclusions ...................................................................................... 262
Future Research Ideas ...................................................................... 262
References ........................................................................................ 264
Chapter 9 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 265
Index ...................................................................................................................... 269

Preface
Vertical column aeroponics is a relatively new variation of hydroponics which
initially was practiced by misting the roots of a suspended plant with nutrient solu-
tion. However, hydroponics has been practiced for several decades and is defined as
a method of growing plants with no soil (in some cases solid media) with their roots
completely submerged in the nutrient solution. Both of these techniques, aeropon-
ics and hydroponics, are considered to be soil-less agriculture and more recently
have been designated as controlled environment agriculture (CEA). Both of these
approaches can be practiced as what some people referred to as “vertical farming.”
The difference is that the new version of aeroponics is conducted with vertical col-
umns with plants growing one above another, whereas “vertical” hydroponics can
be conducted by stacking horizontal trays of the nutrient solution one above the next
so they are stacked vertically. The two major differences between vertical column
aeroponics and vertical farming with hydroponics is that: first, with aeroponics sun-
light can be utilized in a greenhouse environment, whereas it is necessary to utilize
artificial light in the hydroponic case due to the stacking requirement. Second, with
aeroponics the roots are in direct contact with air and specifically oxygen, whereas
with hydroponics the roots only come in contact with the dissolved oxygen in water.
Oxygen is extremely insoluble in water, so these plants are exposed to much lower
concentrations of oxygen as compared to the roots in direct contact with air.
This book explores the history of the development of aeroponics which is rooted
in the fundamental discoveries associated with botany and chemistry and is directly
related to the development of hydroponics.
The book attempts to clearly define what aeroponics really is and to point out
the similarities and differences with concomitant hydroponic growing methods.
Chapter 3 deals with the value proposition for aeroponics.
The science of aeroponics is presented in Chapter 4 which reviews all the technical
peer-reviewed papers in the scientific literature since the 1970s. Over 200 papers are
summarized and the scope of research, the variety of research, and the geographical
diversity of the research are all highlighted. The number of papers presented each
year since 1970 has increased exponentially which seems to show that this technique
has some traction and will continue to make a valuable contribution to CEA in the
future. Research has been conducted in all the major geographical areas of the world
as well as in space.
Innovation of aeroponics is presented in Chapter 5 which looks at a similar trend
in the patent literature which compliments what has been observed in the scientific
literature. This demonstrates not only the scientific/engineering value of aeroponics
but also the economic value.
Chapter 6 covers the business of aeroponics and describes the entrepreneurial
activity in this area from both manufacturers of aeroponic growing systems as well
as some of the key growers using this approach. One of the latest developments is
the construction of “indoor farms” located in shipping containers and some of those
companies are also highlighted.
ix
x Preface
The practice of aeroponics is presented in Chapter 7 and that covers the key
aspects of this type of technology requirements—nutrients, water quality, and many
practical aspects.
Chapter 8 provides a few current examples of research using vertical column
aeroponics is presented from work conducted at Rutgers University using commercial
systems and at Charleston Southern University and the Citadel using R&D vertical
growing systems. The focus of these research efforts is to better understand how to
optimize these systems for the best yields and the concomitant nutrient requirements.
This book is written from the perspective of a practitioner, a scientist, and a busi-
ness person for the sole purpose of compiling information from the accumulated
knowledge that has been published on this newly emerging technology—aeroponics.
It is my desire that this book would impact people in all spheres of society—science,
practice, business, education, and the general public—to open everyone’s eyes to see
the potential of this methodology for the production of pure, clean, and safe food for
the future. It can also be used as a textbook for an introductory course in aeroponics.
In addition, this book also demonstrates the many benefits of growing food in this
way that is efficient, effective, and sustainable. This is a book of answers for one of
the most challenging questions that face our world today—how are we going to feed
everyone in the 21st millennium and beyond?
Author
Thomas W. Gurley is an adjunct professor of chemistry at Charleston Southern
University. He was a Fulbright Scholar and Fulbright Specialist in Ukraine at the
National Academy of Science, Institute of Single Crystals and also in Uganda at
Uganda Christian University—Agricultural Sciences. He has a 40-year industrial
background in analytical chemistry, polymers, and pharmaceuticals. In the past sev-
eral years, he has been conducting research in the area of CEA and specifically verti-
cal soil-less aeroponic growing technologies. He is currently also the R&D Director
for Aero Development Corp, a maker of commercial aeroponic growing systems.
xi
Taylor & Francis
1 Introduction
Agriculture … is our wisest pursuit, because it will in the end contribute most
to real wealth, good morals, and happiness.
Thomas Jefferson
Aeroponics is a new emerging growing technology that is best defined as a soil-less
method for growing plants in which their roots are suspended in air. Nutrients are
provided to the roots either by misting a nutrient solution or by trickle down grav-
ity flow of the nutrient solution. Hydroponics is a much more familiar technology
to the public because it has been in practice for almost 100 years. Hydroponics is
similar to aeroponics except that the roots of the plants are submerged in water, also
called water cultures. The roots of these plants absorb nutrients from the nutrient
solution that the roots are in constant contact with. These technologies will be fur-
ther discussed in more detail in Chapter 3 of this book. There are many similarities
between the development of aeroponics and the development of hydroponic systems.
For example, the nutrient solutions, pH, electrical conductivity, and other parameters
are very similar for these two sister technologies. There is also some overlap with
what is called controlled-environment agriculture (CEA). Aeroponics and hydropon-
ics are both considered to be CEA technologies because they are normally prac-
ticed in a controlled environment, such as a greenhouse, a warehouse, or a shipping
container, where many of the environmental variables are controlled. This would
include temperature, light intensity, photoperiod, nutrient concentration, humidity,
carbon dioxide levels, etc. There can also be overlap with soil-based growing (geo-
ponics) that is conducted in a greenhouse or warehouse.
Why is aeroponics important? It is important mainly because the future produc-
tion of good, pure, and safe food is uncertain. In an article in Newsweek, the question
was asked, how are we going to feed humankind in the future if we keep farming
like we’ve been for the past century (Newsweek, 2015)? The current population on
the earth is about 7 billion humans and by 2050 that number is projected to be nearly
10 billion. The problem is that most of the land we can use for food production is
already being cultivated; which means that we are going to have to make some large-
scale changes to how we farm.
PROFESSOR DESPOMMIER
Professor Dickson Despommier (Columbia University) tells the story of a Florida
farmer who had a 30-acre strawberry farm that was destroyed in 1992 by Hurricane
Andrew. The farmer obtained the insurance money to rebuild his farm, but instead
of replanting strawberries, he used the money to build a greenhouse: “He did this
because he thought if he built the greenhouse strong enough it might survive the next
hurricane, and he was right,” says Despommier. His hydroponic greenhouse was so
1
2 Aeroponics: Growing Vertical
efficient that 1 acre of indoor space could grow more strawberries than the farmer
had previously been able to produce on 30 outdoor acres—30-fold increase. This left
the farmer with 29 acres of unused land (Newsweek, 2015).
In his book Vertical Farms (2011), Despommier describes a vision for urban
agriculture in what is being described now as CEA. He contrasts yesterday’s
agriculture with today’s, and projects the future of agriculture evolving into vertical
farms. He describes the advantages and all the benefits of this innovative idea. He
proposes that the need for food will be where the people are in the cities so the food
should be grown close to where they are. The economic benefit is obvious, that is,
the reduction in shipping costs for food being shipped thousands of miles from farm
to table. He summarizes the following four key themes that would be necessary to
implement vertical farming:
1. capture sunlight and disperse it evenly among the crops;

2. capture passive energy for supplying a reliable source of electricity;
3. employ good barrier design for plant protection;
4. maximize the amount of space devoted to growing crops.
He shows several pictures of futuristic multistory buildings with crops growing on

every floor. He concludes his book with a chapter titled “Food Fast-Forward” in
which he concludes that disruptive technology is simple. It disrupts the present and
jump-starts the future. The vertical farm has the potential to do that by advancing
agriculture to a place in history it has never before occupied, which is one of true
sustainability. His recommendation is a revamping of the United States Department
of Agriculture (USDA) to help facilitate this transformation (Despommier, 2011).
Despommier in his TEDx Middleburg talk in 2013 listed ten benefits of vertical
urban farming (Despommier, 2013):
1. no agricultural runoff;
2. year-round crop production;
3. no crop loss due to severe weather;
4. uses 70% less water, no agrochemicals, no fossil fuels;
5. allows for the restoration of the ecosystem;
6. remediates gray water;
7. creates jobs in the city;
8. supplies fresh produce to city dwellers;
9. uses abandoned city properties;
10. can grow biofuels and drugs.
He cites examples of vertical farms already in place around the world.

Examples are:
Rural Development Agency Suwon, Korea

Nuvege Kyoto, Japan
SkyGreen, Singapore
TerraSphere Vancouver, Canada
Introduction 3
Plantagon Linkosing, Sweden

The Plant Chicago, USA
Vertical Harvest, Jackson Hole, USA
OTHER TED TALKS

Christine Zimmermann-Loessl, the head of the Association of Vertical Farming
in Munich, Germany, gave a TED talk in Liege in 2015 entitled, “Taking food
production to new heights.”
She presented the “real” reasons for the benefits of vertical farming. She gave
the main three reasons—fresh, safe food; less use of natural resources; and less
traveled food miles and spoilage. She emphasized the need for increased food
production based on the projected population growth from 7 to 10 billion people in
the next 30 years. She presented the picture of vertical farming or CEA as a utopia
for growing produce. Her presentation included the ideal conditions for optimum
growth—temperature, light, water, nutrients, specific light spectrum, light duration,
and protection from severe weather conditions. The benefits were presented as two to
three times the growth rate, reduction in land use by 10-fold, and produce that is rich
in vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants as well as tastes good. This she stated was
one of the pillars of the future of agriculture (Zimmermann-Loessl, 2015).
According to a TED talk in Tanzania in 2017, Sara Menker indicated that by
2050, there will be a need for a 70% increase in worldwide food production. Can
we feed the population using our current methods (Menker, 2017)? According to an
article in the Atlantic magazine the world is divided into two groups—the wizards
and the prophets. The wizards believe that we can technically innovate and solve
this challenge. The prophets believe that we need to conserve, reduce, and adjust
to this new reality or we won’t survive (Mann, 2018). Achieving this goal will most
likely take several technical solutions to address this issue. These include traditional
farming methods and many new technologies.
NEW TECHNOLOGY
Companies like Aqua Design are capturing the CEA idea for the urban dweller. Toni
Beck, their chief marketing officer says, “For many people who live in urban areas,
like New York, it’s rare that you have a backyard or even enough indoor space to
grow your own healthy veggies so we designed EcoQube Sprout for the urban dweller
who wants fresh greens but just doesn’t have enough space or time. We believe that
the future of food production is through the use of aquaponics, hydroponics, and
aeroponics. With these technologies we can grow food 30%–50% faster while using
90% less water,” said Beck. “We can grow more efficiently using less space and less
water, allowing us to produce more food. It was really important for us to design
the Sprout for everyone, of all ages, to grow their own fresh food easily indoors”
(Mashable.com, 2018).
The Tabernas desert, in southern Spain, is the driest place in Europe. But in the
1960s the land began to blossom, and today the arid desert is where more than half
of Europe’s fresh vegetables and fruits are grown (Tremlett, 2005). The credit goes
to greenhouses. The first few were built there in 1963, courtesy of a land distribution
project spearheaded by Spain’s Instituto Nacional de Colonización. Fruits and vege-
tables from those greenhouses, where the environment could be controlled and beau-
tiful produce could be grown, consistently soon outsold comparable crops grown
elsewhere in open fields. Money was reinvested, greenhouses were expanded—with
inexpensive plastic sheeting replacing glass as the material of choice for the majority
of the controlled environments—and today greenhouses cover 50,000 acres in the
Tabernas desert, adding $1.5 billion annually to the economy of Spain.
That’s because from an environmental and land-use perspective, controlled-
environment farming is a great idea. Fruits and vegetables grown indoors tend to
have far greater yields per area than comparable produce grown outside. Put a roof
and walls around produce, and thus, most problems caused by weeds, pests, and
inclement weather vanish. Add technology like hydroponics—growing plants so the
roots sit in a customized nutrient slurry instead of in plain old dirt—to the equation,
and yields increase even more. Better yet, build a hydroponic rig that is modular,
rotates, and stacks—which means you can have several “stories” of produce growing
atop the same ground (assuming the stacks all get sufficient light).
In 2011, a calamity in Japan made it necessary to rethink agricultural production
strategies. The tidal wave that caused the Fukushima disaster wiped out most of
the farmland near Sendai, a coastal area in the northern half of Honshu, the larg-
est island of Japan. The Japanese government decided to jump-start a vertical farm
building boom, there in an effort to replace the lost land. Four years later, Japan
boasts hundreds of vertical farms, greenhouses stacked high into multistory sky-
scrapers, where plants rotate daily to catch sunlight. Instead of transporting dirt into
the buildings, the plants grow with roots exposed, soaking in nutrients from enriched
water or mist.
The number of Japanese plant factories (PFs) producing more than 10,000 heads
of lettuce daily is estimated to be around ten. Japan’s PFs are expanding to meet
the increasing demand for safe, pesticide-free, and locally grown food. Japan has
more PFs than any other country. The largest number of PFs are located in Okinawa
Prefecture near Taiwan. The rapid commercialization and financial subsidization by
the Japanese government of PFs, which began in 2010, are helping to drive interest
in their development (Kuack, 2017).
Another reason for the increase in PFs in Japan is that the country has been
importing a large amount of fresh, sliced salad vegetables from China. The Japanese
are concerned about the amount of pesticides being used for Chinese vegetable
production and looking for alternative sources of fresh vegetables and herbs.
In 2014, there were about 170 PFs in Japan. Of these, 70 are producing more than
1,000 lettuce heads (50–100 g per head) or other leafy greens daily. The average floor
area of a PF with 10–15 tiers for producing 10,000 lettuce heads daily is 1,500 square
meters. The main components of a PF are:
1. a thermally well-insulated and airtight warehouse-like structure with no

windows;
2. tiers/shelves with a light source and culture beds;
3. a carbon dioxide supply unit;
Introduction 5
4. nutrient supply units;

5. air conditioners;
6. an environment control unit;
7. other equipment includes nutrient solution sterilization units, air circulation
units, and seeders.
Aeroponics, a companion technology to hydroponics, has taken off in Japan and is

helping high-tech greenhouses produce remarkable yields quickly: unlike hydroponic
systems, where plants dip their roots in nutrient slurry, aeroponic systems spray the
plants’ deliberately exposed roots with a nutrient-laden mist. “The root systems grow
much longer because they have to increase their surface area to absorb the same
amount of nutrients,” explains Despommier (Kozai, 2016b). That, in turn, makes the
plants grow much faster.
VERTICAL FARMING TRENDS

Singapore, Sweden, South Korea, Canada, China, and the Netherlands all now boast
skyscraper farms similar in concept to Japan’s. In the US, such farms have risen in
Chicago, Newark, New Jersey, and Jackson, Wyoming.
In the UK and the Netherlands, in Boston and in Bryan, Texas, it’s been done.
“Pinkhouses,” as they’re sometimes called, are lit blue and red: those are the
spectrums of visible light best absorbed by plants. By using these colors alone,
pinkhouses generate serious efficiency. In the wild, plants use at most 8% of the light
they absorb, while in pinkhouses, the plants can use as much as 15%. In addition,
because everything happens entirely indoors, the lights, temperature, and humidity
can be controlled to an extent not possible even in the most high-tech, sun-dependent
vertical farms and greenhouses (Kozai,T. 2016a).
As a result, the plants grown in these pinkhouses grow 20% faster than their out-
door cousins, and need 91% less water, negligible fertilizer, and no treatment with
herbicides or pesticides. Currently, the LEDs keep the upfront costs of constructing
a pinkhouse very high, but LED prices are projected to drop by half in the next five
years. Given that, perhaps we ought to be preparing for a future where the majority
of our produce is grown industrially in LED-lined skyscrapers made of steel and
poured concrete.
AEROPONICS AT NASA
Plants have been to space since 1960, but NASA’s plant growth experiments began
in earnest during the 1990s. Experiments aboard the space shuttle and International
Space Station have exposed plants to the effects of microgravity. These experiments
use the principles of aeroponics: growing plants in an air/mist environment with no
soil and very little water.
In the 1990s and 2000s, NASA conducted research on aeroponic growing of food
for space applications partnering with AgriHouse and BioServe Space Technologies.
This technology was targeted for a microgravity environment on the Mir space
station. The objective was to produce plants free of infection without using pesticides.
Richard Stoner II, president and founder of AgriHouse, began using aeroponics in
the late 1980s to grow herbs in a greenhouse. Utilizing his own patented aeroponic
process, Stoner was one of the only people in the US employing the aeroponic
plant-propagating technique at the time.
The adzuki bean seeds and seedlings sprouted quite well both on Earth and
aboard the space station. The Mir-grown seeds and seedlings, however, exhibited
more growth than those grown on Earth. These plants have developed healthy root
systems, all while growing in the soil-less environment of the Genesis Series V
aeroponic V-shaped rapid growth system. NASA developed a low-mass, inflatable
aeroponic system for rapid crop production of pesticide-free herbs, grains, tomatoes,
lettuce, peppers, and other vegetables. This clean, sterile environment greatly reduces
the chances of spreading plant disease and infection that is commonly associated
with other growing media. Each growing chamber has 161 openings. The grower can
place one to five cuttings in each opening. Plants do not stretch or wilt while they are
developing their roots. Once roots are developed, the plants can be easily removed
for transplanting into any type of media without experiencing transplant shock or
setback to normal growth. Despite the drastic reduction in water and fertilizer usage,
those employing the aeroponics growing method witnessed robust crop yields and
healthy, vibrant coloring.
The Genesis system can grow many different plant types, including nursery
stock, fruits, vegetables, and houseplants. Hundreds of varieties have been cultivated
by researchers, farmers, commercial greenhouse growers, and nursery operators.
In the case of tomatoes, for example, growers can utilize the soil-less method to get
a jump-start on their production. Tomato growers traditionally start their plants in
pots, having to wait at least 28 days before transplanting them into the ground. With
the Genesis system, growers can start the plants in the aeroponic growing chamber,
then transplant them to another medium just 10 days later. This advanced aeroponic
propagation technology offers tomato growers six crop cycles per year, instead of the
traditional one to two crop cycles.
According to AgriHouse, growers choosing to employ the aeroponics method
can reduce water usage by 98%, fertilizer usage by 60%, and pesticide usage by
100%, all while maximizing their crop yields by 45%–75%. By conserving water
and eliminating harmful pesticides and fertilizers used in soil, growers are doing
their part to protect the Earth. These results essentially proved that aeroponically
grown plants uptake more minerals and vitamins as compared to other growing
techniques.
According to AgriHouse, potato production in East Asia lags behind North
America due to poor performance of seed potato crops. Utilizing the closed-loop
features developed under the NASA grants, the company designed and installed
a state-of-the-art aeroponic potato laboratory at the Institute for Agrobiology, for
potato tuber seed production. “AgriHouse’s advanced technology gives the Institute
of Agrobiology the opportunity for a direct replacement of labor-intensive, in vitro
tissue culture potato production,” said Dr. Nguyen Quang Thach, the institute’s
director. “Furthermore, the economic impact in the region from the seed potato-
production features of this NASA technology will give our underdeveloped country
a tremendous boost.”
Introduction 7
The Flex system, however, possesses a chamber that contains 1,000 plant holders,
offering a 10-fold increase in fresh crop production per square meter over the Genesis
system. It is capable of delivering 12 growing cycles per year and eliminates the need
for a greenhouse.
What NASA has learned from their research is that aeroponic growing systems
provide clean, efficient, and rapid food production. Crops can be planted and har-
vested in the system all year round without interruption, and without contamina-
tion from soil, pesticides, and residue. Since the growing environment is clean and
sterile, it greatly reduces the chances of spreading plant diseases and infection com-
monly found in soil (Spinoff, 2006).
AEROPONICS AT DISNEYWORLD
Tim Blank envisioned the future of growing while working at Disneyworld in the
1990s in the Disney Park called the Land. There he did research and developed the
aeroponic technology. In 2004, he launched a company called Tower Gardens and
since then has sold thousands of patented vertical aeroponic Tower Gardens around
the world. He calls it the power of the tower. When he is asked “What is aeropon-
ics?” He replies, “Aeroponics is simply defined as the process of growing plants in an
air or mist environment without the use of soil or an aggregate medium. The Tower
Garden® growing chamber contains no soil or aggregate medium. Instead, the cham-
ber is empty. It’s just roots and air between each irrigation cycle. The tumbling water
during these irrigation cycles creates a fine mist, oxygenating the water and bathing
the roots of each plant on its way down to the reservoir. This process is continuously
repeated with each irrigation cycle, providing maximum amounts of fresh oxygen,
water, and nutrients to the roots of the plants 24 hours a day. The intelligent design of
the Tower Garden® system produces extraordinary crops that grow much faster than
they would in soil, producing bountiful harvests within weeks of being transplanted
into the system.”
One of the main purposes behind Future Growing®’s (formerly Tower Garden)
patented aeroponic design was to avoid clogging misters—which typically plagues
traditional aeroponic growing systems—by utilizing high-flow aeroponics. Another
key benefit is the massive growing chamber for the roots. Because the plants’ roots
do not run out of space, they continue to grow strong and healthy. There are com-
mercial Tower Garden® farmers producing herb crops for several years now with
plenty of room to go!
To achieve their mission of producing healthy food for people, they also devel-
oped an all-natural, stable, water-based ionic mineral solution to support the pat-
ented vertical aeroponic Tower Garden® technology.
With assistance from leading world experts in plant and human nutrition, they
developed the proprietary Aeroponic Power-Gro® and the Tower Tonic® plant food.
Aeroponic Power-Gro® and the Tower Tonic® contains a wide range of specially
formulated ionic minerals and plant nutrients. It is the world’s first high-performance
ionic mineral solution specifically designed for all types of food and flowering crops.
The pH-balanced blend of natural plant nutrients helps stimulate plants’ roots, flow-
ers, fruits, and leaves.
Unlike conventional hydroponic fertilizers, the amazing Aeroponic Power-Gro®

and the Tower Tonic® can be used to grow everything from gourmet lettuce and
edible flowers to beautiful vine-ripened tomatoes. Healthy plants packed with nutri-
tion help create healthy people.
Aeroponic Power-Gro® and the Tower Tonic® are also loaded with trace minerals
that are essential to vibrant human health! Jake Kelly, a commercial rooftop Tower
Garden® farmer in Southern California, recently grew a 3-foot aeroponic kale plant
in a matter of weeks (Blank, 2020). Several more stories of home and commercial
use of these systems is given in Chapter 3—the Business of Aeroponics.
UGLY FOOD
Aeroponic growing can also reduce the amount of food lost due to its appearance.
In the US, as much as 40% of produce grown is never sold or eaten. The reason?
It’s too ugly. Consumers won’t buy imperfect looking fruit and vegetables, and
grocery stores refuse to stock them. The demand for “pretty” produce means
fruit and vegetable farmers need to make up for the cost of all that ugly food they
can’t sell.
That’s also why controlled environments, from pinkhouses in Boston to
plastic-sheeted greenhouses in Almeria, are used overwhelmingly to grow fresh pro-
duce: farmers who work in controlled environments can put out consistently pretty
pieces of produce. They have a huge advantage in the current fruit and vegetable
market, which values the look of the crop as much as anything. Moreover, with
produce, freshness fetches a premium; the shorter a distance a piece of produce has
to travel before it reaches your plate, the tastier it’ll be and the more you’ll pay for it.
And controlled environments allow farmers to grow their produce right next door to
where it’s sold. That’s why, even in the land-rich US, says Chieri Kubota, a professor
at the University of Arizona’s School of Plant Sciences, 40% of tomatoes today sold
fresh in stores are grown in greenhouses.
However, controlled-environment farming is far less profitable for growers of
staples. Rice, corn, and wheat—the cereal grains that provide the world with about
50% of its calories—are all dirt-cheap, more or less regardless of appearance. The
margins on those crops are thin, so any additional investment in innovation and
production methods comes at an impossibly steep price. Staple farmers can see their
profits only by growing huge amounts of their crops on enormous swaths of land;
economically, it doesn’t make sense for them to try to replicate that profit model in
greenhouses, so controlled-environment farming is unlikely to supplant the open
field when it comes to our most important crops (Newsweek, 2019).
VERTICAL FARMING DEFINITION

The term “vertical farm” may be a bit confusing. There are several ways to grow
produce vertically. Hydroponics—growing produce with the roots immersed in
water—has been the main technique for soil-less agriculture for the past 100 years.
However, there are several methods of growing hydroponically. In Jone’s book,
Hydroponics—A Practical Guide to the Soil-less Grower—several methods are
Introduction 9
described (Phillips, 2019). They are divided into two groups—medium-less

hydroponics (which includes aeroponics) and medium hydroponics. Medium being
a solid substrate that the roots can attach to. The medium-less also includes the
standing aerated nutrient solution and nutrient film technique. The medium systems
include ebb and flow, drip/pass through inorganic medium systems, bags/buckets, or
rock wool slabs.
In the case of vertical farms, they can be based on horizontal growing trays or
vertical walls or vertical columns. Normally the horizontal trays would be based on
one of the above-mentioned hydroponic systems with the trays stacked vertically.
They require artificial light between trays to ensure adequate radiation energy for the
plants to grow. Technically, this method is hydroponics. On the other hand, vertical
walls or columns are normally called aeroponic because the roots are suspended
vertically in air and the roots are either misted with nutrient solution or dosed with
a stream of nutrient solution.
AEROPONIC CROPS
While a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, and edible/medicinal plants can be
grown for commercial production, space constraints continue to limit those that
make the most financial sense. The most common crops grown for commercial
production are lettuces, salad greens, and culinary herbs. Recent research from
the Cornell University Cooperative Extension has shown that hydro/aeroponics
is the most efficient method for growing leafy greens. Leafy greens grown using
traditional geoponic agriculture can become contaminated with bacteria and soil
pathogens. The Cornell research shows that hydro/aeroponics significantly reduce
these risks.
To provide a better understanding of which plants can be grown using
hydro/aeroponics, here is a partial list of crops that have been grown successfully:
1. arugula;
2. basil, all varieties;
3. beans;
4. bok choi;
5. brussels sprouts;
6. cabbage;
7. chard;
8. cress;
9. cucumbers;
10. culinary herbs, including cilantro, mint, oregano, thyme, dill, rosemary;
11. fennel;
12. flowers including nasturtium, violas, marigolds, poppies, lavender;
13. kale;
14. lettuces and salad greens;
15. medicinal herbs;
16. microgreens;
17. mustard greens;
18. okra;
19. ornamental plants;
20. pea
21. spinach
22. strawberries
23. sweet and hot peppers
24. all tomato varieties.
It has been reported that root vegetables and below-the-soil crops are more difficult
to grow with hydro/aeroponics. There are research groups, however, such as at the
Ha Noi University of Agriculture, who are working to develop seed potato crops
(Brechner and Both, 2013).
AEROPONIC CONTAINER FARMS

One of the newest variations on aeroponic technologies is the farm in a shipping
container concept. An entire aeroponics farm can be placed inside of a former
cargo shipping container. An applied spray is concentrated with essential macro-
and micronutrients, typically provided from purchased chemicals, however, not
requiring pesticides. Container farmers have the ability to control the entire growing
environment (another form of CEA) by keeping the plants in an enclosed space and
climate-controlled—a farm in a box.
Companies like Vertical Roots, Modular Farms, and Freight Farms are leading the
way with smart data that allows for automated adjustments to container temperature,
light intensity, carbon dioxide levels, and nutrient concentration. These boxes have
several environmental and business benefits as well. Vertical Roots, for example, is
able to mitigate 95% of its water loss by simply catching the runoff and circulating it
back to the system’s reservoir. All of the growing operations occur within a shipping
container box, a 40 × 8 × 8-foot space. Its plants are suspended vertically, mean-
ing their container model can optimize space to grow produce normally requiring
4 acres of land within a 1–2-month schedule at a fraction of the acreage of a tradi-
tional farm. This design concept, also used by Freight Farms, not only conserves
space but also allows for the farms to be portable to different locations.
Information provided by Vertical Roots shows that their pod method, which
includes four boxes of farms, can produce roughly $200,000 of yearly income on
leafy greens. An expensive purchase price of over $500,000 would likely keep
any single person from buying the pod themselves, but utilizing municipal support
funds, loan programs, and philanthropic aid could offset the daunting first step.
Upon running operations with no debt or loan paybacks, a single pod could provide
well-paying jobs for five or more people.
Every system has its drawbacks, and aeroponics is no exception. The systems
are typically located in an enclosed space for climate-control optimization, which
requires high-intensity light systems, temperature controls, and other monitoring
equipment and this comes with an expensive monthly electric bill. Environmentalists
also note that producing the shipping container, ordering the container to be shipped
Introduction 11
to your location, stripping it of its potential toxins, and outfitting it with the advanced
technology greatly diminishes the sustainability of the system (Miller, 2018).
These concerns are valid, and growing methods should be improved upon to
reduce the carbon footprint. Nonetheless, aeroponics farming concepts may present
a cleaner, more community-driven alternative when compared to the traditional
farming methods that take up hundreds of acres of land, several states away. As
our cities expand and poor communities find themselves with less access to quality
food, organizations can lead the way in bringing food into the neighborhoods that
need it the most. Successful business models that capitalize on aeroponics’ ability
to optimize space and resources can not only produce fresh food but also reduce our
farming carbon footprint.
The next chapter will look at the history of aeroponics and some of the key
technical developments that were the foundation for soil-less agriculture. This will
include the origin of the terms—hydroponics and aeroponics—and some of the early
technical papers about aeroponics. In subsequent chapters, a detailed summary of
the most current research and innovation developments that have usher in this new
era of aeroponic technology will be discussed.
REFERENCES
Blank, T., The Power of the Tower, futuregrowing.wordpress.com – Accessed April 16, 2020.
Brechner, M., Both, A. J., 2013, Cornell Lettuce Handbook. cea.cals.cornell.edu/attachments/
Cornell%20CEA%20Lettuce%20Handbook%20.pdf.
Despommier, D., 2011, The Vertical Farm: Feeding the World in the 21st Century. London:
Picador.
Despommier, D., 2013, TEDx talk Middlebury. www.youtu.be/XO2mVBTeBtE.
Kozai, T., 2016a, LED Lighting for Urban Agriculture. Singapore: Springer.
Kozai, T., 2016b, Plant Factory: An Indoor Vertical Farming System for Efficient Quality
Food Production. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Kuack, D., 2017, Japan plant factories are providing a safe, reliable food source, UrbanAgNews.
com, May 15, 2017.
Mann, C., 2018, Can planet earth feed 10 billion people? – The Atlantic, www.theatlantic.
com/magazine/archive/2018/03/charles-mann…/550928.
Mashable.com, 2018, Grow microgreens at home with Kickstarter campaign the EcoQube
Sprout, Mashable.com – July 23, 2018.
Menker, S., 2017, TEDx talk Tanzania. www.ted.com/talks/sara_menker_a_global_food_
crisis_may_be_less_than_a_decade_away/footnotes?language=en.

Miller, Matthew, 2018, Aeroponics: A Sustainable Solution for Urban Agriculture, April 4,
2018, www.eli.org/vibrant…blog/aeroponics-sustainable-solution-urban-agriculture.
Newsweek, 2015, To Feed Humankind, We Need the Farms of the Future Today – If we keep
farming like we’ve been for the past century, we’ll end up with millions starving and a
planet denuded of trees. Newsweek – October 30, 2015.
Newsweek, 2019, www.newsweek.com/vertical-farms-across-world-385696, July 15, 2019.
Phillips, S., 2019, www.uglyproduceisbeautiful.com/ugly-produce-problem.html.
Spinoff, 2006, www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/technologies/aeroponic_plants.html.
Tremlett, G., 2005, Spain’s greenhouse effect: The shimmering sea of polythene consuming
the land, The Guardian, September 2005.
Zimmermann-Loessl, C., 2015, TEDx talk Liege. www.youtu.be/ecLMTgAWsqs.
Taylor & Francis
2 History of Aeroponics
Yesterday is history, tomorrow is a mystery, today is God’s gift, that’s why we

call it the present.
Joan Rivers
The history of aeroponics finds its roots in various examples of agricultural experi-
ments and the development of technology (chemistry, biology, and engineering),
especially materials, e.g., glass-making, the invention of rubber hoses and plastic, as
well as steam and electricity (for lights and pumps). Its history is connected with the
development of soil-less and hydroponic growing (Steiner, 1985).
In ancient times (600 B.C. to 300 A.D.), the “Hanging Gardens of Babylon” was
one of the seven wonders of the world. Possibly one of the first examples of protected
agriculture. These gardens were built by King Nebuchadnezzar II on the east bank
of the Euphrates River in the middle of the desert for one of his wives. Renditions
suggest a series of terraced growing areas in which water is supplied by a “chain
pump” lift system from the river below. Egyptian hieroglyphs tell of the people
growing plants in water culture, possibly papyrus (for paper) and lotus (University
of Chicago, 1993). Theophrastus (372–287 B.C.) was one of the greatest early Greek
philosophers and called the “father of botany.” He performed experiments in crop
nutrition and noted that rotting manure (compost) warms and ripens the soil, thus
increasing growth; worked with potted plants (Grene and Depew, 2004). Cucumbers
were grown off-season for the Roman Emperor Tiberius (14–37 A.D.) using a struc-
ture covered with “transparent rock” (presumably mica). It was the first known use
of controlled environment agriculture (Janick, Paris, and Parrish, 2007). Other such
structures were described during 1st century. Pliny “The Elder” aka Gaius Plinius
Secundus (23–79 A.D.) wrote Naturalis Historia, a series of 37 books. Books 12–27
covered botany, agriculture, horticulture, and pharmacology (Healy, 2004). He
talked about the use of “straw caps” (mulch) to protect young plants. In 300 A.D. in
Rome, roses were forced to flower early by the addition of warm water into the irriga-
tion ditches twice a day. This would warm the roots and stimulate growth. Therefore,
up to ~300 A.D., the ancients had perfected protected agriculture (terraced growing
areas, mulches, and compost heating), greenhouses, hot air and hot water heating
systems, and had experimented with plant nutrition, water culture, and more. Then
the Great Library burned in Alexandria, Egypt. Rome fell and the Dark Ages began
(Rohrbaugh, 2015).
Early forms of hydroponic growing were first observed in China in the 1200s by
Marco Polo, who traveled with his father and uncle along the “Silk Road” to China,
and saw “floating gardens” used to grow food. This type of garden had presumably
been used for centuries by the Chinese. The Aztecs in the 1300s, built Tenochtitlan
on an island in the shallow lake, Texcoco (near present day Mexico City), and created
13
artificial islands (floating gardens) called “chinampas.” This was necessary since
there was little dry/level land for farming.
In 1300–1500s the European Renaissance triggered a revival of art, literature &
learning in the world as it emerged from the Dark Ages. People want to “grow out
of season” (i.e., have tomatoes in winter) or grow plants where they don’t normally
grow. In 1385, the French built “glass pavilions” oriented toward the south to grow
flowers (though mainly for the wealthy to enjoy) (Royal Netherlands Academy of
Arts and Sciences, 2015). In the 1500s and 1600s, the expanding glass industry in
Italy prompted Italians, English, Germans, and French to experiment with glass for
plant growing. Greenhouses were built to grow flowers in the winter using solar
heating, the building of “orangeries” for growing oranges and other citrus (to help
guard against scurvy during the winter) and the first greenhouse or conservatory to
be built at a botanical garden was constructed at Padua, Italy, in 1550 (Aeroponics:
Wikipedia, 2019). In the 1600s, widespread use of glass greenhouses of different
designs (including those with removable tops for summer) to “force” bulbs and
to grow flowers, citrus, and other trees and shrubs in England, France, Germany,
Sweden, The Netherlands, Spain, and China (Hoagland Solution: Wikipedia, 2014).
Heating systems were “rediscovered”—steam/hot water, “bark” stoves (moist heat),
manure as a heat source and charcoal heaters.
In 1600, a Belgian, Jan Van Helmont, performed the earliest known experiments
to determine the constituents of plants. A 5 lb willow shoot planted in 200 lbs of soil
was covered to keep dust out and watered with rain water for 5 years. The willow
increased its weight to 160 lbs., but the soil lost only 2 oz. His conclusion: plants
obtain substances from the water needed for growth [these “substances” were “ele-
ments” (not yet known)]. However, he failed to realize that plants also require carbon
dioxide and oxygen from air. In 1699, an Englishman, John Woodward, used various
types of soil to grow plants. He found that the greatest growth occurred in water
which contained the most soil. His conclusion: plant growth results from substances
in the water derived from the soil, rather than from the water itself. As with Van
Helmont, the elements were not yet fully known.
In the 1700s, greenhouse designs continued to improve in Europe and then in the
USA, including multispan structures. The first greenhouses with glass on all sides
were built in 1700s (Carter, 1942). In the 1700s, European chemists discovered a
majority of the elements (except carbon, sulfur, iron, and copper, which were discov-
ered in ancient times) including those elements necessary for plant growth. Growers
in The Netherlands found that glass cleaning along with greenhouse orientation
(perpendicular to radiation source) are important for light penetration, especially in
northern latitudes. George Washington built a glass conservatory with below-ground
heating at his home at Mount Vernon in the 1780s. In the 1800s in the USA, the first
commercial greenhouse (1820) was built.
In 1804, N.T. de Saussure made the first quantitative measurements of photosyn-
thesis and proposed that plants are composed of chemical elements from soil, water,
and air. Curiously enough, the earliest recorded experiment with water cultures (soil-
less growing) was carried out in search of a so-called “principle of vegetation” in a
day when so little was known about the principles of plant nutrition that there was
History of Aeroponics 15
little chance of profitable results from such an experiment. Woodward in 1699 grew
spearmint in several kinds of water: rain, river, and conduit water to which he added
garden mold in one case. He found that the greatest increase in the weight of the
plant took place in the water containing the greatest admixture of soil. His conclu-
sion was “That earth, and not water, is the matter that constitutes vegetables.”
The real development of the technique of water culture took place in the 19th
century. It came as a logical result of the modern concepts of plant nutrition. By the
middle of the 19th century, enough of the fundamental facts of plant physiology had
been accumulated and properly evaluated to enable the botanists and chemists of
that period to correctly assign to the soil the part which it plays in the nutrition of
plants. They realized that plants are made of chemical elements obtained from three
sources: air, water, and soil; and that the plants grow and increase in size and weight
by combining these elements into various plant substances.
Water of course, always the main component of growing plants. But the major
portion, usually about 90%, of the dry matter of most plants made up of three
chemical elements: carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Carbon comes from air, oxygen
from air and water, and hydrogen from water. In addition to the three elements
named above, plants contain other elements, such as nitrogen, phosphorous, potas-
sium, and calcium, which they obtain from the soil. The soil, then, supplies to the
plant a large number of chemical elements, but they constitute only very small por-
tion of the plant. However, various elements which occur in plants in comparatively
small amounts are just as essential to growth as those which compose the bulk of
plant tissues.
The publication, in 1840, of Liebig’s book on the application of organic chemistry
to agriculture and physiology, in which the above views were ably and effectively
brought to the attention of plant physiologists and chemists of that period, served
as a great stimulus for the undertaking of experimental work in plant nutrition.
(Liebig, however, failed to understand the role of soil as the source of nitrogen
for plants, and the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by nodule organisms was not
known then.)
Once it was recognized that the function of the soil in the economy of the plant
to furnish certain chemical elements, as well as water, was but natural to attempt
to supply these elements and water independently of soil. The credit for initiating
exact experimentation in this field belongs to the French chemist, Jean Boussignault,
who was known as the founder of modern methods of conducting experiments in
vegetation.
Boussignault, who had begun his experiments on plants even before 1840, grew
them in insoluble artificial soils: sand, quartz, and sugar charcoal, which he watered
with solutions of known composition. His results provided experimental verifica-
tion for the mineral theory of plant nutrition as put forward by Liebig, and were at
once a demonstration of the feasibility of growing plants in a medium other than a
“natural soil.”
In 1851, the French chemist, Jean Boussingault, verified de Saussure’s proposal
when he grew plants in insoluble artificial media (sand, quartz, and sugar charcoal)
and solutions of known chemical composition (Stoner, 1983). His conclusions: plants
require water and obtain hydrogen from it; plant dry matter contains hydrogen and
carbon and oxygen which comes from the air; plants also contain nitrogen and other
elements.
This method of growing plants in artificial insoluble soils was later improved
by Salm-Horstmar (1856–1860) and has been used since, with various technical
improvements, by numerous investigators throughout the world. In recent years,
large-scale techniques have been devised for growing plants for experimental or
commercial purposes in beds of sand or other inert solid material. After plants were
successfully grown in artificial culture media, it was but one more step to dispense
with any solid medium and attempt to grow plants in water to which the chemical
elements required by plants were added.
One of the key scientists to work on understanding photosynthesis and how plants
grow was Julius van Sachs. When he was 16 years old, his father died, and in the next
year both his mother and a brother died of the cholera. Suddenly without financial
support, he was fortunate to be taken into the family of Jan Evangelista Purkyně
who had accepted a professorship at the University of Prague. Sachs was admitted
to the university in 1851. Sachs famously labored long hours in the laboratory for
Purkyně, and then long hours for himself each day after his work in the laboratory
was finished. After the laboratory, he could devote himself entirely to establishing
how plants grow (Carter, 1942).
In 1856, Sachs graduated with a doctor of philosophy, and then adopted a botani-
cal career, establishing himself as Privatdozent for plant physiology. In 1868, he
accepted the chair of botany in the University of Würzburg, which he continued to
occupy (in spite of calls from more prestigious German universities) until his death.
Sachs achieved distinction as an investigator, a writer, and a teacher; his name will
ever be especially associated with the great development of plant physiology which
marked the latter half of the 19th century, though there is scarcely a branch of botany
to which he did not materially contribute. His earlier papers, scattered through the
volumes of botanical journals and of the publications of learned societies (a collected
edition was published in 1892–1893), are of great and varied interest. Prominent
among them is the series of “Keimungsgeschichten,” which laid the foundation of our
knowledge of microchemical methods, and also of the morphological and physiologi-
cal details of germination. Then there is his resuscitation of the method of “water-
culture,” and the application of it to the investigation of the problems of nutrition.
Most important are his experiments, developing the concept of photosynthesis, that
the starch-grains, found in leaf chloroplasts, depend on sunlight. A leaf that has been
in sunlight, then bleached white and stained with iodine turns black, proving its starch
content, whereas a leaf from the same plant that has been out of the sun will remain
white. Julius von Sachs collaborated with Wilhelm Knop in the 1860s to use “nutri-
culture” (today called water culture, a type of hydroponics) to study plant nutrition.
Plant roots were immersed in water that contained “salts” of nitrogen (N), phosphorus
(P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), and calcium (Ca). They found that
these elements were needed in large amounts by the plant, hence the term “macronu-
trients” was given. Both scientists also devised nutrient solution recipes.
Over the course of the following 80 years, several other scientists studied plant
mineral nutrition using water culture (hydroponics) and identified other elements
needed by plants in much smaller amounts. These are called “micronutrients” and
include iron (Fe), chlorine (Cl), manganese (Mn), boron (B), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu),
and molybdenum (Mo) (Carter, 1942).
The work by Boussingault and de Saussure was confirmed in 1860 by Sachs and
about the same time by Knop. To quote Sachs directly:
In the year 1860, I published the results of experiments demonstrated that land plants
are capable of absorbing their nutritive matters out of watery solutions, without the aid
of soil, and that it is possible in this way not only to maintain plants alive and growing
for a long time, as had long been known but also to bring about a vigorous increase of
their organic substance and even the production of seed capable of germination.
The original technique developed by Sachs for growing plants in nutrient solutions
is still widely used, essentially unaltered. He germinated the seed in well-washed
sawdust, until the plants reached a size convenient for transplanting. After carefully
removing and washing the seedling, he fastened it into a perforated cork, with the
roots dipping into the solution. Since the publication of Sachs’s standard solution for-
mula (Table 2.1) for growing plants in water culture, many other formulas have been
suggested and widely used with success by many investigators in different countries.
Knop, who undertook water-culture experiments at the same time as Sachs, pro-
posed in 1865 a nutrient solution, which became one of the most widely employed in
studies of plant nutrition.
Other formulas for nutrient solutions have been proposed by Tollens in 1882, by
Schimper in 1890, by Pfeffer in 1900, by Crone in 1902, by Tottingham in 1914, by
Shive in 1915, by Hoagland in 1920, and many others. At the very inception of the
water-culture work, investigators clearly recognized that there can be no one compo-
sition of a nutrient solution which is always superior. Thus, Sachs wrote:
I mention the quantities (of chemicals) I am accustomed to use generally in water
cultures, with the remark, however, that a somewhat wide margin may be permitted
with respect to the quantities of the individual salts and the concentration of the whole
solution—it does not matter if a little more or less of the one or the other salt is taken—
if only the nutritive mixture is kept within certain limits as to quality and quantity,
which are established by experience.
TABLE 2.1
Standard Solution Formulas for Water Culture
Sach’s Solution Knop’s Solution Pfeffer’s Solution Crone’s Solution
1860 1865 1900 1902
Ingredient g/L Ingredient g/L Ingredient g/L Ingredient g/L
KNO3 1.00 Ca(NO3)2 0.8 Ca(NO3)2 0.8 KNO3 1.00
Ca3(PO4)2 0.50 KNO3 0.2 KNO3 0.2 Ca3(PO4)2 0.25
MgSO4 0.50 KH2PO4 0.2 MgSO4 0.2 MgSO4 0.25
CaSO4 0.50 MgSO4 0.2 KH2PO4 0.2 CaSO4 0.25
NaCl 0.25 FePO4 trace KCl 0.2 FePO4 0.25
FeSO4 trace FeCl2 trace
Until recently, the water-culture technique was employed exclusively in small-scale,

controlled laboratory experiments intended to solve fundamental problems of plant
nutrition and physiology. These experiments have led to the determination of the list
of chemical elements essential for plant life. They have thus profoundly influenced
the practice of soil management and fertilization for purposes of crop production.
In recent years, great refinements in water-culture technique have made possible the
discovery of several new essential elements. These, although required by plants in
exceedingly small amounts, often are of definite practical importance in agricultural
practice. The elements derived from the nutrient medium that are now considered to
be indispensable for the growth of higher green plants are nitrogen, phosphorous,
potassium, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, iron, boron, manganese, copper, and zinc.
New evidence suggests that molybdenum may have to be added to the list. Present
indications are that further refinements of technique may lead to the discovery of
additional elements, essential in minute quantities for growth.
In addition to the list of essential elements, which is obviously of first importance
in making artificial culture media for growing plants, a large amount of information
has been amassed on the desirable proportions and concentrations of the essential
elements, and on such physical and chemical properties of various culture solutions
as acidity, alkalinity, and osmotic characteristics. A most important recent develop-
ment in water-culture technique has been the recognition of the importance of special
aeration of the nutrient solution for many plants, to supplement the oxygen supply
normally entering the solution when in contact with the surrounding atmosphere.
The recently publicized use of the water-culture technique for commercial crop
production does not rest on any newly discovered principles of plant nutrition other
than those discussed above. It involves rather, the application of a large-scale tech-
nique, developed on the basis of an understanding of plant nutrition gained in previous
investigations conducted on a laboratory scale. The latter have provided knowledge
of the composition of suitable culture solutions. Furthermore, methods of controlling
the concentration of nutrients and the degree of acidity are, except for modifications
imposed by the large scale of operations, similar to those employed in small-scale
laboratory experiments (Zobel, Del Tredici, and Torrey, 1976; Rohrbaugh, 2015).
In 1911, Vladimir M. Artsikhovski, a Russian botanist, published in the journal
Experienced Agronomy an article On Air Plant Cultures which describes his method
of studies on root systems by spraying various substances in the surrounding air—
the aeroponics method (Rohrbaugh, 2015).
In the first half of the 20th century, several plant nutrition scientists developed
recipes for optimum plant growth. Several researchers in the 1930s began modifying
small-scale laboratory techniques for liquid culture (hydroponics) to accommodate
large-scale commercial crop production. In 1929, W.F. Gericke (U.C. Berkley) intro-
duced “soil-less” culture and grew tomato plants in nutriculture and experimented
with this on a large scale for commercial purposes. He coined the term “hydropon-
ics” in 1937, from two Greek words “hydro” meaning “water” and “ponos” meaning
“work.” Literally = “water working.” However, Gericke met up with skepticism from
the public and the university. His colleagues even denied the use of the on-ground
greenhouses for his study. He declared them wrong by successfully growing 25-foot
tall tomato plants in nutrient-filled solutions. The university still doubted his account
of successful cultivation and the Director of the California Agricultural Experimental

Station, C. B. Hutchinson, requested two other students, Dennis R. Hoagland and
Daniel I. Arnon, to investigate his claim. The two performed the research and
reported their findings in an agriculture bulletin 1938, titled “The Water Culture
Method for Growing Plants without Soil” (Hoagland and Arnon, 1938). They con-
firmed the application of hydroponics but concluded from their research that crops
grown with hydroponics are no better than those grown on quality soils. However,
they missed many advantages of hydroponics in comparison with the cultural prac-
tice. Crop yields were ultimately limited by factors other than mineral nutrients,
especially light. This research, however, overlooked the fact that hydroponics has
other advantages including the fact that the roots of the plant have constant access
to oxygen and that the plants have access to as much or as little water as they need.
Hoagland became so well known for his work in plant nutrient formulas that today
it is common to refer to his hydroponic nutrient solution recipe as a “MODIFIED
HOAGLAND’S SOLUTION.” The Hoagland solution is shown in Table 2.2.
In the 1940s, during World War II, the United States military used hydroponics
to supply the troops stationed on isolated, nonarable islands and coral atolls in the
Pacific with food. After the war, the U.S. Army built a 22 hectare hydroponic opera-
tion at Chofu, Japan. In the 1940s, the technology was largely used as a research tool
rather than the economically feasible method of crop production. W. Carter in 1942
was the first grow plants in air called air culture growing and described a method for
growing plants in water vapor to facilitate the study of roots (Julius von Sachs, 2019).
TABLE 2.2
Hoagland Solution for Hydroponics
Component Stock Solution Milliliter Stock Solution/Liter
Macronutrients Concentration
KNO3 202 g/L 2.5
Ca(NO3)2·4H2O 236 g/0.5 L 2.5
Iron (sprint 138 Fe chelate) 15 g/L 1.5
MgSO4·7H2O 493 g/L 1
Micronutrients
H3BO4 2.86 g/L 1
MnCl2·4H2O 1.81 g/L 1
ZnSO4·7H2O 0.22 g/L 1
CuSO4·5H2O 0.08 g/L 1
H2MoO4·H2O or 0.09 g/L 1
Na2MoO4·2H2O 0.12 g/L 1
Phosphate
KH2PO4 (pH to 6.0) 136 g/L 1
• Make up stock solutions and store in separate bottles.

• Add each component to 800 mL deionized water, then fill to 1 L.
• After the solution is mixed, it is ready to use.
It was F. W. Went in 1957 who first coined the air-growing process as “aeropon-
ics,” growing coffee plants and tomatoes with air-suspended roots and applying a
nutrient mist to the root section (GreenandVibrant.com, 2019).
The current history of aeroponics is captured in the next chapters that include the
Science, Innovation, Business, Practice, and Research. These chapters describe the
scope of experiments and findings published in the scientific literature, the intellec-
tual property, and the business literature in the last 70 years.
REFERENCES
Aeroponics: Wikipedia, 2019, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeroponics.
Carter, W. A., 1942, A method of growing plants in water vapor to facilitate examination of
roots. Phytopathology 732: 623–625.
GreenandVibrant.com, 2019, The History of Hydroponics – The Past, The Present, and The
Future, www.greenandvibrant.com/history-of-hydroponics.
Grene, M., Depew, D., 2004, The Philosophy of Biology: An Episodic History. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 11.
Healy, J. F., 2004, Pliny the Elder: Natural History: A Selection. London: Penguin Classics.
Hoagland, D. R., Arnon, D. I., 1938, The Water-Culture Method for Growing Plants with-
out Soil (Circular (California Agricultural Experiment Station), 347 ed. Berkeley:
University of California, College of Agriculture, Agricultural Experiment Station.
Retrieved 1 October 2014. www.hdl.handle.net/2027/uc2.ark:/13960/t51g1sb8j.
Hoagland Solution: Wikipedia, 2014, The Hoaglands solution for hydroponic cultivation.
Science in Hydroponics. Retrieved 1 October 2014. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Hoagland_solution.
Janick, J., Paris, H. S., Parrish, D. C., 2007, The cucurbits of Mediterranean antiquity:
Identification of taxa from ancient images and descriptions. Annals of Botany 100 (7):
1441–1457.
Rohrbaugh, P. A., 2015, Introduction to Hydroponics and Controlled Environment Agriculture,
University of Arizona, https://ceac.arizona.edu/resources/intro-hydroponics-cea.
Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. 2020, Retrieved 20 July 2015, “J. von Sachs
(1832–1897)”. www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q61650.
Steiner, A. A., 1985, The History of Mineral Plant Nutrition till about 1860 as a source of
soil-less culture methods. Soil-less Culture 1 (1): 7–24.
Stoner, R. J., 1983, Aeroponics versus bed and hydroponic propogation. Florist’s Review 1
(173): 4477.
University of Chicago, ed., 1993, “Hanging Gardens of Babylon”. Britannica. 5 (15 ed.).
Chicago, IL: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 681–682.
von Sachs, Julius: Wikipedia, 2019, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_von_Sachs
Zobel R. W., Del Tredici, P., Torrey, J. G., 1976, Method for growing plants aeroponically.
Plant Physiology 57: 344–346.
3 The Aeroponic
Value Proposition
There is an appointed time for everything…a time to plant and time to uproot
what is planted.
Eccleisiastes 3:1–2
Value proposition is defined as an innovation intended to make a product attractive
to customers. So what makes aeroponics attractive to customers. It is unique. It is
creative. It is simple. It produces healthy food. It is universal. It is educational. It can
be practiced anywhere in the world. It is easy to learn how to do. It is very productive.
It is new. It is fun. We have been talking about many examples of aeroponic systems
in the world (Chapter 1) and about its history (Chapter 2). But let’s define what it
really is.
Aeroponics is best defined by comparison with other agricultural techniques. The
most common technique in agriculture is geoponics. Geoponics is the conventional
way of growing crops in soil, in the open air, with irrigation, the application of
fertilizer (nutrients), pest and weed control. There are three agricultural techniques
that are considered to be soil-less approaches. These include hydroponics, aqua-
ponics, and aeroponics. In some cases hydroponics and aquaponics are practiced
using media (vermiculite, perlite, pea gravel, sand, expanded clay, pumice, scoria,
and polyurethane) that is a substitute for soil but they can also be practiced without
media. The roots of the plants are always submerged in nutrient solution. Aeroponics
uses a substrate, typically a cube of rockwool (silica dioxide absorbent fibers), for
planting seeds and providing a support for the roots and the stem to be anchored in.
The roots hang in air.
Conventional agricultural systems use large quantities of irrigation fresh water
and fertilizers, with relatively marginal returns (Robinet, 2014). Hydroponics,
aeroponics, and aquaponics are modern agriculture systems that utilize nutrient-rich
water rather than soil for plant nourishment (Calderone, 2018). Because it does not
require fertile land in order to be effective, these new modern agriculture systems
require less water and space compared with the conventional agricultural systems.
One more advantage of these technologies is the ability to practice vertical farming
production which increases the yield per unit area (Technology Spotlight, 2018).
The benefits of the new modern agriculture systems are numerous. In addition to
higher yields and water efficiency, when practiced in a controlled environment, these
new modern systems can be designed to support continuous production throughout
the year (Pfeiffer, 2004).
The most clear distinction between aeroponics and hydroponics is how the
roots are exposed to the nutrient solution. In hydroponics the roots are submerged
in the nutrient solution, whereas in aeroponics the roots are suspended in air and
21
are periodically misted or irrigated with the nutrient solution. Hydroponics can
be conducted in many ways—ebb and flow, drip/pass, standing aerated nutrient
solution, and nutrient flow technique (Pfeiffer, 2003). The initial development of
aeroponics consisted of misting roots using spray nozzles to coat the roots with the
nutrient solution. It has also been practiced using vertical columns and pumping
the nutrient solution to the top of the column and having it cascade down inside the
enclosed column coating the roots with the nutrient solution. Columns have been
designed that have both a circular and square profile.
Aquaponics can be conducted in tandem with a hydroponic or aeroponic growing
system. Aquaponics uses a tank of live fish to produce a waste solution that is the
nutrient solution which is circulated to feed the plants in a hydroponic or aeroponic
system. The advantage of aquaponics is mainly from a business standpoint in that the
fish can also be sold as well as the produce.
In all cases, these three approaches can be conducted in vertical farming systems.
The hydroponic approach requires stacking of horizontal trays on top of one another
and requires artificial lighting between trays to replace sunlight. Aeroponic growing
can be conducted using vertically oriented columns (towers) either in greenhouses
with sunlight or indoors using artificial lights. Aeroponics can also be conducted on
horizontal tables with roots misted but typically this does not lend itself to vertical
farming.
These approaches compare to geoponics (soil-grown) plants in that the roots
are maintained under a dark environment like the soil and the stems and leaves of
the plants are exposed to sunlight or artificial light to promote photosynthesis. But
essentially for plants to grow they need water-soluble nutrients that can be absorbed
by the roots as well as contact with air for the leaves to absorb carbon dioxide which
is used in the photosynthesis process of making sugars, starches, and cellulose to
ensure plant health and growth. In traditional farming these nutrients are mainly
nitrogen bearing ions like nitrate and ammonium, and also phosphorus in phosphate
and potassium ions. In fertilizer nomenclature, this is described as NPK for these
three nutrients. For soil, these nutrients (fertilizers) are added directly to the soil
and when the soil is irrigated or receives rain these ions dissolve in the water and
migrate to the root hairs and can be absorbed into the roots for plant growth. The
challenge for soil-grown plants is that 60% of the fertilizer distributed on the soil is
never absorbed by the plants and ends up becoming runoff, which can become an
environmental issue.
In the aeroponic technique, the nutrients (NPK) are added to the water in very low
concentrations—parts per million—and can be circulated multiple times past the
roots so that they can be absorbed. This is a savings in the use of nutrients because
there is a minimal loss in these systems. Also, the roots absorb oxygen and in soil-
grown plants the oxygen maybe restricted in diffusing to the roots. In addition to
this more efficient use of nutrients without runoff, the quantity of water necessary
to grow aeroponically has been estimated to be substantially less than that for soil
growing (Pfeiffer, 2003).
Comparing conventional agriculture to aeroponics, it should be noted that one
can identify several negative impacts. These would include high and inefficient use
of water, large land requirements, high concentrations of nutrient consumption (with
The Aeroponic Value Proposition 23
lower actual plant consumption), limited crop cycle times dependent on sunlight,
weather conditions, and soil degradation. That coupled with the world population
growing exponentially seems to suggest that there needs to be a higher rate of pro-
duction of food.
Therefore, the need for large amounts of high-quality vegetable products to meet
the growing demand of this world population seems to justify the development of
technologies which optimize the water and nutrient solution demand. The knowl-
edge of water and nutrient uptake by plants is critical for developing control strate-
gies, which increase the possibility to supply the required amounts of water and
nutrients for maximum crop growth.
In an aeroponic system, plants can grow without soil and use less water than con-
ventional agriculture. So in aeroponics the water is recycled and is only lost through
evaporation or transpiration by the plants. The same is true of the nutrient usage
where at least efficiencies of 50% usage compared to conventional techniques with
the added benefit of reduction in fertilizer runoff into streams and lakes. The cycle
times for most crops can be reduced substantially which again increases productiv-
ity and the minimum use of input resources. There are many advantages in growing
crops aeroponically:
1. Soil is not necessary

2. Land use is optimized
3. Yields are stable and high with reduced cycle times
4. No nutrient pollution is released into the environment
5. Higher nutrient and water use efficiency due to control over nutrient levels
Aeroponics and hydroponics are similar in the use of the nutrient-rich water, but they
are distinctly different. Hydroponics uses certain media other than soil that retains
and distributes nutrient-rich water to feed the plants, whereas aeroponics can use
either a misting system or a vertical stream of nutrient solution to deliver nutrients.
Aeroponics is more suited for vertical growing configurations and uses space more
efficiently.
Both hydroponic and aeroponics system allow for flexibility and control of the
quality, health and quantity of the vegetable plants and other produce. Whether a
hydroponics or aeroponics system has been chosen, both promote self-sustainability
in an environmentally friendly way. Hydroponics uses only 10% of water resources
when compared to conventional methods giving the grower complete control over
nutrient delivery. With aeroponics, there is virtually no grow medium used and a
nutrient-rich solution is sprayed on or poured over the root system providing for
maximum nutrient absorption. Where an aeroponics system will require constant
attention, the hydroponics system may be easier for beginners. However, both
systems are much more efficient than soil-based agriculture, and both of them have
almost the same opportunity for the flexibility to control the irrigation and nutrient
applications.
Aeroponics systems can reduce water usage by 98%, fertilizer usage by 60%, and
pesticide usage by 100%, all the while maximizing crop yields. Plants grown in the
aeroponics systems have also been shown to uptake more minerals and vitamins,
making the plants healthier and potentially more nutritious. Also, since the roots are
exposed to the oxygen in the air, the uptake of oxygen is substantially higher.
This aeration not only increases plant growth but also aids in preventing pathogen
formation. Aeroponics has the advantage over hydroponics that uses media when
transplanting since the plants don’t suffer from transplant shock.
One possible challenge with hydroponic and aeroponic growing system is the
possibility of water-borne disease traveling rapidly between plants. This is rare and
with early detection can be addressed.
In a recent article, the three systems—hydroponics, aeroponics, and aquaponics
were compared (Ali AlShrouf, 2017). The author indicated that they have some
common similarities since they share the elimination of the soil as a medium to
grow crops; with the aim being to deliver sustainable and profitable food production.
However, they point out that there are many significant differences.
Comparing aeroponics versus hydroponics, they are both equally efficient at pro-
ducing healthy and fresh produce. Although aeroponics and hydroponics are similar
in the usage of the nutrient-rich water, they are distinctly different. Hydroponics uses
certain media other than soil that retains and distributes nutrient-rich water to feed
the plants, whereas aeroponics normally uses a misting system to deliver nutrients.
Aeroponics succeeds more in vertical growing arrangements and using the space
efficiently.
Both hydroponic and aeroponics systems allow for flexibility and control the
quality, health, and quantity of the vegetable plants and other produce. Whether a
hydroponics or aeroponics system has been chosen, both promote self-sustainability
in an environmentally friendly way. Hydroponics uses only 10% of water resources
when compared to conventional methods giving the grower complete control over
nutrient delivery. With aeroponics, there is virtually no grow medium used and
a nutrient-rich solution is sprayed onto the root system providing for maximum
nutrient absorption. However, both systems are much more efficient than soil-based
agriculture, and both of them have almost the same opportunity for the flexibility to
control the irrigation and nutrient applications.
Aeroponics systems can reduce water usage by 98%, fertilizer usage by 60%,
and pesticide usage by 100%, all while maximizing crop yields. Plants grown in the
aeroponics systems have also been shown to uptake more minerals and vitamins,
making the plants healthier and potentially more nutritious. Another benefit is that the
plants can more easily be transplanted, since they don’t suffer from transplant shock.
Aeroponics also allows one to observe the plants directly without disturbing them,
which allows one to adjust the nutrient mix that you’re using and cut off any problems
that one might be having before they actually have a chance to become a problem.
Under the hydroponic system and because the nutrient solution is passed between
plants, it is possible for water-borne disease to travel rapidly between them. Also,
hydroponic systems, including aeroponics, rely on electricity and require costly gen-
erator back-ups to cover for power outages. Hydroponic systems can also be expensive
to set up due to the nature of the equipment involved. However, once the system is, it is
cheaper than a conventional farming to operate. Since the plant roots are isolated and
there is no planting medium used in the aeroponics system, plants that are grown with
this suspended, misted system will get maximum nutrient absorption.
Aeroponics systems are favored over other methods of hydroponics because the
increased aeration of nutrient solution delivers more oxygen to plant roots, stimulat-
ing growth and preventing pathogen formation.
The deciding factors in choosing one method over the other are the ancillary
benefits. For aeroponics, this includes lower water and nutrient usage. For certain
hydroponic systems, this includes greater buffering capacity and room for error.
In summary, the main advantage of these modern cultivation systems is the
conservation of water which increases productivity per unit area. While all three,
hydroponic, aeroponic, and aquaponic, can be implemented in a raised garden, all
three are very similar in every way except hydroponics and aeroponics requires the
addition of fertilizer and there’s no fish in the nutrient solution. In aquaponics, plants
and fish live a symbiotic life with the fish feeding the plants, and the plants cleaning
and filtering the fish’s environment. With the advent of process control sensors that
automatically monitor and adjust pH and nutrient levels, the maintenance require-
ments for aeroponics has become much simpler.
Here is a summary of the upsides and downsides to aeroponic growing.
UPSIDES
No soil is needed. One can grow crops in places where the land is limited, doesn’t
exist, or is contaminated. Hydroponics have been around for centuries. Most recently
fresh vegetables were grown in the 1940s on Wake Island for the troops in the Pacific
Ocean. In the 1990s, it was applied to grow food in the MIR space station to feed
the astronauts.
It makes a better use of space and location. It is flexible. One can grow plants
in a small apartment in a spare area. In soil-grown plants, the roots spread out to
find water and nutrients including oxygen. In these systems, the roots are in contact
with exactly the nutrients that they need and all the oxygen they can absorb. This
translates into plants growing much closer to each other, the reduction in wasted
space, and faster cycle times.
Labor for tilling, cultivating, fumigating, watering, and other traditional practices
is largely eliminated.
The climate can be controlled either in a greenhouse or even in a storage con-
tainer. The key variables can be monitored and automatically tuned. This includes
temperatures, humidity, light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, nutrient
concentrations, and air composition. This translates into being able to grow foods all
year round regardless of the season. Farmers can control when they want to produce
certain crops based on anticipated demands.
Aeroponics saves water. Aeroponically growing systems use less than 10% of
the water that is necessary for soil-based growing. Plants as they grow will take
up more and more water as necessary, where the water used in soil-based systems
tends to migrate and large losses occur. Aeroponic systems lose water through
evaporation, transpiration, and leaks but present systems have reduced that to a
minimum.
In nutrient usage, the aeroponic growing system can be designed to control 100%
of the nutrients that the plants need. Since the mechanism for feeding the plants is by
transfer of the nutrient ions (nitrates, phosphates, potassium, and other ions) by the root
hairs to the stem of the plant, this approach allows the plants to take up all the nutrients
they need, when they need them. Nutrients are also conserved in the feed tanks so that
there are no losses or changes of nutrients like there may be in the soil. It is a reproduc-
ible system that is not dependent on weather, rain, and outdoor temperatures.
The pH control of the nutrient solution or the effective hydrogen ion concentration
can be controlled and monitored to ensure proper concentration of nutrients are sol-
uble in the water and available to the roots. The pH is easily controlled as compared
to soils.
The growth rate of plants grown aeroponically is faster because all the inputs—
temperature, light, moisture, and nutrients are controlled accurately. Plants don’t
need to waste valuable energy searching of diluted nutrients in the soil. They shift
all of their focus on growing and producing fruit.
There are no weeds to contend with as is the case with soil-grown plants. It also
saves time that is consumed controlling weeds in soil. Weeds also compete with the
plants for the nutrients. That does not happen in these systems.
Eliminating soil helps make plants less vulnerable to soil-borne pests like birds,
gophers, groundhog: and diseases like Fusarium, Pythium, and Rhizoctonia species.
Using the latest cloud systems, one can easily take control of most key variables.
Again eliminating soil means using less insecticides and herbicides this reduces
plant diseases and there are fewer chemicals. This translates into growing cleaner and
healthier foods. This is one of the biggest health benefits that address the concern for
food safety. Soil-borne plant diseases are more readily eradicated in closed systems.
This growing system reduces labor time and saves time since the need for
tilling, watering, cultivating, applying herbicides and pesticides is reduced or
eliminated.
More complete control of the environment, timely nutrient feeding or irrigation
and in a greenhouse-type operations, the light, temperature, humidity, and composi-
tion of the air can be manipulated.
Aeroponics reconnects people with food. This is a lost experience due to our cur-
rent food production and distribution systems. The amateur horticulturist can even
adapt an aeroponics system to home and patio-type gardens even in high-rise build-
ings. An aeroponic system can be clean, lightweight, and mechanized.
DOWNSIDES
Aeroponic growing requires time and attention to detail. Focus, diligence, and effort
pays off in satisfying yields and nutritious food. However in soil-based growing,
plants can be left on their own for days, and they will still survive for short periods.
The soil chemistry and weather conditions help to regulate and maintain balance.
That is not the case for aeroponics. Plants will die out more quickly without proper
care and adequate knowledge. Automation can be implemented in these systems to
ensure proper operation.
Experience and technical knowledge is necessary which requires specific exper-
tise for devices used, plants grown, what they need to survive. Mistakes could be made
that could cause deleterious effects to your growing system. Trained personnel must
direct the growing operation. Knowledge of how plants grow and of the principles
of nutrition are important.
There are some concerns about whether aeroponics should be certified as organic
growing. Some question whether plants grown this way will get microbiomes that are
in the soil. But people in the US, Australia, Japan, and Holland have provided food for
millions of people. There are trade-offs. With soil the risks are related to pesticide and
herbicide residues and pests. It has been demonstrated that some aeroponic systems
can use microbiomes. Current research is underway to address this concern.
These systems require a water source and electricity. The water source can be
rainwater that can be collected and saved prior to use. Electricity is required but
could be supplied by solar panels in areas where electricity is not easily accessible.
System failures can be a threat. These failures can be caused by electric outages
which affect the pumps from circulating the nutrient solutions to the roots. If this
happens plants may dry out quickly and will die in several hours. Backup power may
be a consideration to address unexpected outages for large commercial operations.
Initial expenses are relatively high compared to soil growing and are dependent
on the size of the garden. Systems require containers, lights, a pump, a timer, and
nutrients. Once the system is functioning, the cost will be reduced to only nutrients
and electricity.
There is a long return on investment depending again on the scale of the system.
This is largely because of the high initial expenses and the long, uncertain ROI,
return on investment.
Growing plants in a closed system using water means that plant infections can
escalate fast to plants on the same nutrient reservoir. In most cases, diseases and
pests are not so much of a problem in a small system of home growers. Should
the diseases happen, one should sterilize the infected water, nutrient, and the whole
system as fast as possible (Jones, 2005).
REFERENCES
AlShrouf, A., 2017, Hydroponics, Aeroponics, and Aquaponics as Compared with
Conventional Farming. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering,
Technology, and Sciences (ASRJETS) 27 (1): 247–255.
Calderone, L., 2018, Indoor and Vertical Farming, Monitoring, and Growing.
agritechtomorrow.com, 12/26/2018.
Jones Jr., J. B. (ed.), 2005, Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for the Soil-less Grower. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press, 4–5.
Pfeiffer, D. A., 2003, Organic Consumers Association: Eating Fossil Fuels. Silver Bay City,
MI: The Wilderness Publisher.
Pfeiffer, D. A., 2004, Eating Fossil Fuels. Gabriola: New Society Publishers. www.
organicconsumers.org/news/eating-fossil-fuels-dale-allen-pfeiffer.
Robinet, R., 2014, Sustainable versus Conventional Agriculture. https://you.stonybrook.edu/
environment/sustainable-vs-conventional-agriculture/.
Technology Spotlight, Sustainability in Three Dimensions, 2018, https://modernag.org/
innovation/benefits-vertical-farming-robotics/.
Taylor & Francis
4 Aeroponic Science
The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source
of all true art and science.
Albert Einstein
In the book, Hydroponics, published in 2005, the author writes about the future of
hydroponics (Jones, 2005). What he says is most likely true of aeroponics as well. He
writes “What is not encouraging for the future is the lack of input from scientists in
public agricultural colleges and experimental stations that at one time made signifi-
cant contributions to crop production procedures, including hydroponics. He talks
about the earlier researchers, Gericke and Hoagland at the University of California.
He indicates at the time of the publishing of his book that only a few researchers at
the university were still active in hydroponic investigations and research. Fortunately,
since the early 2000s the pace of aeroponic research has begun to increase. Also,
the number of both US and international university research programs is expanding.
This is partially true because of the need for better methods of food production but
also because aeroponic systems lend themselves to conducting definitive research.
This is due to the fact that essentially these systems are closed systems. One can
monitor the uptake of nutrients by measuring the concentrations of them in the nutri-
ent solution and at the same time measuring tissue samples to determine the levels
of these nutrients that end up in the tissue. One can also control the pH, water and
air temperature, the carbon dioxide concentration as well as nutrient concentrations.
The author also expresses concerns about the decline in the hydroponic organiza-
tions like the Hydroponic Society of America. He hoped that the internet will be
useful in increasing research in this area.
The expansion of the field of aeroponics is a relatively recent development.
Hydroponics is much more developed and has been in existence for many more
years. One measure of the “coming of age” of a technology is to plot the number
of academic journal articles (peer-reviewed technical literature) published by year
for the last 50 years. After conducting a literature search, Figure 4.1 was compiled
to plot this trend. Since 1975, the trend has been steadily increasing and in the last
5–10 years it has increased 3-fold. Technical papers were identified having the word
“aeroponic” in its title or keyword section. In reviewing topics of interest to the
research community of these 238 papers, the top eight topic in terms of the number
of papers published were found to be:
29
potatoes 35
technology 18
roots 14
nutrients 13
medicinal 12
maize 12
lettuce 12
fungi 12
25
number of journal articles published
19
13
0
1963 1975 1988 2000 2013 2025
year
FIGURE 4.1 The trend of the number of technical papers published about aeroponics in the
last 50 years.
Other papers covered several other crops and topics:
Acacia
Alfalfa
alpine penny cress
antioxidants
arugula
asparagus
barley
basil
begonia
biomass
blackberry
broccoli
camphor
Aeroponic Science 31
carbon dioxide
carpetweed
chickpea
Chinese cabbage
Chrysanthemum
Corn
Cowpea
Cranberry
Cucumber
Elm
Eucalyptus
Evergreen
Fir
food security
grape
iris
lotus
maize
muskmelon
olive
pea
peanut
pepper
petunia
radish
review
rice
saffron
seeds
shallot
social impact
soybean
space applications
spruce
strawberry
sunflowers
tomato
trees
vegetables
wheat
yams
These papers are listed with a brief abstract describing the research. This summary
demonstrates a very broad scope of potential applications for aeroponic growing.
It also demonstrates the global interest in this technology in that all continents have
countries investing in research in this food technology. These papers have been
organized by topic, arranged alphabetically, and include the country where the
research was conducted, the title, principal author, and the abstract. The references
for these papers are provided in the references at the end of the chapter.
ACACIA
Singapore/France
Aeroponic Production of Acacia mangium Saplings Inoculated with arbuscu-
lar mycorrhiza (AM) Fungi for Reforestation in the Tropics (Martin-Laurent
et al., 1999).
Martin-Laurent, Fabrice et al., National Institute of
Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
and the Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche
Agronomique pour le Développement, Cedex, France.
This paper describes an aeroponic, a soil-less plant culture method for the produc-
tion of Acacia mangium saplings associated with AM fungi. A. mangium seedlings
were first grown in multipots and inoculated with Endorize, commercial AM fun-
gal inoculum. They were then, either transferred to aeroponic systems or to soil.
Aeroponics was found to be a better system than soil, allowing the production of tree
saplings twice as high as those grown in soil. Moreover, compared to plants grown
in soil, aeroponically grown saplings inoculated with AM fungal inoculum exhibited
significantly different rates of mycorrhization, resulting in an increase in phosphorus
and chlorophyll in plant tissues. Their results suggest that the aeroponic system is an
innovative and appropriate technology which has the potential to produce in large
quantities, tree saplings associated with soil micro-organisms, such as AM fungi, for
reforestation of the degraded land in the humid tropics.
Singapore/France
A New Approach to Enhance Growth and Nodulation of Acacia mangium through
Aeroponic Culture (Martin-Laurent et al., 1997).
Martin-Laurent, Fabrice et al., National Institute of Education, Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore and the Centre de Coopération Internationale
en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement, Cedex, France.
This study was conducted using aeroponics as an alternative method to classical

soil inoculation procedures for the production of hypernodulated legume tree sap-
lings. The study was designed to determine whether a plant culture method on non-
solid media could be used as an alternative for inoculation of Acacia mangium with
selected strains of Bradyrhizobium spp. A. mangium seedlings were grown and
inoculated with Bradyrhizobium strain Aust13c and strain Tel2 in hydroponics, aero-
ponics, and sand. Aeroponics was found to be the best system of the three, allowing
the production of tree saplings 1 m in height after only 4 months in culture. Moreover,
compared to plants grown in liquid or sand media, aeroponically grown saplings

inoculated with Bradyrhizobium spp. developed a very high number of small nod-
ules distributed all along the root system, resulting in an increase in the nitrogen and
chlorophyll content in plant tissues.
Malaysia
Effects of Nitrogen Source on the Growth and Nodulation of Acacia mangium in
Aeroponic Culture (Weber et al., 2007).
Weber, J. et al., Universiti Putra Malaysia Putrajaya,
Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
This paper describes a study of the effects of ammonium and nitrate on growth
and nodulation rates of Acacia mangium inoculated with Bradyrhizobium and
grown in aeroponic culture. Concentrations of 13.6 and 4.9 mM, nitrate stimulated
plant growth, nitrogen uptake, and the total chlorophyll content compared with
corresponding concentrations of ammonium, which had a deleterious effect. On
the other hand, nodulation was depressed with nitrate and totally suppressed with
ammonium at these two concentrations. However at 0.4 mM, ammonium actually
stimulated nodulation rates and resulted in robust plant growth comparable to that
obtained with higher nitrate concentrations. Ammonium nitrification was con-
firmed to be absent from measurements of the nutrient solutions in the aeroponic
culture tanks.
France
Survival and Growth of Acacia mangium Wild Bare-Root Seedlings after Storage
and Transfer from Aeroponic Culture to the Field (Weber et al., 2005).
Jean J W Weber et al., Nanyang Technology University/National Institute
of Education, Natural Science Division, Singapore; Laboratoire des
Symbioses Tropicales et Méditerranéennes, Cedex, France.
UMR INRA-University Henri Poincaré Nancy, Interactions Arbres/
Microorganismes, Faculté des Sciences, Cedex, France.
This paper demonstrated experimentally that aeroponic culture was a promising

nursery technique to raise A. mangium and to improve growth rates as well as to
control the level of infection with rhizobia and mycorrhizal fungi. This work was
designed to determine whether aeroponically grown bare-root seedlings can be
stored out of aeroponic troughs, and/or planted to the field without acclimatization
in polybags. After field planting, no significant differences in terms of survival and
growth rates were expressed between bare-root seedlings that had been stored in
plastic bags for 6 days or directly transferred to the field, or acclimatized in polybags.
Aeroponic culture appears to be the method of choice to obtain high-quality seed-
lings, which are much easier to plant and transport compared to those obtained under
classical nursery techniques using soil or solid substrate.
ALFALFA
Morocco
Variations in leaf gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence, and membrane potential
of Medicago sativa root cortex cells exposed to increased salinity: The role of the
antioxidant potential in salt tolerance (Farissi et al., 2018).
Farissi, Mohamed et al., Faculté des Sciences et
Techniques Guéliz Equipe de Biotechnologie Végétale et
Agrophysiologie des Symbioses Marrakech, Morocco.
This paper describes a study of the effects of salinity on some ecophysiological

and biochemical criteria associated with salt tolerance in two Moroccan alfalfa
(Medicago sativa L.) populations, Taf 1 and Tata. Salinity is one of the most
serious agricultural problems that adversely affects growth and productivity of
pasture crops such as alfalfa. The experiment was conducted in a hydro-aeroponic
system containing nutrient solutions, with the addition of NaCl at concentra-
tions of 100 and 200 mM. The salt stress was applied for a month. Several traits
in relation to salt tolerance, such as plant dry biomass, relative water content,
leaf gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence, nutrient uptake, lipid peroxidation,
and antioxidant enzymes, were analyzed at the end of the experiment. The Tata
population was more tolerant to high salinity (200 mM NaCl) and its tolerance
was associated with the ability of plants to maintain adequate levels of the stud-
ied parameters and their ability to overcome oxidative stress by the induction
of antioxidant enzymes, such as guaiacol peroxidase, catalase, and superoxide
dismutase.
USA
Elevated Carbon Dioxide Concentration around Alfalfa Nodules Increases Nitrogen
Fixation (Fischinger et al., 2010).
Stephanie A. Fischinger et al., Ragon Institute of MGH,
MIT, and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.
This paper describes a study of nitrogen fixation in alfalfa plants when the nod-
ules are exposed to elevated carbon dioxide concentrations. Nodule carbon dioxide
fixation is known to depend on external carbon dioxide concentration. Therefore,
nodulated plants of alfalfa were grown in a hydroponic and aeroponic systems that
allowed separate aeration of the root/nodule compartment and avoided any gas leak-
age to the shoots. More intensive carbon dioxide and nitrogen fixation coincided with
higher per plant amounts of amino acids and organic acids in the nodules. Moreover,
the concentration of asparagine was increased in both the nodules and the xylem sap.
The data support the thesis that nodule carbon dioxide fixation is pivotal for efficient
nitrogen fixation. It was concluded that sufficient carbon dioxide application to roots
and nodules is necessary for growth and efficient nitrogen fixation in hydroponic and
aeroponic growth systems.
ALPINE PENNY-CRESS
France
Cadmium Uptake and Partitioning in the Hyperaccumulator Noccaea caerulescens
Exposed to Constant Cd Concentrations throughout Complete Growth Cycles (Lovy
et al., 2013).
Lovy, Lucie et al., Université de Lorraine, INRA, Laboratoire
Sols et Environnement, Cedex, France.
The cadmium (Cd) hyperaccumulation kinetics were studied in the different plant
organs, throughout the complete cultivation cycle, independently of a possible
soil effect. Plants of Noccaea caerulescens were exposed in aeroponics to three
constantly low Cd concentrations and harvested at siliquae formation. Dry matter
allocation between roots and shoots was constant over time and exposure concen-
trations, as well as Cd allocation. However, 86% of the Cd taken up was allocated
to the shoots. Senescent rosette leaves showed similar Cd concentrations to the
living ones, suggesting no redistribution from old to young organs. The Cd root
influx was proportional to the exposure concentration and constant over time,
indicating that plant development had no effect on this. The bio-concentration
factor (BCF), i.e., [Cd]/[Cd] for the whole plant, roots or shoots was independent
of the exposure concentration and of the plant stage. Cadmium uptake in a given
plant part could therefore be predicted at any plant stage by multiplying the plant
part dry matter by the corresponding BCF and the Cd concentration in the expo-
sure solution.
AONLA
India
Effect of Micronutrients on Growth and Yield of Aonla (Emblica officinalis gaertn.)
cv. NA-7 (Abhijith et al., 2017).
Abhijith, Y.C. et al., Dept. of Fruit Science, College
of Horticulture, Bengaluru, India.
This study was conducted to assess the response of foliar application of different
micronutrients on growth and yield of aonla cv. NA-7. Aonla (Emblica officinalis
Gaertn.) is one of the most important minor fruits of India, which is also known
as Indian gooseberry which belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae and is native to
Central and Southern India. Though it is a hardy crop, growers are experiencing
the problem of heavy premature fruit drop leading to reduced yield and sometimes
reduced quality due to necrosis which may be due to deficiency of nutrients, par-
ticularly micronutrient. The results revealed that the foliar spray of micronutrients
combination of 0.5% zinc sulfate + 0.5% iron sulfate + 0.25% borax significantly
increased overall growth of plants, reduced the incidence of fruit drop (45.60% as
against 79.63% in control) resulting in increased fruit set (53.73% as against 21%
in control). The said combination of micronutrients was also associated with high-

est fruit weight (43.69 g), fruit length (3.78 cm), fruit diameter (4.93 cm), and yield
(24.96 kg/plant).
ANTIOXIDANTS
USA
Assessment of Total Phenolic and Flavonoid Content, Antioxidant Properties, and
Yield of Aeroponically and Conventionally Grown Leafy Vegetables and Fruit
Crops: A Comparative Study (Chandra et al., 2014).
Chandra, Suman et al., National Center for Natural Product
Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School
of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, Oxford, USA.
This study was conducted to compare product yield, total phenolics, total flavonoids,
and antioxidant properties in different leafy vegetables/herbs (basil, chard, parsley,
and red kale) and fruit crops (bell pepper, cherry tomatoes, cucumber, and squash)
grown in aeroponic growing systems (AG) and in the field (FG). An average increase
of about 19%, 8%, 65%, 21%, 53%, 35%, 7%, and 50% in the yield was recorded for
basil, chard, red kale, parsley, bell pepper, cherry tomatoes, cucumber, and squash,
respectively, when grown in aeroponic systems, compared to that grown in the soil.
Antioxidant properties of AG and FG crops were evaluated using 2,2-diphenyl-1-
picrylhydrazyl (DDPH) and cellular antioxidant (CAA) assays. In general, the study
shows that the plants grown in the aeroponic system had a higher yield and compa-
rable phenolics, flavonoids, and antioxidant properties as compared to those grown
in the soil.
ARUGULA
Mexico
PRODUCCIÓN ACUAPÓNICA DE TRES HORTALIZAS EN SISTEMAS
ASOCIADOS AL CULTIVO SEMI-INTENSIVO DE TILAPIA GRIS (Oreochromis
niloticus) (Ronzón-Ortega et al., 2015).
Ronzón-Ortega, M. et al., Instituto Tecnológico de Boca del Río,
División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación. Laboratorio de
Mejoramiento Genético y producción Acuícola, Veracruz, México.
Three production systems were studied for edible plants, arugula (Eruca vesicaria),
cilantro (Coriandrum sativum), and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), associated with
the semi-intensive cultivation of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), in order to deter-
mine their adaptation and productive efficiency. A completely random experimen-
tal design was used, where three techniques for aquaponics were tested for plant
production: Aqua-aeroponics system (SAC1); Aquaponics system with a porous and
inert substrate (SAC2); Aquaponics system with solid rain as the fixating substrate
(SAC3); the following were cultivated simultaneously: arugula, tomato, and cilantro.
The growth results for the three plant varieties, stem length, number of leaves and
ramifications, both in SAC2 and SAC3, were efficient, particularly in SAC2 where
the arugula and tomato plants with highest growth were found, although not signifi-
cantly different between treatments; the cilantro plants cultivated in SAC3 had the
highest growth. In contrast, the three varieties of plants cultivated in SAC1 presented
lower survival and growth.
Colombia
Automatic Aeroponic Irrigation System based on Arduino’s Platform (Montoya
et al., 2017).
A P Montoya et al., Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medelln, Colombia.
This paper describes the development of an automatic monitored aeroponic-irrigation

system based on the Arduino’s free software platform. The recirculating hydroponic
culture techniques, as aeroponics, has several advantages over traditional agriculture,
and is aimed to improve the efficiently and environmental impact of agriculture.
These techniques require continuous monitoring and automation for proper opera-
tion. Analog and digital sensors for measuring the temperature, flow and level of a
nutrient solution in a real greenhouse were implemented. In addition, the pH and
electric conductivity of nutritive solutions are monitored using the Arduino’s dif-
ferential configuration. The sensor network, the acquisition and automation system
are managed by two Arduinos modules in master-slave configuration, which com-
municate with each other by Wi-Fi. Further, data are stored in micro SD memories
and the information is loaded on a web page in real time. The developed device
brings important agronomic information when it was tested with an arugula culture
(Eruca sativa Mill). The system could also be employed as an early warning system
to prevent irrigation malfunctions.
ASPARAGUS
Poland
The effect of temperature and crown size on asparagus yielding (Gąsecka et al.,
2009).
Gąsecka, Monika et al., of Chemistry, Poznan
University of Life Sciences, Poznan, Poland.
The paper describes a study of the effect of temperature on asparagus yields of dif-
ferent crown sizes, planted in growth chambers in an aeroponic system with recir-
culation. The results showed that asparagus yield was dependent on air temperature
and crown size; however, crown size had a greater influence on the yield. The diam-
eter and weight of the asparagus spears were also dependent on crown size. Higher
dry weight content, degrees Brix, fructan, and total carbohydrate content in storage
roots were documented in large crown asparagus plants before and after harvest.
BARLEY
Germany/USA
Infection of Barley Roots by Chaetomium globosum: Evidence for a Protective Role
of the Exodermis (Reissinger et al., 2003).
Reissinger, Annette et al., Soil Ecosystem Phytopathology, Institute for Plant
Diseases, University of Bonn, Germany and the Department of Microbiology,
University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
This paper involved a study of the infection of barley roots using Murashige and
Skoog (MS)-agar and aeroponic culture as axenic plant growth systems. Chaetomium
globosum pathogenesis was analyzed with serological and histological methods.
Irrespective of the growth system, C. globosum infected the root epidermis. Roots
grown in MS-agar were extensively colonized intercellularly and intracellularly up
to the inner cortex and the tissue underwent necrosis. In contrast, roots grown in
aeroponic culture were not colonized beyond the epidermis and the roots appeared
healthy. The results indicated that specific environmental conditions are important
for infection and disease expression in barley roots.
China
Root Border Cell Development is a Temperature-Insensitive and Al-Sensitive Process
in Barley (Pan et al., 2004).
Jian-Wei Pan et al., State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry,
College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
This team conducted in vivo and in vitro experiments that showed that border cell
(BC) survival was dependent on root tip mucigel in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.
cv. Hang 981). In aeroponic culture, BC development was an induced process in
barley, whereas in hydroponic culture, it was a kinetic equilibrium process during
which 300–400 BCs were released into water daily. The response of root elonga-
tion to temperatures (10°C–35°C) was very sensitive but temperature changes had
no substantial effect on barley BC development. These results suggested that BC
development was a temperature-insensitive but Al-sensitive process, and that BCs
and their mucigel played an important role in the protection of root tip and root cap
meristems from Al toxicity.
Kazakstan
Technology of mass multiplication of cereal aphids (Schizaphis graminum) using an
aeroponic plant and dilution of the bioagent aphidius (Aphidius matricariae).
Duisembekov, B. et al at the Kazakh Research Institute for Plant Protection.
The results of this research are given on the cultivation of fodder plants of barley
and infection of plants with cereal aphids in the conditions of an aeroponics instal-
lation. The germination parameters are determined depending on the periodicity of
the water supply of its volume and the mass of the seeds grown in the plant. In the
conditions of the aeroponic plant, the reproduction of aphids is considered optimal

if five individuals of phytophagous are released per barley plant. After 7 days, the
number of aphids increased to 42.5 individuals, while its high concentration was
noted. When carrying out the infection of aphids propagated under the conditions of
the aphids, the optimal parasite ratio: host = 1:60. The degree of infection of aphids
(mummified) was 84.2% on this variant.
BASIL
Greece
Nitrogen Nutrition Effect on Aeroponic Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) Catalase and
Lipid Peroxidation (Zervoudakis et al., 2015).
Zervoudakis, George et al., Department of Greenhouse Crops and
Floriculture; Technological Institute of Mesologgi, Greece.
This study investigated the effect of three different nitrogen nutrition solution con-
centrations (1.8, 3.6, and 11.5 mM) on leaf and root oxidative stress of aeroponically
cultured basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) plants. Catalase (CAT) activity and lipid per-
oxidation (LP) were used as oxidative stress indexes at two different growth stages
(10 and 15-week-old plants, respectively). Leaf and root CAT activity was enhanced
by the increment of nitrogen concentration at both growth stages of the plants.
Especially in younger, high nitrogen nourished plants, 130% and 149% increments
of the leaf and root CAT activities were observed, respectively, in comparison with
the low nitrogen nourished ones. These results suggest that increased nitrogen nutri-
tion induces oxidative stress mainly in the leaves of aeroponically grown basil plants
while the increase in CAT activity probably represents a part of the plant’s antioxida-
tive defense against potent cellular damage similar to membrane lipid peroxidation.
Greece
Yield and Nutritional Quality of Aeroponically Cultivated Basil as Affected by the
Available Root-Zone Volume (Salachasa et al., 2015).
Salachasa, Georgios et al., Department of Agricultural Technology,
Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Nutrition, T.E.I. of Western Greece.
This paper investigated the effect of the available root zone volume on yield and qual-
ity characteristics of aeroponically cultivated sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum, L.)
plants. Growth and photosynthesis were also evaluated. At a fully automated glass-
house aeroponic growing system, plants were cultivated in canals with 10 m length,
0.67 m width for depths: of 0.15 m, 0.30 m, and 0.70 m. Plants cultivated in growing
canals with the lower depths 0.15 m and 0.30 m, gave increased dry biomass produc-
tion; plant height; root length; leaves per plant; total chlorophyll content; net pho-
tosynthesis rate; transpiration rate and stomatal conductance, in comparison with
plants cultivated in canals with the maximum depth of 0.70 m. In contrast, plants
cultivated in 0.70 m depth canals showed statistically increased root dry biomass
production. The results showed that basil plants grown aeroponically have superior
nutritional quality characteristics.
BEAN
Israel
Allometric Relationships in Young Seedlings of Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) Following
Removal of Certain Root Types (Eshel et al., 2001).
A. Eshel et al., Department of Botany, the George S. Wise
Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Israel.
The paper was a study of sink-source relationships and allometric ratios in

young seedlings of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) following pruning of some root
types. The plants were grown in an aeroponic system allowing an easy access
to each part of the root system, throughout the experiment, without disturbing
the others. Root, leaf, and stem growth as well as their mineral content were
determined in one group of undisturbed plants (CTRL) and in four groups of
plants treated as follows: TAP—the distal-free portion of the taproot was
removed; HALF—half the laterals were removed; ALL—all lateral roots were
removed, and TAP+ HALF—both the distal part of the taproot and half of the
laterals were removed. The allometric relationships between the surface area of
the roots and that of the leaves were restored within the experimental period,
apparently due to reduction in shoot growth. Removal of the distal parts of the
taproot did not cause an increase in shoot growth. This indicates that the strength
of the sinks (mostly of lateral roots) rather than that of the source determines
these relationships.
BEGONIA
Sweden
Feature Article: Transpiration Rate in Relation to Root and Leaf Growth in Cuttings
of Begonia X hiemalis Fotsch (Ottosson et al., 1997).
Ottosson, B. et al., Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,
Department of Horticultural Science, Alnarp, Sweden.
The team studied the cuttings of Begonia X hiemalis Fotsch. cv. ‘Schwabenland
Red’ rooted in an aeroponics system at 21°C and 2.9 mol/(m2 day) photosynthetic
photon flux density (PPFD) for 18 h/day. Leaf length increase rate was higher in
leaves appearing at time of root formation compared with leaves starting to expand
before roots were formed. Transpiration rate per unit leaf area increased after roots
had been formed. In cuttings potted shortly after root formation, transpiration rate
per unit leaf area decreased during the first days after potting and remained at a low
level for a week. Leaf area expansion and root growth rate were slowed down during
this period. Transpiration per cutting was less correlated with leaf area 2 weeks after
root formation in the potted cuttings compared with nonpotted cuttings of the same
developmental stage. Cuttings with large leaf area produced greater root mass in
relation to cuttings with smaller leaf area.
BIOMASS
USA
Evaluation of Algal Biomass Production on Vertical Aeroponic Substrates (Johnson
et al., 2015).
Johnson, Michael et al., Department of Environmental Sciences,
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA.
A novel aeroponic substrate-based cultivation system was studied to determine

whether it could produce significant quantities of biomass without a negative impact
on the lipid productivity and fatty acid profile compared to the two traditional sys-
tems. Large scale algal biomass production have focused primarily on the Open
Pond (OP) and Photobioreactor (PBR) systems, but neither system had been able to
produce algae biofuel in a financially viable manner. This vertical aeroponic sub-
strate system produced significant areal yields resulting in reduced energy inputs
and increased financial return. In addition to productivity increases, the aeroponic
nature of this substrate system did not negatively affect the fatty acid composition
of the cultivated biomass, thus demonstrating the promising potential for using
substrate-based systems to produce biofuel, nutraceuticals, and feed for fisheries and
various other applications.
Poland
Concept of Aeroponic Biomass Cultivation and Biological Wastewater Treatment
System in Extraterrestrial Human Base (Jurga et al., 2018b).
Jurga Anna et al., Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,
Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wroclaw, Poland.
This paper describes a study of the concept of an aeroponically based biomass culti-
vation and a wastewater treatment system in future Planetary Base (PB), e.g., Moon
or Mars, designed for an eight-person crew. These two subsystems are part of Life
Support System (LSS), which aims at providing proper environmental condition for
human habitation.
Iran
Effects of Cultivation Systems on the Growth and Essential Oil Content and
Composition of Valerian (Tabatabaei 2008).
Tabatabaei, Seyed Jalal, University of Tabriz,
Department of Horticulture, Tabriz, Iran.
This study assessed the growth and essential oil production of valerian (Valeriana
officinalis L. var. common) growing in aeroponic, floating, growing media (a perlite
and vermiculite mix), and soil systems by measuring biomass production and essen-
tial oil content and composition. The highest fresh weight of both leaves (802 g plant-1)
and roots (364.5 g plant-1) was obtained in the floating media system. No significant
difference in leaf area between the floating and growing media systems was observed,
but comparative leaf area was reduced considerably in the aeroponics and soil sys-
tems. Both photosynthesis and stomatal conductance were increased in the floating
and growing media systems, as compared with the aeroponics and soil systems, along
with the concentration of essential oil. The major constituents of essential oil were
bornyl acetate, valerenal, comphene, trans-caryophyllene, cis-ocimen, α-fenchen, and
δ-elemene, although the relative proportion of each constituent varied with treatment.
The concentration of bornyl acetate was highest (32.1% of total oil) in the floating
system, sonic 56.5% higher than the concentration in the soil. The results suggest that
under a controlled environment, both floating and growing media systems could be
promising approaches for obtaining higher root yields and oil productions in valerian.
BLACKBERRY
Bulgaria
Direct ex Vitro Rooting and Acclimation in Blackberry Cultivar ‘Loch Ness’ (Fira
et al., 2012).
Fira, A. et al., Industrial Plants OOD, Micropropagation, Kazanlak, Bulgaria.
This study was conducted on the direct ex vitro rooting and acclimation experiments
in blackberry (Rubus fruticosus), thomless cultivar ‘Loch Ness’. The plant material
consisted of plants propagated on Murashige & Skoog (MS) medium with 0.5 mg/L
benzyladenine (BAP). The shoots excised from the plantlets were rooted directly ex
vitro in various substrates: floating perlite, plastic sponge inserted in floating cell trays,
rockwool in plastic trays covered with transparent lids, as well as potting mixes available
commercially: Florasol, Sol Vit G, Florimo. These experimental variants yielded good
results regarding the rooting and acclimation percentages. Rooting in Jiffy pellets placed
in floating cell trays as well as the use of rockwool in noncovered plastic trays yielded
negative results. The experiments regarding ex vitro rooting and acclimation in aeropon-
ics or by suspending the shoots in air saturated with vapor also yielded negative results.
BROCCOLI
Singapore
Interaction Between Iron Stress and Root-Zone Temperature on Physiological
Aspects of Aeroponically Grown Chinese Broccoli (He et al., 2008).
He, Jie et al., National Institute of Education, Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore.
This team studied the growth of Chinese broccoli (B. alboglabra), a subtropical vege-
table where the root-zone temperature (RZT) was set at 25°C while its aerial portions
were exposed to the hot, fluctuating temperatures for 4 weeks in the tropical greenhouse.
Interaction between iron (Fe) stress and RZT were then studied by exposing the plant
roots to two different RZTs: a constant cool 25°C-RZT (CRZT) and a fluctuating hot
ambient RZT (ARZT). There were three different Fe levels [full Fe (FFe), 1/2Fe, and 0Fe]
in the nutrient medium supplied to plants at each RZT. Compared to plant grown at CRZT,
hot ARZT resulted in decreases in shoot and root productivities, photosynthetic carbon
dioxide assimilation rate (A), stomatal conductance (g s), Fe and nitrate (NO3−) uptake and
transport and nitrate reductase activity (NRA). Hot ARZT also altered root morphology.
These results indicated that hot ARZT may mask the effects of Fe stress on certain physi-
ological process which was clearly elucidated at RZT.
CAMPHOR
Israel
From America to the Holy Land: Disentangling Plant Traits of the Invasive
Heterotheca subaxillaris (Lam.) (Sternberg, 2016).
Sternberg, Marcelo, Tel Aviv University | TAU School
of Plant Sciences & Food Security, Israel.
This paper describes a study of camphor-weed (H. subaxillaris) from native (US)
versus introduced (Israel) populations to identify functional traits that accorded this
species invasion success in Israel. Plant traits considered were shoot and root biomass
production, root-shoot ratio, shoot height, root length, number of inflorescences,
achene number and mass, and life span. Achenes (seeds) of all populations were
germinated under common growing conditions to produce F1 achenes. F1 seedlings
were grown in a large-scale common garden aeroponic system until flowering and
then harvested. Introduced populations exhibited marked differences in measured
parameters than native populations. Notably, root length of introduced populations
exceeded 5 m, almost fourfold greater than that of native populations, allowing access
to soil moisture and nutrients from deep sand layers and late-summer flowering.
CARBON DIOXIDE
Germany
Measuring Whole Plant Carbon Dioxide Exchange with the Environment Reveals
Opposing Effects of the gin2-1 Mutation in Shoots and Roots of Arabidopsis thali-
ana (Brauner et al., 2015).
Brauner, K. et al., University of Stuttgart, Institute of Biomaterials and
biomolecular Systems, Department of Plant Biotechnology, Stuttgart, Germany.
An investigation was conducted on the effect of reduced leaf glucokinase activity

on plant carbon balance using a cuvette for simultaneous measurement of net pho-
tosynthesis in above ground plant organs and root respiration. The gin2-1 mutant of
Arabidopsis thaliana is characterized by a 50% reduction of glucokinase activity
in the shoot, while activity in roots is about fivefold higher and similar to wild-type
plants. High levels of sucrose accumulating in leaves during the light period corre-
lated with elevated root respiration in gin2-1. Despite substantial respiratory losses
in roots, growth retardation was moderate, probably because photosynthetic carbon
fixation was simultaneously elevated in gin2-1. The data indicate that futile cycling
of sucrose in shoots exerts a reduction on net carbon dioxide gain, but this is over-
compensated by the prevention of exaggerated root respiration resulting from high
sucrose concentration in leaf tissue.
CARPETWEED
India
In Vitro Growth Profile and Comparative Leaf Anatomy of the C3–C4 Intermediate
Plant Mollugo nudicaulis Lam (Barupal, 2018).
Barupal, Meena et al., Biotechnology Unit, Department of
Botany Jai Narain Vyas University Jodhpur, India.
This paper describes a study of in vitro growth profiling of the Mollugo nudicaulis
Lam., commonly known as John’s folly or naked-stem carpetweed, and comparative
leaf anatomy under in vitro and ex vitro conditions is an ephemeral species of tropi-
cal regions. The plant is ideal to study the eco-physiological adaptations of C3–C4
intermediate plants. In vitro propagation of the plant was carried out on Murashige
and Skoog (MS) basal medium augmented with additives and solidified with 0.8%
(w/v) agar-agar or 0.16% (w/v) Phytagel™. The concentration of plant growth regula-
tors (PGRs) in the basal medium was optimized for callus induction, callus prolifera-
tion, shoot regeneration, and in vitro rooting.
CHICKPEA
Germany
Abscisic Acid Concentration, Root pH, and Anatomy do not Explain Growth
Differences of Chickpea (Cicer areitinum L.) and Lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.)
on Acid and Alkaline Soils (Hartung et al., 2002).
Hartung, Wolfram et al., Universität Würzburg, Julius‐von‐Sachs‐
Institut für Biowissenschaften, Würzburg, Germany.
This paper describes a study of the anatomy of roots in aeroponic and hydroponic cul-
ture; the poor growth of narrow-leafed lupins in alkaline soil by measuring the abscisic
acid (ABA) concentrations of leaves, roots, soils, and transport fluids of chickpea and
lupin plants growing in alkaline and acidic soils. The paper also includes information
about the root anatomy; cytoplasmic and vacuolar pH, and ABA analyses.
CHRYSANTHEMUM
Colombia
Absorption Curves—Mineral-Extraction Under an Aeroponic System for White
Chrysanthemum (Dendranthema grandiflorum (Ramat.) Kitam. cv. Atlantis White)
(Chica Toro et al., 2018).
Chica Toro, Faber de Jesús et al., Universidad
Católica de Oriente, Antioquia, Colombia.
Absorption and extraction curves using an aeroponic system for White chrysan-
themum cv. Atlantis White were constructed and determined during periods of
maximum and minimum nutrient accumulation from above ground, root, and total
biomass. Vegetative cycle of the plant, measured from the day after transplanta-
tion to aeroponic system, and the first day of court lasted 49 days. In this study, the
reported elements (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S), its accumulation during the first stage
did not exceeded 29%, except for S, which reached 30.19%. Consequently, the 70%
nutrients were absorbed in the second stage of development, which coincided with
the plant reproductive stage.
CORN
Germany
Chemical Composition of Apoplastic Transport Barriers in Relation to Radial
Hydraulic Conductivity of Corn Roots (Zea mays L.) (Zimmermann et al., 2000).
Zimmermann, Hilde Monika et al., Lehrstuhl Pflanzenökologie,
Universität Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany.
This paper describes a study of the hydraulic conductivity of roots (Lpr) of 6–8-day-
old maize seedlings and its relationship to the chemical composition of apoplas-
tic transport barriers in the endodermis and hypodermis (exodermis), and to the
hydraulic conductivity of root cortical cells. Roots were cultivated in two different
ways. When grown in aeroponic culture, they developed an exodermis (Casparian
band in the hypodermal layer), which was missing in roots from hydroponics. The
development of Casparian bands and suberin lamellae was observed by staining with
berberin-aniline-blue and Sudan-III. The compositions of suberin and lignin were
analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively after depolymerization (BF3/methanol-
transesterification, thioacidolysis) using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry.
Root Lpr was measured using the root pressure probe, and the hydraulic conductiv-
ity of cortical cells (Lp) using the cell pressure probe. Roots from the two cultivation
methods differed significantly in (1) the Lpr evaluated from hydrostatic relaxations
(factor of 1.5), and (2) the amounts of lignin and aliphatic suberin in the hypodermal
layer of the apical root zone. Aliphatic suberin is thought to be the major reason for
the hydrophobic properties of apoplastic barriers and for their relatively low perme-
ability to water. No differences were found in the amounts of suberin in the hypo-
dermal layers of basal root zones and in the endodermal layer. It was concluded that
changes in the hydraulic conductivity of the apoplastic rather than of the cell-to-cell
path were causing the observed changes in root Lpr.
COWPEA
China
Effects of Aluminum (+3) on the Biological Characteristics of Cowpea Root Border
Cells (Chen et al., 2008).
Chen, Wenrong et al., School of Chemical Engineering and
Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China.
This team investigated root border cells (RBC) that are cells surrounding the root
apex for viability, formation, and pectin methylesterase (PME) activity of the root
caps during RBC development in cowpea (Vigna ungniculata ssp. sesquipedalis)
under aeroponic culture. The results showed that the border cells formed almost syn-
chronously with the emergence of the root tip. The number of border cells reached
the maximum when roots were approximately 15 mm long. Pectin methylesterase
(PME) activity of the root cap peaked at a root length of 1 mm. Root border cells
separated from the root cap died within 24 h under aluminum (+3) stress while those
still attached to the root cap maintained 85% viability at 48 h after treatment. The
PME activity did not differ significantly under different aluminum treatments.
CRANBERRY
USA
Measurement of Short-Term Nutrient Uptake Rates in Cranberry by Aeroponics
(Barak et al., 1996).
Barak, P. et al., Department of Soil Science, Univ.
of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, USA.
The paper was focused on the determination of whether nutrient uptake rates could be
calculated for aeroponic systems by difference using measurements of concentrations
and volumes of input and efflux solutions. Data were collected from an experiment
with cranberry plants (Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait. Cv. Stevens) cultured aero-
ponically with nutrient solutions containing, various concentrations of ammonium-
N and isotopically labeled nitrate-N. Aeroponics, a soil-less plant culture in which
fresh nutrient solutions are intermittently or continuously misted on to plant roots, is
capable of sustaining plant growth for extended periods of time while maintaining a
constantly refreshed nutrient solution. Although used relatively extensively in com-
mercial installations and in root physiology research, use of aeroponics in nutrient
studies is rare. The object of this study was to examine whether Validation of the
calculated uptake rates was sought by: (1) evaluating charge balance of the solutions
and total ion uptake (including proton efflux) and (2) comparison with N-isotope mea-
surements. The results show that charge balance requirements were acceptably satis-
fied for individual solution analyses and for total ion uptake when proton efflux was
included. Use of aeroponic systems for nondestructive measurement of water and ion
uptake rates for numerous other species and nutrients appears promising.
USA
Rate of Ammonium Uptake by Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait.) Vines in
the Field is Affected by Temperature (Roper et al., 2004).
Roper, T. R. et al., Department of Horticulture, University
of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
This study focused ons how quickly cranberries in the field take up fertilizer-derived
ammonium nitrogen. Nitrogen fertilizer application is a universal practice among
cranberry growers. Cranberries only use ammonium nitrogen sources. Ammonium

sulfate labeled with 15N was applied in field locations in Oregon, Massachusetts,
New Jersey, and Wisconsin. Samples of current season growth were collected daily
for 7 days beginning 24 h after fertilizer application. In all cases 15N was detectable
in the plants from treated plots by 24 h following application. Additional nitrogen
was taken up for the next 3–5 days depending on the location. With the exception of
Oregon, the maximum concentration of 15N was found by day 7. Oregon was the
coolest of the sites in this research. To determine a temperature response curve for N
uptake in cranberry, cranberry roots were exposed to various temperatures in aero-
ponics chambers while vines were at ambient greenhouse temperatures. The opti-
mum temperature for N uptake by cranberry vines was 18°C–24°C. This research
suggests that ammonium fertilizers applied by growers and irrigated into the soil
(solubilized) are taken up by the plant within 1 day following application. Soil and
root temperature is involved in the rate of N uptake.
CUCUMBERS
Colombia
Growing Degree Days Accumulation in a Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) Crop
Grown in an Aeroponic Production Model (Hoyos et al., 2012).
Hoyos García et al., Estudiante Ingeniería Agronómica. Universidad
Nacional de Colombia—Sede Medellín, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias—
Departamento de Ciencias Agronómicas. Medellín, Colombia.
This team studied variables which may affect the efficiency and crop production under
an aeroponic system. It was determined that 726 and 660 Growing Degree Days (GDD)
corresponding to 73 and 64 days were required for the commercial matherials Dasher
II and Poinsset 76, respectively. The effect of two misting time periods of 30 and 60 s
followed by a 4 min interval during the day, were evaluated over leaf area and stem and
leaves dry weight, using the hybrid Dasher. No statistical significant differences were
found suggesting that the 30 s time period is the best choice since it reduces electric
energy costs. The effect of three different nutrient solutions: Hoagland and Arnon,
Aeroponicos 100% and Aeroponicos 50%, were tested for leaf area, dry weight, fruit
weight and number. The results allowed implementing variables to increase efficiency
on a cucumber aeroponic crop system, some of which may improve the economic and
environmental performance of cucumber crop using this technology.
ELM
USA
Vegetative Propagation of American Elm (Ulmus americana) Varieties from
Softwood Cuttings (Oakes et al., 2012).
Oakes, Allison D. et al., Department of Plant Science and
Biotechnology, State University of New York, College of Environmental
Science and Forestry, Syracuse, New York, USA.
This team studied softwood cuttings of American elm varieties ‘Jefferson’, ‘New
Harmony’, ‘Princeton’, ‘R18-2’, ‘Valley Forge’, and a tissue-cultured nontransformed
control clone (BP-NT) that were rooted using three different treatments to determine
which method would be most suitable for small-scale propagation. The treatments
included aeroponic chambers, an intermittent-mist bench in a greenhouse, and Grodan
rootplugs soaked in a nutrient solution. The rootplug treatment had the highest per-
centage of rooted shoots (44%) followed by the intermittent-mist bench treatment
(20%) and lastly by the aeroponics chambers (10%). The rooted cuttings from the root-
plug treatment also looked substantially healthier and had more fresh growth 4 weeks
after potting than the other two treatments. The Grodan rootplug treatment is recom-
mended, but additional testing can be useful to improve the overall rooting percentage.
EUCALYPTUS
Australia
Influence of Low Oxygen Levels in Aeroponics Chambers on Eucalyptus Roots
Infected with Phytophthora cinnamomi (Burgess et al., 1998).
Burgess, T. et al., Environmental and Conservation Sciences, Murdoch University.
Perth, Australia
This study focused on the design of aeroponics root chambers to evaluate the influ-
ence of low oxygen on disease development in clones of Eucalyptus marginata
susceptible or resistant to infection by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Actively growing
7-month-old clones of E. marginata were transferred into the aeroponics chambers,
into which a nutrient solution was delivered in a fine spray, providing optimal
conditions for root growth. Root extension during hypoxia was greatly reduced.
Lesion development was least for roots exposed to hypoxia and greatest for roots
exposed to anoxia for 6 h, suggesting increased resistance of E. marginata to P. cin-
namoni following hypoxia.
Australia
Action of the Fungicide Phosphite on Eucalyptus marginata Inoculated with
Phytophthora cinnamomic (Jackson et al., 2000).
T. J. Jackson et al., School of Biological Sciences, Murdoch
University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.
This team studied the chemical mechanisms behind phosphite protection in the
control of P. cinnamomi in E. marginata (jarrah). Using an aeroponics system,
jarrah clones with moderate resistance to P. cinnamomi were treated with foliar
applications of phosphite (0 and 5 g/L). The roots were inoculated with zoospores of
P. cinnamomi at 4 days before and 0, 2, 5, 8, and 14 days after phosphite treatment.
Root segments were then analyzed for activity of selected host defense enzymes
[4-coumarate coenzyme A ligase (4-CL), cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD)]
and the concentration of soluble phenolics and phosphite.
Australia
Effects of Hypoxia on Root Morphology and Lesion Development in Eucalyptus
marginata Infected with Phytophthora cinnamomic (Burgess et al., 1999a).
Burgess, T. et al., School of Biological Sciences, Murdoch
This team studied plants of a Eucalyptus marginata clone (1JN30) by growing them
in aeroponics chambers that could be sealed to allow the manipulation of oxygen
levels in the root environment. Roots were grown for varying periods of hypoxia
(0, 2, 5, 11, or 29 days) before being inoculated with zoospores of Phytophthora
cinnamomi. A similar set of roots was inoculated 3 days after the hypoxia treat-
ments. Root extension was reduced at the end of all the hypoxia treatments. Six
days after the hypoxia treatments, root extension had returned to normal for roots
that had been exposed to 5 days of hypoxia, while for roots exposed to 11 or 29 days,
extension was half the normal rate. Longitudinal sections of root tips after 5, 11, or
29 days of hypoxia indicated that the treatment caused a reduction in cell division,
but not in cell expansion. In the case of roots exposed to 2 days of hypoxia, the apical
meristem appeared normal at the end of the treatment, but 3 days after the return to
normal oxygen conditions many of the apical meristems had died and the roots had
a clubbed appearance. Thus, E. marginata roots have an acclimatization period to
hypoxia of between 2 and 5 days, after which they can tolerate hypoxia for extended
periods.
Australia
Increased Susceptibility of Eucalyptus marginata to Stem Infection by Phytophthora
cinnamomi Resulting from Root Hypoxia (Burgess et al., 1999b).
Burgess, T. et al., School of Biological Sciences, Murdoch
This team examined whether eucalyptus marginata grown on rehabilitated baux-

ite mines and exposed to waterlogging (hypoxia) at the roots, as well as ponding
around the stems at the soil surface may predispose stems of Eucalyptus marginata
to infection by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Plants of E. marginata clones resistant
and susceptible to P. cinnamomi were grown in an aeroponics system that could
be sealed to allow the manipulation of oxygen levels in the root zone to simu-
late waterlogging. Plants grown under normal oxygen conditions were compared
with those whose root zone was exposed to hypoxia (2 mg O2/L) before, during or
after the stems were inoculated with zoospores of P. cinnamomi. Inoculation was
achieved by constructing receptacles around the stems that could hold water and
zoospores. The greatest difference between colonized and noninoculated plants
was observed at the colonization front. Peroxidase activity increased after tis-
sues were colonized, rather than preceding the colonization as seen with the other
enzymes. The stress induced by root hypoxia remained after roots were returned to
normal oxygen conditions.
EVERGREEN
India
Aeroponics for Adventitious Rhizogenesis in Evergreen Haloxeric Tree Tamarix
aphylla (L.) Karst.: Influence of Exogenous Auxins and Cutting Type (Sharma et al.,
2018).
Sharma, Udit et al., Biotechnology Unit, Department of
Botany, Jai Narain Vyas University, Jodhpur, India.
This research evaluated an aeroponics technique for vegetative propagation of

T. aphylla. Effect of various exogenous auxins (indole-3-acetic acid, indole-3-butyric
acid, and naphthalene acetic acid) at different concentrations (0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 5.0,
and 10.0 mg/L) was examined for induction of adventitious rooting and other mor-
phological features. Among all three auxins tested individually, maximum rooting
response (79%) was observed with IBA 2.0 mg L. However, stem cuttings treated
with a combination of auxins (2.0 mg L IBA and 1.0 mg l IAA) for 15 min resulted
in 87% of rooting response. Among three types of stem cuttings (apical shoot,
newly sprouted cuttings, and mature stem cuttings), maximum rooting (~90%) was
observed on mature stem cuttings. A number of roots and root length were signifi-
cantly higher in aeroponically rooted stem cuttings as compared to stem cuttings
rooted in soil conditions. Successfully rooted and sprouted plants were transferred
to polybags with 95% survival rate.
FIR
Canada
Family Variation in Nutritional and Growth Traits in Douglas-fir Seedlings
(Hawkins, 2007).
Hawkins, B. J., Centre for Forest Biology, University
of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada.
This research assessed nitrogen (N) uptake and utilization in seedlings of six full-sib
families of coastal Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco] known to dif-
fer in growth rate at the whole plant and root levels. Seedlings were grown in soil or
aeroponically with high and low nutrient availability. Consistent family differences
in growth rate and Nutilization index were observed in both soil and aeroponic cul-
ture, and high-ranking families by these measures also had greater net N uptake in
soil culture. Two of the three families found to be fast-growing in long-term field tri-
als exhibited faster growth, higher nitrogen utilization indices and greater net nitro-
gen uptake at the seedling stage. Mean family net influx of ammonium (NH4+) and
efflux of nitrate (NO3−) in the high- and low-nutrient treatments were significantly
correlated with measures of mean family biomass. The high-nutrient availability
treatment increased mean net fluxes of NH4+ and NO3− in roots. These results indi-
cate that efficiency of nutrient uptake and utilization contribute to higher growth
rates of trees.
Canada
Douglas-Fir Seedling Response to a range of Ammonium Nitrate Ratios in Aeroponic
Culture (Everett et al., 2010).
Everett, Kim T. et al., Centre for Forest Biology,
University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada.
This study focused on the determination of the most favorable nitrogen (N) source
ratio of ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3−) for aeroponically-grown Douglas-fir
when pH was maintained at pH 4.0. Seedlings were grown in controlled environments
with solutions containing 0:100, 20:80, 40:60, 60:40, 80:20, or 100:0 NH4+:NO3−
ratios. Nutrient additions in the aeroponic culture units were controlled by solution
conductivity set points. Seedling growth and nutrient allocation was observed for
45 days. Different NH4+:NO3− ratios resulted in significant differences in the rate of
N addition, growth, morphology, and nutrient allocation. Seedlings grown in solu-
tions containing 60% or 80% NO3− were characterized by a combination of high
growth and photosynthetic rates, high and stable internal plant N concentrations,
and sufficient levels of other essential nutrients. High proportions of NH4+ in solu-
tion resulted in low rates of N addition, stunted lateral root growth, and may have
been toxic.
FOOD SECURITY
USA
Impact of Climate Change on Food Security and Proposed Solutions for the Modern
City (He et al., 2013).
He, J. et al., Dept., University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, USA.
This team used novel aeroponics technology to produce fresh vegetables in

Singapore since 1997. This innovative system allows production of all vegetables,
all year round by simply cooling the roots while the aerial parts grow under tropi-
cal ambient environments. While it is not possible for arable land to be expanded
horizontally, an urban farming system could increase production area through ver-
tical extensions. Vertical stacking of troughs is constrained by the weight factor of
the troughs.
USA
Aeroponics: A Sustainable Solution for Urban Agriculture (Miller, 2020).
Matthew Miller, Environmental Law Institute, Washington, DC.
This research was conducted on urban agriculture with a focus on aeroponics.

Despite their well-documented benefits, most urban farms struggle to make it in
the marketplace. In 2016, the British Food Journal found that the average sales for
all urban farms were just $54,000 per year with the median income level sitting
at $5,000. Another 2010 study conducted by the Journal of Extension found that
among 243 self-reporting urban farming projects, 49% had $10,000 or less of total
gross sales. Unfortunately, for those hoping to employ members of the local com-
munity, these bottom lines simply cannot support full-time employment, let alone for
a single owner or manager.
UK
Can the Optimization of Pop-up Agriculture in Remote Communities Help Feed the
World? (Gwynn-Jones et al., 2018).
Gwynn-Jones, Dylan et al., IBERS, Aberystwyth University, UK.
This team explored past research and crop growth in remote areas like the polar
regions on Earth, and in space, with the scope to improve on the systems used in
these areas to date. They introduce biointensive agricultural systems and 3D grow-
ing environments, intercropping in hydroponics, aeroponics and the production of
multiple crops from single growth systems. To reflect the flexibility and adaptability
of these approaches to different environments they called this type of enclosed sys-
tem ‘pop-up agriculture.’ The vision here is built on sustainability, maximizing yield
from the smallest growing footprint, adopting the principles of a circular economy,
using local resources and eliminating waste.
China
Modern Plant Cultivation Technologies in Agriculture Under Controlled
Environment: A Review on Aeroponics (Lakhiar et al., 2018a).
Lakhiar, Imran Ali et al., Key Laboratory of Modern Agricultural
Equipment and Technology, Ministry of Education, Institute of Agricultural
Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China.
This team reviewed a novel approach to plant cultivation under soil-less cul-
ture. At present, global climate change is expected to raise the risk of frequent
drought. Agriculture is in a phase of major change around the world and dealing
with serious problems. In the future, it would be a difficult task to provide a fresh
and clean food supply for the fast-growing population using traditional agricul-
ture. Under such circumstances, soil-less cultivation is the alternative technology
to adapt effectively such as a Hydroponic and Aeroponics system. In the aero-
ponics system, plant roots are hanging in the artificially provided plastic holder
and foam material replacement of the soil under controlled conditions. The roots
are allowed to dangle freely and openly in the air. However, the nutrie1nt rich-
water delivered with atomization nozzles. The nozzles create a fine spray mist
of different droplet size intermittently or continuously. This review concludes
that aeroponics system is considered the best plant growing method for food
security and sustainable development. The system has shown some promising
returns in various countries and was recommended as the most efficient, useful,
significant, economical and convenient plant growing system soil and other soil-
less methods.
USA
The Vertical Farm: A Review of Developments and Implications for the Vertical
City. (Al-Kodmany, 2018).
Al-Kodmany, Kheir, Department of Urban Planning and
Policy, College of Urban Planning and Public Affairs,
University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
This is a review paper on the emerging need for vertical farms by examining
issues related to food security, urban population growth, farmland shortages,
“food miles”, and associated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Urban planners
and agricultural leaders have argued that cities will need to produce food inter-
nally to respond to demand by increasing population and to avoid paralyzing
congestion, harmful pollution, and unaffordable food prices. The paper exam-
ines urban agriculture as a solution to these problems by merging food production
and consumption in one place, with the vertical farm being suitable for urban
areas where available land is limited and expensive. Luckily, recent advances in
greenhouse technologies such as hydroponics, aeroponics, and aquaponics have
provided a promising future to the vertical farm concept. These high-tech systems
represent a paradigm shift in farming and food production and offer suitable and
efficient methods for city farming by minimizing maintenance and maximizing
yield. Upon reviewing these technologies and examining project prototypes, it was
found that these efforts may plant the seeds for the realization of the vertical farm.
The paper, however, closes by speculating about the consequences, advantages,
and disadvantages of the vertical farm’s implementation. Economic feasibility,
codes, regulations, and a lack of expertise remain major obstacles in the path to
implementing the vertical farm.
USA
Feeding 11 billion on 0.5 billion hectare of Area under Cereal Crops (Rattan, 2016).
Lal, Rattan, School of Environment and Natural Resources,
The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.
The paper evaluated the need for increased global food production. Despite impres-
sive increases in global grain production since 1960s, there are 795 million food-
insecure and ~2 billion people prone to malnutrition. Further, global population of
7.4 billion in 2016 is projected to increase to 9.7 billion by 2050, with almost all
increase occurring in developing countries. Thus, it is recommended that global
food production be increased by 60%–70% between 2005 and 2050. Global crop
production increased threefold between 1965 and 2015 with a net increase of
only 67 million ha (Mha) of cropland area. Nonetheless, agronomic yield of food
staples can still be tripled or quadrupled in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), South Asia
(SA), and the Caribbean by a widespread adoption of site-specific best manage-
ment practices of sustainable intensification (SI). Rather than expanding the area
under cropland, agriculturally marginal and degraded soils can be set aside for
nature conservancy. The global average cereal yield of 3.27 mg/ha in 2005 can be
increased to 5 mg/ha by 2050, 6 mg/ha by 2080 and 7 mg/ha by 2100 through SI
of agroecosystems in SSA, SA, and elsewhere. The strategy of ‘producing more
from less’ necessitates restoration of soil health and increasing soil organic carbon
(SOC) concentration to be more than 1.5%–2.0% in the rootzone. The goal of SOC
sequestration is in accord with the ‘4 per Thousand’ initiative proposed at COP21
in 2015. Therefore, global food demands can be met despite the decreasing trends
in the per capita cropland area by 2050—0.17 ha in the world and 0.15 ha in devel-
oping countries. While enhancing productivity by SI, the strategy is to simultane-
ously reduce food waste, increase access and distribution of food, and promote
plant-based diet. The goal is to reconcile high production with better environmen-
tal quality, develop urban agriculture (aquaponics, aeroponics, and vertical farms),
promote nutrition-sensitive farming, and restore degraded soils. Sustainable inten-
sification of agroecosystems can produce enough food grains to feed one person for
a year on 0.045 ha of arable land.
Russia
УРБАНИЗИРОВАННОЕ АГРОПРОИЗВОДСТВО (СИТИ-ФЕРМЕРСТВО)
КАК ПЕРСПЕКТИВНОЕ НАПРАВЛЕНИЕ РАЗВИТИЯ МИРОВОГО
АГРОПРОИЗВОДСТВА И СПОСОБ ПОВЫШЕНИЯ ПРОДОВОЛЬСТВЕННОЙ
БЕЗОПАСНОСТИ ГОРОДОВ (Руткин et al., 2017).
Руткин, Н. М. et al., Astrakhan State Technical University, Federal
State Budgetary Educational Institution, Astrakhan, Russia.
This paper focused on the outlook of the development of world urban agrotech-
nologies (“city-farming”) by means of key innovation technological and market
trends analysis. It is noted that the tendencies to reduction of the area of pro-
ductive lands, exhausting ecosystem resources, including World ocean resources,
harmful consequences of the climate changing are the main limiting factors of the
development of traditional agriculture and supplying food products to the grow-
ing population of the world. The remote territories of mass food production from
the mass markets result in a large amount of waste products (food losses) in sup-
ply chains, along with decreasing product quality and raising costs. Growth of the
world population, increasing concentration of urban citizens along with changing
of consumers’ food preferences towards “health”, “natural”, “organic” food bring
up the development of an additional, or alternate, system of uninterrupted supply
or self-provision of cities with food products, ensuring future food security. The
article highlights the prospect of developing the international branch of agricul-
ture in terms of its transition to the high-tech stage of development (“AgTech”),
and reviews the innovation technologies inseparable from that transition. It has
been found that the development of the urban agrotechnologies (cityfarming), as
a combination of innovative high-performance agro-practices of the food produc-
tion in urban environment, can step up the level of food security due to increas-
ing food availability in qualitative and quantitative aspects. The review of main
city-farming technologies in accordance with directions of its practical applica-
tions was done for the first time. The conception “urban agrotechnologies” (“city-
farming”) has been defined as the scientific term.
USA
Food Security (Steen, 2016).
Steen, Hoyer J., Computational and Systems Biology
Program, Washington University in St. Louis, Donald
Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, MO, USA.
This paper focused on research that concluded that plant–microbe interaction could
potentially improve crop productivity grown in vertical indoor farms, on new light-
emitting diode technologies has helped advance indoor farming, and water savings
offered by aeroponic and hydroponic growth methods.
FUNGI
Taiwan
Spore Development of Entrophospora kentinensis in an Aeroponic System
(Wu et al., 1995).
Chi-Guang Wu et al. at the Soil Microbiology Laboratory, Agricultural Chemistry
Department, Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute, Taiwan, Republic of China.
This team propagated Entrophospora kentinensis with bahia grass and sweet potato
in an aeroponic system. Spores were produced 6 weeks later after host plants were
transferred to an aeroponic chamber. After spores mature, the terminal vesicles of
saccules and the lower hyphal stalks degenerate and leave two scars. Differences in
spore ontogeny between Acaulospora and Entrophospora are discussed.
USA
Production of Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus Inoculum in Aeroponic
Culture (Hung et al., 1988).
Hung, Ling-Ling L. et al., Soil Science Department,
University of Florida, Florida.
This team grew bahia grass (Paspalum notatum) and industrial sweet potato (Ipomoea
batata) colonized by Glomus deserticola, G. etunicatum, and G. intraradices in
aeroponic cultures. After 12–14 weeks, all roots were colonized by the inoculated
vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Abundant vesicles and arbuscules formed in

the roots, and profuse sporulation was detected intra-and extraradically. Within each
fungal species, industrial sweet potato contained significantly more roots and spores
per plant than bahia grass did, although the percent root colonization was similar
for both hosts. Aeroponically produced G. deserticola and G. etunicatum inocula
retained their infectivity after cold storage (4°C) in either sterile water or moist ver-
miculite for at least 4 and 9 months, respectively.
USA
Movement and Containment of Microbial Contamination in the Nutrient Mist
Bioreactor (Sharaf-Eldin et al., 2006).
Mahmoud A. Sharaf-Eldin et al., Department of Biology and
Biotechnology Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, USA.
The study was conducted on the movement and control of contaminants in the mist
bioreactor, the spore-forming microbes Penicillium chrysogenum and Bacillus
subtilis by deliberately inoculating into three possible locations in the reactor: the
growth chamber (GC), the medium reservoir (R), or the mist-generating chamber
(MG). Compared to inoculation into either R or MG regions, the growth of P. chrys-
ogenum inoculated into the GC required 3 more days (c. 60% more time) to move
throughout the rest of the reactor. In contrast, regardless of where B. subtilis was
inoculated (GC, R, or MG), it took 7 d to contaminate the entire system. The move-
ment of filamentous fungi and bacteria seems to follow the same route of contamina-
tion throughout this reactor.
Australia
Improved Aeroponic Culture of Inocula of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
(Mohammad et al., 2000).
Mohammad, A. et al., Department of Biological Sciences,
University of Western Sydney, Australia.
This study compared conventional atomizing disc aeroponic technology with the
latest ultrasonic nebulizer technology for production of Glomus intraradices inoc-
ula. The piezo ceramic element technology used in the ultrasonic nebulizer employs
high-frequency sound to nebulize nutrient solution into microdroplets 1 μm in diam-
eter. Growth of pre-colonized arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) roots of Sudan grass
was achieved in both chambers used but both root growth and mycorrhization were
significantly faster and more extensive in the ultrasonic nebulizer system than in
the atomizing disc system. Thus, the latest ultra-sonic nebulizer aeroponic tech-
nology appears to be superior and an alternative to conventional atomizing disc
or spray nozzle systems for the production of high-quality AMF inocula. These
can be used in small doses to produce a large response, which is a prerequisite for
commercialization of AMF technology.
USA
Review: Beneficial Bacteria and Fungi in Hydroponic Systems: Types and
Characteristics of Hydroponic Food Production Methods (Lee et al., 2015).
Lee, Seungjun et al., Environmental Science Graduate
Program, The Ohio State University, USA.
This is a review article on information concerning hydroponic systems, including

the different types and methods of operation; trends, advantages and limitations, the
role of beneficial bacteria and fungi in reducing plant disease and improving plant
quality and productivity. In order to produce more and improved hydroponic crops,
a variety of modified hydroponic systems have been developed, such as: the wick,
drip, ebb-flow, water culture, nutrient film technique, aeroponic, and windowfarm
systems. According to numerous studies, hydroponics have many advantages over
field culture systems, such as: reuse of water, ease in controlling external factors, and
a reduction in traditional farming practices (e.g., cultivating, weeding, watering, and
tilling). However, several limitations have also been identified in hydroponic culture
systems, i.e., high setup cost, rapid pathogen spread, and a need for specialized man-
agement knowledge.
Belgium
Methods for large-scale production of AM fungi: past, present, and future (Ijdo
et al., 2011).
Ijdo, Marleen et al., Earth and Life Institute, MycologyUniversité
catholique de Louvain Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium.
This is a review article covering the principle of in vivo and in vitro production
methods that have been developed for soil- and substrate-based production tech-
niques as well as substrate-free culture techniques (hydroponics and aeroponics)
and in vitro cultivation methods for the large-scale production of AM fungi. They
present the parameters that are critical for optimal production, discuss the advan-
tages and disadvantages of the methods, and highlight their most probable sectors
of application. Many different cultivation techniques and inoculum products of the
plant-beneficial arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi have been developed in the last
decades.
France
Inoculum of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi for Production Systems: Science Meets
Business (Gianinazzi et al., 2004).
Gianinazzi, Silvio et al., INRA/Université Bourgogne Cedex, France.
The study reviewed the development of an industrial activity producing microbial

inocula. It is a complex procedure that involves not only the development of the nec-
essary biotechnological know-how but also the ability to respond to the specifically
related legal, ethical, educational, and commercial requirements. At present, com-

mercial arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) inocula are produced in nursery plots, con-
tainers with different substrates and plants, aeroponic systems, or, more recently, in
vitro. Different formulated products are available on the market, which creates the
need for the establishment of standards for widely accepted quality control. One of
the main tasks for both producers and researchers is to raise awareness in the public
about potentials of mycorrhizal technology for sustainable plant production and soil
conservation.
USA
Tissue Magnesium and Calcium Affect Arbuscular Mycorrhiza Development and
Fungal Reproduction (Jarstfer et al., 1998).
Jarstfer, A. G. et al., Soil and Water Science Department,

University of Florida, Gainesville, USA.
This study was conducted on applications of high levels of magnesium sulfate in

root colonization and sporulation by Glomus sp. (INVAM isolate FL329) with
sweet potato and onion in aeroponic and sand culture, respectively. Onion shoot-
magnesium concentrations were elevated when a nutrient solution containing 2.6 or
11.7 mM magnesium sulfate was applied. These effects on colonization and sporula-
tion were independent of changes in tissue-P concentration. High Mg/low Ca tissue
concentrations induced premature root senescence, which may have disrupted the
mycorrhizal association. Their results confirm the importance of Ca for the mainte-
nance of a functioning mycorrhiza.
India
19 Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhiza: Application in Agriculture (Bagyaraj,
1992).
Bagyaraj, D.J., Department of Agricultural Microbiology,

University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, India.
This is a chapter in a book entitled Methods in Microbiology and is about some of

the methods used for exploiting the vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis in
agriculture. The first step towards application of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal
technology is to obtain a good starter culture. Another approach is to isolate spores
of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi from soil by wet sieving and decant-
ing technique. Techniques are available for the production of vesicular-arbuscular
mycorrhizal inoculum in an almost sterile environment through nutrient film tech-
niques, circulation hydroponic culture systems, aeroponic culture systems, root
organ culture, and tissue culture. The chapter further explains greenhouse sanitation
and mycorrhizal dependency of plants.
USA
Use of Hydrogel as a Sticking Agent and Carrier for Vesicular-Arbuscular
Mycorrhizal Fungi (Hung et al., 1991).
Hung, Ling-Ling L. et al., Soil Science Department,
University of Florida, Gainesville, USA.
The study involved developing Natrosol®, a nonionic, water-soluble polymer, used

as a sticking agent for direct inoculation of spores of Glomus etunicatum Becker &
Gerdemann on roots of bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum Flugge). After 16 weeks in
aeroponic culture, roots were 67%, 68%, 55%, 54%, and 41% colonized with the
VAM fungus at distances 0–6, 6–9, 9–12, 12–15, and 15–18 cm below the crown,
respectively. Natrosol had no effect on spore germination nor on root colonization at
14 weeks, but increased both the proportion of root length with root hairs and total
root length.
USA
Beneficial Bacteria and Fungi in Hydroponic Systems: Types and Characteristics of
Hydroponic Food Production Methods (Lee et al., 2015).
Lee, Seungjun et al., Environmental Science and Graduate
Program, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA.
This is a review of current information concerning hydroponic systems, including

the different types and methods of operation; trends, advantages and limitations,
the role of beneficial bacteria and fungi in reducing plant disease and improving
plant quality and productivity. In order to produce more and improved hydroponic
crops, a variety of modified hydroponic systems have been developed, such as: the
wick, drip, ebb-flow, water culture, nutrient film technique, aeroponic, and win-
dowfarm systems.
GRAPE
Germany
Production and Rooting behavior of rol B-Transgenic Plants of Grape Rootstock
‘Richter 110’ (Vitis berlandieri × V. rupestris) (Geier et al., 2008).
Thomas Geier et al., Section of Botany Geisenheim
Research Center, Geisenheim, Germany.
This study was conducted on the production and rooting behaviour of transgenic
grape rootstock ‘Richter 110’ carrying the Agrobacterium rhizogenes rolB gene,
which is known to promote rooting. Genetic improvement of grape rootstocks is
aimed at protection against grape phylloxera and other soil-borne pests and dis-
eases, good rooting and graft compatibility as well as adaptability to a wide range
of soil and climatic conditions. Apart from the long evaluation period required,
breeding is complicated by the high heterozygosity in grapes. As an alternative to
traditional crossing, gene transfer permits addition of single traits, largely without
affecting the genetic background of existing valuable cultivars. Rooting behaviour
was examined in vitro, using tip, node and internode explants, and in aeroponic
culture in the greenhouse, using single-node cuttings. Compared to internodes of
nontransgenic ‘Richter 110’, those of rolB-transgenic clones in general showed sig-
nificantly higher rooting ability and, in contrast to the former, were able to root
profusely even in the absence of auxin. Cuttings of three rolB-transgenic clones
in aeroponic culture produced almost twice as many primary roots as those of the
nontransgenic control.
IRIS
Canada
Environmental Effects on the Maturation of the Endodermis and Multiseriate
Exodermis of Iris Germanica Roots (Meyer et al., 2009).
Meyer CJ et al., Department of Biology, University

of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.
This team investigated the development and apoplastic permeability of Iris german-
ica roots with a multiseriate exodermis (MEX). The effects of different growth con-
ditions on MEX maturation were also tested. In addition, the exodermises of eight
Iris species were observed to determine whether their mature anatomy correlated
with habitat.
CHINESE CABBAGE
Indonesia
Irrigation Efficiency and Uniformity of Aeroponics System a Case Study in Parung
Hydroponics Farm (Prastowo, 2007).
Prastowo et al., Dept. of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural
Technology, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia.
This study evaluated the irrigation efficiency and coefficient of nonuniformity (CU)
of the existing aeroponics system for one growing season of petsai (Brassica pekin-
ensis L) in Parung—Bogor, Indonesia. The evaluation covers the CU of the spray
discharge, pH, temperature and electrical conductivity (EC) of the nutrient solution.
It was concluded that the CU of spray discharge, pH and temperature of the nutrient
solution were relatively high, but the CU of EC of the nutrient solution was relatively
low. Conveyance efficiency and water-use efficiency were about 84.38% and 40.09%,
respectively. The average crop water requirement was about 1,457 cc/crop/season or
equal to 16,870 cc/kg of petsai produced.
LETTUCE
Slovenia
Nitrate content in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) grown on aeroponics with different
quantities of nitrogen in the nutrient solution [electronic resource] (Kacjan-Mar
et al., 2002).
Kacjan-Mar, N. et al., Nina Kacjan Marsic Biotechnical,
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia.
This team studied the influence of different quantities of nitrogen in the nutrient
solution on growth, development and nitrate content in aeroponically grown lettuce
(Lactuca sativa L.). Three successive experiments were conducted in 1999 from April
to September, in an aeroponic system. The lettuce plants, cv. Vanity, were grown in
aeroponics using four different amounts of nitrogen in the nutrient solutions. The pH
level was maintained between 5.5 and 6.5, and the EC between 1.8 and 2.2 mS/cm.
The highest NO3 concentration in the lettuce leaves was recorded in plants grown in
nutrient solutions with the highest NO3-N concentration (17 mM in the first, 12 mM in
the second and third experiments). An acceptably low NO3 concentration was found
in the leaves of lettuce treated containing with nutrient solution 4 mM NO3−N in all
three experiments.
USA
Growth Responses and Root Characteristics of Lettuce Grown in Aeroponics,
Hydroponics, and Substrate Culture (Li et al., 2018).
Qiansheng Li et al., Department of Horticultural
Sciences, Texas A&M University, USA.
This study involved measuring the shoot and root growth, root characteristics, and
mineral content of two lettuce cultivars in aeroponics compared with hydroponics
and substrate culture. The results showed that aeroponics remarkably improved root
growth with a significantly greater root biomass, root/shoot ratio, and greater total
root length, root area, and root volume. However, the greater root growth did not lead
to greater shoot growth compared with hydroponics, due to the limited availability
of nutrients and water. It was concluded that aeroponics systems may be better for
high value true root crop production.
Slovenia
Effects of Different Nitrogen Levels on Lettuce Growth and Nitrate Accumulation
in Iceberg Lettuce (Lactuca sativa var. capitata L.) Grown Hydroponically under
Greenhouse Conditions (Maršić et al., 2002).
Nina Kacjan Maršić et al., Institut for Fruit Growing, Viticulturae
and Vegetable Growing, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia.
This study involved the influence of different greenhouse conditions and decreas-
ing nitrogen level in nutrient solution on growth and on nitrate accumulation and
its distribution in lettuce plants. Three successive experiments were conducted on

aeroponic systems in 1999. The lettuce plants cv. ‘Vanity’ were grown in hydropon-
ics using 13 and 5 mM nitrate in nutrient solution. Differences among averages of
fresh shoot weight measurements were statistically significant in all three aeroponic
experiments.
Singapore
Effects of Root-Zone Temperature on the Root Development and Nutrient Uptake
of Lactuca sativa L “Panama” Grown in an Aeroponic System in the Tropics (Tan
et al., 2002).
Tan, Lay et al., National Science Academy Group, National Institute
of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
This team studied Lactuca sativa L (Panama) under conditions grown in the tropics
by subjecting its roots to 20°C while its aerial portions are exposed to the hot, fluctu-
ating temperatures in the greenhouse. This study showed that the roots were longer
with a greater number of root tips and total root surface area, and smaller average root
diameter as compared with those of ambient RZT (A-RZT) plants. Mineral nutrients
such as nitrate, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), copper
(Cu), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn) present in the plant
shoot and root tissues were also determined. Generally, it was found that 20°C-RZT
plants had higher leaf N and P concentrations on the basis of per unit dry weight com-
pared with plants grown at A-RZT. The results also showed that total shoot and root
nitrate-N, K, Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, and Zn accumulation of 20°C-RZT plants were
more than A-RZT plants.
Singapore
Growth and Photosynthetic Characteristics of Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) under
Fluctuating Hot Ambient Temperatures with the Manipulation of Cool Root-Zone
Temperature (Jie et al., 1998).
Jie, He et al., School of Science, National Institute of Education,
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
The growth and photosynthetic characteristics in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) cultured
in an aeroponic system at two different times of the year was studied. Midday ambi-
ent and leaf temperatures recorded in January were significantly lower than those
measured in June. When the aerial parts were grown under hot ambient temperature
but with their root zones exposed to 20°C, photosynthetic capacity and productivity
were, respectively, about 20% and 30% higher measured from the leaves grown in
January as compared with those planted in June. However, photosynthetic rate and
productivity decreased by more than 50% at both periods when the whole plants
were grown under hot ambient temperature as compared with those with their shoots
maintained at hot ambient temperature but with their root zones exposed to a cool
temperature of 20°C.
Chile
Over Fertilization Limits Lettuce Productivity Because of Osmotic Stress (Albornoz
et al., 2015).
Francisco Albornoz et al., Departamento de Ciencias Vegetales,
Facultad de Agronomía e Ingeniería Forestal, Pontificia
Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
An evaluation was conducted on the physiological response of lettuce (Lactuca

sativa L.) to various root zone nutrient concentrations (expressed as electrical con-
ductivity, from 0.6 to 10 dS/m), using increasing concentrations of macronutrients
applied to the root zone in an aeroponic system. Leaf photosynthesis and chlorophyll
fluorescence were measured using a portable infrared gas analyzer attached with a
fluorometer. Leaf nutrient content was analyzed by mass spectrometry and NO3−N
was determined by flow injection analysis. Leaf photosynthetic rates increased when
the solution concentration was raised from 0.6 to 4.8 dS/m, but further increases in
solution concentration did not result in any differences. The enhancement in pho-
tosynthetic rates was related to higher concentrations of N, P, Mg, and S in leaves.
Leaf K content was correlated with stomatal conductance. Maximum growth was
achieved with solution concentrations between 1.2 and 4.8 dS/m while at 10.0 dS/m
leaf production was reduced by 30%. It is concluded that at high concentration
of nutrients supplied in the root zone, yield reduces because of a combination of
decreased stomatal conductance and leaf area.
Chile
Effect of Different Day and Night Nutrient Solution Concentrations on Growth,
Photosynthesis, and Leaf NO3− Content of Aeroponically Grown Lettuce (Albornoz
et al., 2014).
Francisco Albornoz et al., Instituto de Investigaciones
Agropecuarias, Santa Rosa, Santiago, Chile.
An evaluation of different concentrations of the nutrient solution applied during the

day (D) and night (N) to aeroponically grown lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) in Davis,
California, USA, in the spring of 2012 with the objective of assessing the effect on
growth, leaf photosynthesis, and nitrate accumulation in leaves. This study was con-
ducted because nitrate content in leafy green vegetables has raised concerns among
consumers and policy makers worldwide. Several cultural practices have been evalu-
ated to manipulate NO3− content in fresh leaves with varying degrees of success.
Two different treatments in the nighttime solution concentration (D25/N75, EC:
1.8 dS/m; and D25/N50, EC: 1.2 dS/m), a day nutrient solution of EC 0.6 dS/m,
plus a day and night treatment with constant EC (D50/N50, EC: 1.2 dS/m) were
applied. Plant growth, leaf photosynthesis, and leaf nutrient content were evaluated
after 3 weeks of growth. Switching nutrient solution concentration between day and
night is a viable practice to reduce NO3− in lettuce leaves with no detriment to leaf
production.
Korea
The Effect of LED Light Combination on the Anthocyanin Expression of Lettuce
(Baek et al., 2013).
Baek, Gyeong Y. et al., Department of Bioindustrial Machinery
Engineering Gyeongsang National University (Institute
of Agriculture and Life Science), Jinju, Korea.
This study involved the growing of lettuce in a deep flow technique system and aero-
ponics method with different light combinations. The lettuce was grown in DFT sys-
tem was imaged. Then image analysis and absorbance was analyzed. The Aeroponics
system was imaged and the major functional elements of anthocyanin—cyanidin-
3-glucoside(C3G), peonidin-3-glucoside(P3G), and delphinidin-3-glucoside(D3G)—
were measured by HPLC. As a result, it turned out that in the light combination of red
53: blue 47, red 58: blue 42, the content of D3G was the highest. This study showed
that blue light has significant effects on the development of anthocyanin.
Singapore
Effects of Elevated Root Zone Carbon Dioxide and Air Temperature on
Photosynthetic Gas Exchange, Nitrate Uptake, and Total Reduced Nitrogen Content
in Aeroponically Grown Lettuce Plants (He et al., 2010).
He, Jie et al., Natural Sciences and Science Education Academic Group,
National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
The effects of elevated root zone (RZ) carbon dioxide and air temperature on photo-
synthesis, productivity, nitrate (NO(3)(−)), and total reduced nitrogen (N) content in
aeroponically grown lettuce plants was studied. Three weeks after transplanting, four
different RZ carbon dioxide concentrations [ambient (360 ppm) and elevated concen-
trations of 2,000, 10,000, and 50,000 ppm] were imposed on plants grown at two air
temperature regimes of 28°C/22°C (day/night) and 36°C/30°C. Photosynthetic CO2
assimilation (A) and stomatal conductance (g(s)) increased with increasing photo-
synthetically active radiation (PAR).
Singapore
Interaction Between Potassium Concentration and Root-Zone Temperature on Growth
and Photosynthesis of Temperate Lettuce Grown in the Tropics (Yi et al., 2012).
ILuo, Hong Yi et al., School of Science, National Institute of
Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
Lactuca sativa L. plants at three root-zone temperatures (RZTs): 25°C, 30°C and
ambient RZT (A-RZT) was grown on an aeroponic system. Three potassium (K)
concentrations: −25% (minus K), control (standard K), and +25% (plus K) were sup-
plied to plants at each RZT. Plants grown at the plus K and 25°C-RZT had the
highest productivity, largest root system and highest photosynthetic capacity. The
minus K plants at 25°C-RZT had the highest shoot soluble carbohydrate (SC)
concentration, but they had the highest root SC concentration in the plus K plants
at A-RZT. However, the highest starch concentration was found in both shoots and
roots of the plus K plants at 25°C-RZT. The plus K plants had the highest shoot K
concentration at 25°C-RZT, but they had the highest root K concentration at A-RZT.
Highest proportion of absorbed K was partitioned to shoots when the plants were
grown with the plus K at 25°C-RZT.
Japan
Dry-fog Aeroponics Affects the Root Growth of Leaf Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv.
Greenspan) by Changing the Flow Rate of Spray Fertigation (Hikosaka et al., 2015).
Hikosaka, Yosuke et al., Department of Agricultural and
Environmental Engineering, Kobe, Japan.
The growth characteristics and physiological activities of leaves and roots of lettuce
cultivated in dry-fog aeroponics was investigated with different flow rates of nutri-
ent dry-fog (FL, 1.0 m/s; NF, 0.1 m/s) under a controlled environment for 2 weeks
and compared to lettuce cultivated using deep-flow technique (DFT). The growth
of leaves of FL and DFT was not different and was significantly higher than that
of NF. The amount of dry-fog particles adhering to the objects was higher in FL
than in NF, so that the root growth in NF was significantly higher than that of FL.
The respiration rate of roots was significantly higher in dry-fog aeroponics, but the
dehydrogenase activity in the roots was significantly higher in DFT. There were no
differences in the contents of chlorophyll and total soluble protein in the leaves or
the specific leaf area. Photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance were higher in
dry-fog aeroponics. The contents of nitrate nitrogen, phosphate and potassium ions
in the leaves were significantly higher in DFT, but the content of calcium ions was
significantly higher in FL. Thus, changing the flow rate of the dry-fog in the rhizo-
sphere can affect the growth and physiological activities of leaves and roots.
USA
Rooting for Lettuce: Aero-Green Technology, Singapore: Growing Vegetables
Aeroponically—or Without Soil (Dolven, 1998).
Dolven, Ben Congressional Research Service Specialist in Asian
Affairs, Library of Congress Washington, DC, USA.
This is a review of the Asian Innovation Awards highlighting one of Singapore’s

remote northern corners, C.K. Eng’s company, Aero-Green Technology, that grows
lettuce, kailan, bok choi, tomatoes, and cucumbers aeroponically on beds of styro-
foam with their roots dangling through holes into open air. The roots are exposed to
a steady stream of nutrient-laden mist, and workers can control the air temperature
around the roots and the concentration of nutrients in the water spray. According to
Eng, he can grow a head of lettuce 30%–40% faster that a normal farm can, and the
process uses approximately 10% of the water used by a hydroponic farm. Details
of research into the aeroponic system, Eng’s products, and Aero-Green’s predicted
profitability are provided.
LOTUS
Germany
Diurnal Variations was Conducted in Hydraulic Conductivity and Root Pressure can be
Correlated with the Expression of Putative Aquaporins in the Roots of Lotus japonicus
(Henzler et al., 1999).
Henzler, Tobias et al., Lehrstuhl Pflanzenokologie,
Universitat Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany.
The hydraulic conductivity of excised roots (Lpr) of the legume Lotus japonicus
(Regel) K. Larsen grown in mist (aeroponic) and sand cultures was measured and
found to vary over a 5-fold range during a day/night cycle. This behaviour was seen
when Lpr was measured in roots exuding, either under root pressure (osmotic driving
force), or under an applied hydrostatic pressure of 0.4 MPa which produced a rate of
water flow similar to that in a transpiring plant. A similar daily pattern of variation
was seen in plants grown in natural daylight or in controlled-environment rooms, in
plants transpiring at ambient rates or at greatly reduced rates, and in plants grown in
either aeroponic or sand culture.
Sweden/Germany
Allene Oxide Synthase, Allene Oxide Cyclase, and Jasmonic Acid Levels in Lotus
japonicus Nodules (Zdyb et al., 2018).
Zdyb, Anna et al., Department of Ecology, Environment and
Plant Sciences, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden, Georg-
August-University, Albrecht von Haller Institute for Plant Sciences,
Department of Plant Biochemistry, Göttingen, Germany.
The gene families of two committed enzymes of the jasmonic acid (JA) biosynthetic
pathway, allene oxide synthase (AOS) and allene oxide cyclase (AOC), were charac-
terized in the determinate nodule-forming model legume Lotus japonicus.
Jasmonic acid (JA), its derivatives and its precursor cis-12-oxo phytodienoic
acid (OPDA) form a group of phytohormones, the jasmonates, representing signal
molecules involved in plant stress responses, in the defense against pathogens as
well as in development. Elevated levels of JA have been shown to play a role in
arbuscular mycorrhiza and in the induction of nitrogen-fixing root nodules. JA
levels were analyzed in the course of nodulation. Since in all L. japonicus organs
examined, JA levels increased upon mechanical disturbance and wounding, an
aeroponic culture system was established to allow for a quick harvest, followed
by the analysis of jasmonic acid (JA) levels in whole root and shoot systems.
Nodulated plants were compared with non-nodulated plants grown on nitrate or
ammonium as N source, respectively, over a 5-week-period. JA levels turned out to
be more or less stable independently of the growth conditions. However, L. japoni-
cus nodules formed on aeroponically grown plants often showed patches of cells
with reduced bacteroid density, presumably a stress symptom. Immunolocalization
using a heterologous antibody showed that the vascular systems of these nodules
also seemed to contain less AOC protein than those of nodules of plants grown in
perlite/vermiculite.
MAIZE
India
Hydro and Aeroponic Technique for Rapid Drought Tolerance Screening in Maize
(Zea mays) (Kumar et al., 2016).
Kumar, Bhupender et al., Molecular Cytogenetics and Tissue
Culture Lab., Department of Crop Improvement, CSK Himachal
Pradesh Agricultural University, Palampur, India.
A rapid screening technique was developed to identify drought tolerant maize (Zea
mays L.) genotypes under field and controlled conditions at New Delhi in 2015 and
2016. The genotypes have shown variable wilting symptoms and recovery during the
stress and while reverting back to hydroponic, respectively. The new rapid method
could identify and verify the drought tolerant and susceptible genotypes very effec-
tively at seedling stage and therefore it can be utilized in breeding programme for
preliminary identification of drought tolerant and susceptible genotypes.
France
Relationship Between Root Structure and Root Cadmium Uptake in Maize (Redjala
et al., 2011).
Redjala, Tanegmart et al., Nancy Université, INRA, Laboratoire
Sols et Environnement, Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy Cedex, France.
Hypotheses were tested that (1) the cadmium (Cd) uptake is higher for maize roots
grown in hydroponics than for those grown in aeroponics, (2) this difference is due
to the fact that in aeroponics, root apoplastic barriers are developed more extensively
than in hydroponics, and (3) the structure of maize roots grown in aeroponics is
closer to the structure of roots grown in soil. A clear description of the mechanism
of root cadmium absorption is required in order to understand how this toxic metal
is phytoaccumulated. Apoplastic and symplastic cadmium uptake was measured by
exposing the roots to a radio-labeled Cd solution and by the physical fractionation
of the metal in the roots. The results obtained support the initial hypotheses. Since
the characteristics of maize plants roots cultivated in aeroponics were much closer
to those cultivated in soil, their kinetic parameters may be considered to be more
representative when measuring uptake than those of hydroponically grown plants.
Belgium
Short-Term Control of Maize Cell and Root Water Permeability Through Plasma
Membrane Aquaporin Isoforms (Hachez et al., 2012).
Hachez, Charles et al., Institut des Sciences de la Vie, Université
catholique de Louvain, Croix du Sud Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium.
The role of specific isoforms in the regulation of root water uptake was studied.
The mRNA expression and protein level of specific plasma membrane intrinsic
proteins (PIPs) were analyzed in Zea mays in relation to cell and root hydraulic
conductivity. Plants were analyzed during the day/night period, under different
growth conditions (aeroponics/hydroponics) and in response to short-term osmotic
stress applied through polyethylene glycol (PEG). Higher protein levels during the
day coincided with a higher water permeability of root cortex cells during the day
compared with night period. When PEG was added to the root medium (2–8 h),
cell water permeability in roots increased. These data support a role of specific
isoforms in regulating root water uptake and cortex cell hydraulic conductivity in
maize.
Germany
Apoplastic Transport Across Young Maize Roots: Effect of the Exodermis
(Zimmermann et al., 1998).
Zimmermann, Hilde et al., Ernst Lehrstuhl Pflanzenökologie,
Universität Bayreuth, Universitätsstrasse Bayreuth, Germany.
The uptake of water and the fluorescent apoplastic dye PTS (trisodium
3-hydroxy-5,8,10-pyrenetrisulfonate) was studied by root systems of young maize
(Zea mays L.) seedlings (age: 11–21 days) with plants which either developed an
exodermis (Casparian band in the hypodermis) or were lacking it. Steady-state tech-
niques were used to measure water uptake across excised roots. Either hydrostatic
or osmotic pressure gradients were applied to induce water flows. Roots without an
exodermis were obtained from plants grown in hydroponic culture. Roots which
developed an exodermis were obtained using an aeroponic (mist) cultivation method.
The results indicate that the radial apoplastic flows of water and PTS across the root
were affected differently by apoplastic barriers (Casparian bands) in the exodermis.
It is concluded that, unlike water, the apoplastic flow of PTS is rate-limited at the
endodermis rather than at the exodermis. The use of PTS as a tracer for apoplastic
water should be abandoned.
Germany
Pathogenicity of Fusarium graminearum Isolates on Maize (Zea mays L.) Cultivars
and Relation with Deoxynivalenol and Ergosterol Contents (Asran et al., 2003).
M. R. Asran et al., Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg.
Germany seedling blight and root rot caused by Fusarium graminearum isolates
using an aeroponics system was determined. F. graminearum is an important patho-
gen of maize and causes seed rot and seedling blight as well as root rot, stalk rot and
ear rot. In growth chamber experiments, inoculation of corn cv. ‘Loyal’ seeds with
six different F. graminearum isolates reduced emergence of germlings and caused
seedling death of varying degrees. This system allows nondestructive, repetitive
sampling of seedlings for assessing disease progress and seedling growth. All iso-
lates tested were able to produce deoxynivalenol (DON) in infected seedling tissue.
There was a close relationship between the degree of disease severity and DON
concentration. On the other hand, a relation between disease severity and ergosterol
content in the infected seedling tissues could not be detected.
France
Length of the Apical Unbranched Zone of Maize Axile Roots: Its Relationship to
Root Elongation Rate (Pellerin et al., 1995).
Pellerin, Sylvain et al., INRA, Laboratoire d’Agronomie, Colmar, France.
The length of the apical unbranched zone in maize axile roots was studied. Plants
were grown in an aeroponic growth chamber allowing direct measurements on
individual axile roots. The total length of the roots and the length of the apical
unbranched zone were measured regularly. A commonly accepted hypothesis,
according to which laterals emerge at a constant distance behind the root tip, was
refuted. Conversely, a linear relationship was found between the length of the
apical unbranched zone and the root elongation rate. This suggests that laterals
emerge on a root segment at a constant time interval after lateral primordia are
differentiated.
Canada
Sites of Entry of Water into the Symplast of Maize Roots (Varney et al., 1993).
Varney, G. T. et al., Biology Department, Carleton
University, Ottawa, Canada.
A new method of calculating rates of water uptake by roots from measurements of

the rate of accumulation on the roots of a marker solute was developed. The paper
describes the sites of accumulation of the solute, which indicate the sites where the
water entered the symplast. Sulphorhodamine G (SR) was supplied in aeroponic mist
culture to large maize plants with fully developed root systems. Root samples were
collected after 4–8 h of transpiration in the dye-mist from both axes and branches of
the main roots, and from nontranspiring (detopped) controls, frozen rapidly, freeze-
substituted, and embedded and sectioned by an anhydrous procedure that preserves
the SR in place. Whole mounts and sections were examined by bright-field, polariz-
ing and epifluorescence microscopy. Major accumulations of SR were all at the outer
surface of the roots, on epidermal or root hair cell walls, or, in older roots where the
epidermal cells were separating or dead, on the outer wall of the hypodermis.
Germany
Protein Dynamics in Young Maize Root Hairs in Response to Macro- and
Micronutrient Deprivation (Li et al., 2015).
Zhi Li et al., Department of Plant Systems Biology,
University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany.
Protein abundance adjustments in 4 day old root hairs grown in aeroponic culture
in the presence and absence of several macro- and micronutrients using a label-free
quantitative proteomics approach was studied. Plants increase their root surface with
root hairs to improve the acquisition of nutrients from the soil. In young maize seed-
lings, roots are densely covered with root hairs, although nutrient reserves in the
seed are sufficient to support seedling growth rates for a few days. Compared to the
proteome of root hairs developed under full nutrition, protein abundance changes
were observed in pathways related to macronutrient (N, P, K, and Mg) deficiencies.
For example, lack of N in the medium repressed the primary N metabolism pathway,
increased amino acid synthesis, but repressed their degradation, and affected the
primary carbon metabolism, such as glycolysis. Glycolysis was similarly affected
by K and P deprivation, but the glycolytic pathway was negatively regulated by the
absence of the micronutrients Fe and Zn. In contrast, the deprivation of Mn had
almost no affect on the root hair proteome. Our results indicate either that the metab-
olism of very young root hairs adjusts to cellular nutrient deficiencies that have been
already experienced or that root hairs sense the external lack of specific nutrients in
the nutrient solution and adjust their metabolism accordingly.
Germany
Apoplastic Transport of Abscisic Acid through Roots of Maize: Effect of the
Exodermis (Freundl et al., 1998).
Freundl, Elenor et al., Julius-von-Sachs-Institut für
Biowissenschaften der Universität Würzburg, Germany.
The exodermal layers that are formed in maize roots during aeroponic culture with
respect to the radial transport of cis-abscisic acid (ABA) were investigated. The
decrease in root hydraulic conductivity (Lpr) of aeroponically grown roots was stim-
ulated 1.5-fold by ABA (500 nM), reaching Lpr values of roots lacking an exodermis.
Similar to water, the radial flow of ABA through roots (JABA) and ABA uptake
into root tissue were reduced by a factor of about three as a result of the existence
of an exodermis. Thus, due to the cooperation between water and solute transport
the development of the ABA signal in the xylem was not affected. This resulted in
unchanged reflection coefficients for roots grown hydroponically and aeroponically.
Philippines
Novel Temporal, Fine-Scale, and Growth Variation Phenotypes in Roots of
Adult-Stage Maize (Zea mays L.) in Response to Low Nitrogen Stress (Gaudin
et al., 2011).
Gaudin, Amélie C. M. et al., Crop Environmental Sciences Division,
International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippines.
Root traits associated with acclimation to nutrient stress were studied. Large root
systems, such as in adult maize, have proven difficult to be phenotyped compre-
hensively and over time, causing target traits to be missed. These challenges were
overcome using aeroponics, a system where roots grow in the air misted with a
nutrient solution. Applying an agriculturally relevant degree of low nitrogen (LN)
stress, 30-day-old plants responded by increasing lengths of individual crown roots
(CRs) by 63%, compensated by a 40% decline in CR number. LN increased the CR

elongation rate rather than lengthening the duration of CR growth. Only younger
CR were significantly responsive to LN stress, a novel finding. Large-scale analy-
sis of root hairs (RHs) showed that LN decreased RH length and density. Time-
course experiments suggested the RH responses may be indirect consequences of
decreased biomass/demand under LN. These results identify novel root traits for
genetic dissection.
Philippines
The Effect of Altered Dosage of a Mutant Allele of Teosinte Branched 1 (tb1-ref) on
the Root System of Modern Maize (Gaudin et al., 2014).
Gaudin, Amélie C. M. et al., Crop Environmental Sciences Division,
International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippines.
Aeroponics were studied to phenotype the effects of tb1-ref copy number on maize
roots at macro-, meso-, and micro scales of development. Their results consisted of:
(1) an increase in crown root number due to the cumulative initiation of crown roots
from successive tillers; (2) higher density of first and second order lateral roots; and
(3) reduced average lateral root length. It was concluded that a decrease in Teosinte
Branched 1 (Tb1) function in maize results in a larger root system, due to an increase
in the number of crown roots and lateral roots. Given that decreased TB1 expression
results in a more highly branched and larger shoot, the impact of TB1 below ground
may be direct or indirect.
USA
Evaluation of an Aeroponics System to Screen Maize Genotypes for Resistance to
Fusarium graminearum Seedling Blight (du Toit et al., 1997).
du Toit, Lindsey J. et al., Department of Plant Pathology, University
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA.
A noncirculating aeroponics system as a method for rapid screening of maize geno-

types for resistance to Fusarium graminearum seedling blight/root rot was eval-
uated. The system allows for nondestructive, repetitive sampling of seedlings for
assessing disease progress and seedling growth. Shoot growth and root rot were
assessed at 3-day intervals, and final shoot and root dry weight were determined
15 days after inoculation. The nine hybrids screened differed in severity of root rot
as early as 6 days after inoculation, indicating differences in resistance to F. gra-
minearum. Inoculation ` growth, root dry weight, or shoot dry weight, but differ-
ences in these agronomic traits were observed among hybrids. LH119 × LH51 and
Pioneer Brand 3379 showed the greatest resistance to root rot. Area under-disease
progress curve and a critical stage of disease assessment (9 days after inoculation)
gave similar rankings of hybrids for root rot resistance, indicating that a single dis-
ease assessment (versus multiple assessments) may be adequate in screening for
resistance with this aeroponics system.
MEDICINAL
Romania
A Study of the Cultivation of Medicinal Plants in Hydroponic and Aeroponic
Technologies in a Protected Environment (Giurgiu et al., 2017).
Giurgiu, R. M. et al., University of Agricultural Science
and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, România.
Three species of medicinal plants in four hydroponic systems and one aeroponic sys-
tem were studied and compared the results with plants cultivated in soil, in the same
environmental conditions. Temperature, humidity, and irrigation intervals were
manipulated gradually until the parameters were considered stress factors for the
plants, as stated in the scientific literature. From the three plants studied, St. John’s
Wort showed the best results and it had a shorter time, 30 days, to the harvest peak,
compared to plants cultivated in soil.
USA
Potential for Greenhouse Aeroponic Cultivation of Urtica dioica (Pagliarulo et al.,
2004).
Pagliarulo, C.L. et al., University of Arizona Controlled
Environment Agriculture Program, USA.
The applicability of aeroponic technology was determined for the cultivation of

the traditionally field grown herbaceous medicinal plant Urtica dioica. In addition,
they investigated if control of nutrient delivery and repeated harvesting practices
could be utilized to increase the direct yield of desired plant parts. Comparison of
root and shoot dry weights between treatments revealed: (1) U. dioica cultivated
in soil-less medium yielded equal shoot biomass and greater root biomass than
aeroponically cultivated plants; (2) potassium and phosphorus ratios within the
nutrient solution had no significant impact on yield or biomass allocation; and
(3) multiple harvesting of aeroponic roots and shoots yielded greater total biomass
of both roots and shoots than a multi-crop replanting strategy. The results suggest
aeroponic technology could be a powerful tool for the cultivation U. dioica as
well as a variety of other important herbaceous medicinal plants. However, further
optimization of the plant growing environment is required to maximize and direct
growth.
India
Evaluation of Aeroponics for Clonal Propagation of Caralluma edulis, Leptadenia
reticulata, and Tylophora indica—Three Threatened Medicinal Asclepiads
(Mehandru et al., 2014).
Mehandru, Pooja et al., Biotechnology Centre, Department of
Botany Jai Narain Vyas University, Jodhpur, India.
The potential of an aeroponic system for clonal propagation of Caralluma edulis

(Paimpa) a rare, threatened and endemic edible species, Leptadenia reticulata
(Jeewanti), a threatened liana used as promoter of health and Tylophora indica
(Burm.f.) Merill, a valuable medicinal climber was studied. Experiments were
conducted to assess the effect of exogenous auxin (naphthalene acetic acid, indole-
3-butyric acid, indole-3-acetic acid) and auxin concentrations (0.0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4,
or 5 gL) on various root morphological traits of cuttings in the aeroponic chamber.
Amongst all the auxins tested, significant effects on the length, number and percent-
age of rooting was observed in IBA treated nodal cuttings. All the plants sprouted
and rooted aeroponically survived on transfer to soil. This is the first report of clonal
propagation in an aeroponic system for these plants. This study suggests aeropon-
ics as an economic method for rapid root induction and clonal propagation of these
three endangered and medicinally important plants which require focused efforts on
conservation and sustainable utilization.
USA
Cytotoxic and Other Withanolides from Aeroponically Grown Physalis philadel-
phica (Xu et al., 2018).
Xu, Ya-Ming et al., Natural Products Center, School of Natural
Resources and the Environment, College of Agriculture and Life
Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.
Eleven withanolides including six previously undescribed compounds, 16β-

hydroxyixocarpanolide, 24,25-dihydroexodeconolide C, 16,17-dehydro-24-epi-
dioscorolide A, 17-epi-philadelphicalactone A, 16-deoxyphiladelphicalactone C, and
4-deoxyixocarpalactone A from aeroponically grown Physalis philadelphica were
isolated. Structures of these withanolides were elucidated by the analysis of their
spectroscopic (HRMS, 1D and 2D NMR, ECD) data and comparison with published
data for related withanolides. Cytotoxic activity of all isolated compounds was eval-
uated against a panel of five human tumor cell lines (LNCaP, ACHN, UO-31, M14
and SK-MEL-28), and normal (HFF) cells. Of these, 17-epi-philadelphicalactone A,
withaphysacarpin, philadelphicalactone C, and ixocarpalactone A exhibited cyto-
toxicity against ACHN, UO-31, M14 and SK-MEL-28, but showed no toxicity to
HFF cells.
USA
Aeroponic and Hydroponic Systems for Medicinal Herb, Rhizome, and Root Crops
(Hayden, 2006).
Hayden, Anita L., Native American Botanics Corporation, Tucson, AZ, USA.
Crop production systems using perlite hydroponics, nutrient film technique (NFT),
ebb and flow, and aeroponics for various root, rhizome, and herb leaf crops were
studied. Hydroponic and aeroponic production of medicinal crops in controlled
environments provides opportunities for improving quality, purity, consistency,
bioactivity, and biomass production on a commercial scale. Ideally, the goal is to

optimize the environment and systems to maximize all five characteristics. Biomass
data comparing aeroponic vs. soil-less culture or field grown production of burdock
root (Arctium lappa), stinging nettles herb and rhizome (Urtica dioica), and yerba
mansa root and rhizome (Anemopsis californica) were presented, as well as smaller
scale projects observing ginger rhizome (Zingiber officinale) and skullcap herb
(Scutellaria lateriflora). Phytochemical concentration of marker compounds for bur-
dock and yerba mansa in different growing systems were presented.
USA
Unusual Withanolides from Aeroponically Grown Withania somnifera (Xu et al.,
2011).
Xu, Ya-ming et al., Southwest Center for Natural Products Research and
Commercialization, School of Natural Resources and the Environment, College
of Agriculture and Life Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.
The effect of growing the medicinal plant Withania somnifera under soil-less aeroponic
conditions on its ability to produce withaferin A and withanolides was investigated.
It resulted in the isolation and characterization of two compounds, 3α-(uracil-1-yl)-
2,3-dihydrowithaferin A (1) and 3β-(adenin-9-yl)-2,3-dihydrowithaferin A (2), in
addition to 10 known withanolides including 2,3-dihydrowithaferin A-3β-O-sulfate.
3β-O-Butyl-2,3-dihydrowithaferin A (3), presumably an artifact formed from witha-
ferin A during the isolation process was also encountered. Reaction of withaferin A
with uracil afforded 1 and its epimer, 3β-(uracil-1-yl)-2,3-dihydrowithaferin A (4).
The structures of these compounds were elucidated on the basis of their high resolu-
tion mass and NMR spectroscopic data.
USA
2,3-Dihydrowithaferin A-3β-O-Sulfate, A New Potential Prodrug of Withaferin A
from Aeroponically Grown Withania somnifera (Xu et al., 2009).
Xu, Ya-ming et al., Southwest Center for Natural Products Research and
Commercialization, Office of Arid Lands Studies, College of Agriculture
and Life Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.
The discovery of a new prodrug was reported that was produced by a medicinal
plant Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal commonly called ashwagandha when cul-
tured using an aeroponic technique. The new prodrug was the natural product,
2,3-dihydrowithaferin A-3β-O-sulfate (1), as the predominant constituent of metha-
nolic extracts prepared from aerial tissues. Preparations of the roots of the medici-
nal plant Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal commonly called ashwagandha have been
used for millennia in the Ayurvedic medical tradition of India as a general tonic
to relieve stress and enhance health, especially in the elderly. In modern times,
ashwagandha has been shown to possess intriguing antiangiogenic and anticancer
activity, largely attributable to the presence of the steroidal lactone withaferin A as
the major constituent.
USA
17β-Hydroxy-18-Acetoxywithanolides from Aeroponically Grown Physalis crassifo-
lia and Their Potent and Selective Cytotoxicity for Prostate Cancer Cells (Xu et al.,
2016).
Ya-ming Xu et al., Natural Products Center, School of Natural
Resources and the Environment, College of Agriculture and Life
Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA.
Withanolides 1–11 and 16 from Physalis crassifolia that produced 11 new witha-
nolides (1–11) and seven known withanolides (12–18) including those obtained
from the wild-crafted plant using aeroponic growth conditions for their poten-
tial anticancer activity using five tumor cell lines were evaluated. The structures
of the new withanolides were elucidated by the application of spectroscopic
techniques and the known withanolides were identified by comparison of their
spectroscopic data. Of these, the 17β-hydroxy-18-acetoxywithanolides 1, 2, 6, 7,
and 16 showed potent antiproliferative activity, with some having selectivity for
prostate adenocarcinoma (LNCaP and PC-3M) compared to the breast adeno-
carcinoma (MCF-7), non–small-cell lung cancer (NCI-H460), and CNS glioma
(SF-268) cell lines used. The cytotoxicity data obtained for 12–15, 17, and 19
have provided additional structure-activity relationship information for the
17β-hydroxy-18-acetoxywithanolides.
USA
Biomass Production and Withaferin A Synthesis by Withania somnifera Grown in
Aeroponics and Hydroponics (von Bieberstein et al., 2014).
von Bieberstein, Philipp et al., Southwest Center for Natural Products Research
and Commercialization, School of Natural Resources & Environment, College
of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.
The synthesis of withaferin A found in the medicinal herb Withania somnifera (L.)
Dunal (Solanaceae) was studied. This plant was grown in two soil-less systems to
determine optimal conditions for production of biomass and withaferin A, the major
secondary metabolite responsible for its claimed medicinal properties. Withaferin A
content was analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The
results show that there was no statistically significant difference (P > 0.05; t test)
in biomass production between the plants grown aeroponically and hydroponically.
Aeroponically grown plants produced an average of 49.8 g dried aerial plant material
(DW) (sd 20.7) per plant, whereas hydroponically grown plants produced an aver-
age of 57.6 g W (sd 16.0). In contrast, withaferin A content was statistically higher
in plants grown hydroponically. These plants contained an average of 7.8 mg/g DW
(sd 0.3), whereas the aeroponically grown plants contained an average of 5.9 mg/g
DW (sd 0.6). These results demonstrate that hydroponic techniques are optimal
in reproducibly and efficiently generating withaferin A. These findings may be of
importance to the natural products industry in seeking to maximize production of
biologically active compounds from medicinal plants.
UK
Root Phenomics of Crops: Opportunities and Challenges (Gregory et al., 2009).
Peter J. Gregory et al., Department of Soil Science, School of Human and
Environmental Sciences, The University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading, UK.
Small root systems grown in solid media using X-ray microtomography 3D nonin-
vasive technique were measured. Reliable techniques for screening large numbers of
plants for root traits are still being developed, but include aeroponic, hydroponic and
agar plate systems. Coupled with digital cameras and image analysis software, these
systems permit the rapid measurement of root numbers, length, and diameter in moder-
ate (typically <1,000) numbers of plants. Usually such systems are used with relatively
small seedlings, and information is recorded in 2D. However, because of the time taken
to scan samples, only a small number can be screened (typically <10 per day, not includ-
ing analysis time of the large spatial datasets generated) and, depending on sample
size, limited resolution may mean that fine roots remain unresolved. Developments in
instruments and software mean that a combination of high-throughput simple screens
and more in-depth examination of root–soil interactions is becoming viable.
France
From Bioreactor to Entire Plants: Development of Production Systems for Secondary
Metabolites (Nguyen et al., 2013).
Nguyen, Thi Khieu Oanh et al., Plant Biology & Innovation, Université de
Picardie Jules Verne, Faculty of Sciences, Ilot des poulies, Amiens, France.
The production of tropane alkaloids from Datura innoxia and furanocoumarins from
Ruta graveolens using hydroponics and aeroponics were studied. These techniques
situated in-between field and fermentor scales, enable the entire plants to be used as
efficient bioreactors. The production of secondary metabolites, and more specifically
alkaloids, from medicinal plants is still an important objective for many research
programs. When natural lead compounds have been discovered and when chemical
synthesis cannot be easily performed, the extraction and purification of biomolecules
from entire plants is generally the preferred solution. However, it is now established
that plant cells and tissue cultures in bioreactors can constitute an alternative solu-
tion to this agronomical approach. Revisiting scientific advances made in the past
decades, the ethical, legal, biological, and technological aspects are discussed in the
light of the most recent literature, in order to establish a roadmap for further develop-
ments of plant secondary metabolite production systems.
MUSKMELON
China
Effects of Elevated Rhizosphere Carbon Dioxide Concentration on the Photosynthetic
Characteristics, Yield, and Quality of Muskmelon (Liu et al., 2013).
Liu Yi-ling et al., College of Horticulture, Shenyang
Agricultural University, Shenyang, China.
The effects of elevated rhizosphere carbon dioxide concentration on the leaf photo-
synthesis and the fruit yield and quality of muskmelon during its anthesis-fruiting
period using an aeroponics culture system was studied. In the fruit development
period of muskmelon, as compared with those in the control (350 μL carbon
dioxide/L), the leaf chlorophyll content, net photosynthetic rate (Pn), stomatal
conductance (Gs), intercellular carbon dioxide concentration (Ci), and the maxi-
mal photochemical efficiency of PSII(Fv/Fm) in treatments 2,500 and 5,000 μL
carbon dioxide/L decreased to some extents, but the stomatal limitation value
(Ls) increased significantly, and the variation amplitudes were larger in treatment
5,000 μL CO2/L than in treatment 2,500 μL carbon dioxide/L. Under the effects of
elevated rhizosphere carbon dioxide concentration, the fruit yield per plant and the
Vc and soluble sugar contents in fruits decreased markedly, while the fruit organic
acid content was in adverse. It was suggested that when the rhizosphere carbon
dioxide concentration of muskmelon during its anthesis-fruiting period reached to
2,500 μL/L, the leaf photosynthesis and fruit development of muskmelon would be
depressed obviously, which would result in the decrease of fruit yield and quality
of muskmelon.
China
Impacts of Root-Zone Hypoxia Stress on Muskmelon Growth, its Root Respiratory
Metabolism, and Antioxidative Enzyme Activities (Liu et al., 2010).
Liu Yi-ling et al., College of Horticulture, Shenyang
Agricultural University, Shenyang, China.
The impacts of root-zone hypoxia(10% and 5% oxygen)stress on the plant growth,

root respiratory metabolism, and antioxidative enzyme activities of muskmelon at its
fruit development stage using an aeroponics culture system was studied. Root-zone
hypoxia stress inhibited the plant growth of muskmelon, resulting in the decrease of
plant height, root length, and fresh and dry biomass. Comparing with the control (21%
oxygen), hypoxia stress reduced the root respiration rate and malate dehydrogenase
(MDH) activity significantly, and the impact of 5% oxygen stress was more serious
than that of 10% oxygen stress. Under hypoxic conditions, the lactate dehydrogenase
(LDH), alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC), superoxide
dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and catalase (CAT) activities and the malondi-
aldehyde (MDA) content were significantly higher than the control. The increment of
antioxidative enzyme activities under 10% oxygen stress was significantly higher than
that under 5% oxygen stress, while the MDA content was higher under 5% oxygen
stress than under 10% oxygen stress, suggesting that when the root-zone oxygen con-
centration was below 10%, the aerobic respiration of muskmelon at its fruit develop-
ment stage was obviously inhibited while the anaerobic respiration was accelerated,
and the root antioxidative enzymes induced defense reaction. With the increasing
duration of hypoxic stress, the lipid peroxidation would be aggravated, resulting in
the damages on muskmelon roots, inhibition of plant growth, and decrease of fruit
yield and quality.
NUTRIENTS
China
Responses of Polygonatum odoratum Seedlings in Aeroponic Culture to Treatments
of Different Ammonium: Nitrate Ratios (Zou et al., 2017).
Zou, Tingting et al., Collaborative Innovation Center for
Field Weeds Control of Hunan Province, Hunan University of
Humanities, Science and Technology, Loudi, China.
The most favorable nitrogen (N) source ratio of ammonium (NH4+) to nitrate
(NO3−) for aeroponic culture of Chinese fragrant solomonseal Polygonatum
odoratum(Mill.) seedlings were determined. Seedlings were cultured with solu-
tions based on 50% Hoagland formula containing 0:100, 10:90, 20:80, and 30:70
NH4+:NO3− ratios for 21 days. Activities of anti-oxidant enzymes and glutathione
contents of leaves with treatments of 10:90 and 20:80 NH4+:NO3− ratios were higher
than that of all-nitrate treatment, and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations were
lower than that of all-nitrate treatment. These results supported that moderate pro-
portion of 20% NH4+ in the solution provided optimal growth condition for (P)P.
odoratumaeroponic culture.
Germany
The Influence of Lead Ions on the Productivity and Content of Minerals in Phaseolus
vulgaris L. in Hydroponics and Aeroponics (Engenhart, 1984).
Engenhart, Manfred, Department of Ecology, University of Bielefeld, Germany.
The effect of lead ions on productivity and content of minerals of Phaseolus vul-
garis L. was investigated. Plants were grown in hydroponics and aeroponics systems.
The water supply under aeroponic conditions was lower than with hydroponics.
Aeroponic plants treated with 5 ppm lead showed significant decrease in productiv-
ity. Especially the growth of roots was negatively influenced by lead. However, addi-
tion of 10 ppm lead in hydroponics had little effect on productivity when compared to
control. The influence of lead on the mineral distribution was investigated by analys-
ing water soluble potassium, calcium, magnesium and phosphate in leaves and roots.
Translocation of calcium and magnesium from the roots to the leaves was reduced in
lead treated plants in hydroponics as well as in aeroponics.
China
Experimental Study of Ultrasonic Atomizer Effects on Values of EC and pH of
Nutrient Solution (Lakhiar et al., 2018b).
Lakhiar, Imran Ali et al., School of Agricultural Equipment
Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang Jiangsu, China.
How the main parameters of ultrasonic atomizers influence key properties of the
atomized nutrient solution in an aeroponics system were studied. The Yamazaki
tomato nutrient solution was selected as a nutrient example. In this test, spraying
time and interval time were taken as quantitative factors with 12 levels (10, 20, 30,
40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, and 120 min, respectively), and ultrasonic atom-
izer frequency was taken as qualitative factor with 3 conditions (28 kHz, 107 kHz,
1.7 MHz). Based on test data, two regression formulations used to predict the values
of ΔEC, and ΔpH of atomized Yamazaki tomato nutrient solution was established
and inspected. The spraying interval time of ultrasonic atomizers had no significant
effect on EC and pH of the atomized Yamazaki tomato nutrient solution; the ultra-
sonic atomizer frequency was more effective than spraying time on the values of
EC and pH. Therefore, the high-frequency (1.7 MHz) ultrasonic atomizer is not suit-
able for aeroponics cultivation when using the Yamazaki tomato nutrient solution as
aeroponics nutrient solution.
Russia
Optimization of the automated colorimetric measurement system for pH of liquid
(Katin et al., 2017).
Katin Oleg et al., Don State Technical University, Rostov-on-Don, Russia.
A control system for the acidity of an aquatic environment was developed, which
is relevant in such branches of agriculture as hydroponics and aeroponics. A
method for measuring the pH of a liquid using a potentiometric method was
studied. In particular, the article analyzes the advantages of this method over
the use of a universal indicator paper and a color sensor for pH determination. It
describes the components, the conditions of their operation and storage and the
basic principles of the measuring system operation. The main goal of the devel-
opment and application of the measuring system described in the article is to
achieve a high degree of autonomy and automation for aeroponic and hydroponic
greenhouse complexes.
Australia
Role of Salicylic Acid in Phosphite-induced Protection Against Oomycetes; a P.
cinnamomi—Lupinus augustifolius Model System (Groves et al., 2015).
Groves, Emma et al., Centre of Phytophthora Science and Management,
Veterinary and Life Sciences Murdoch University, Australia.
Salicylic acid (SA) as an alternative, or supplementary, treatment to be used to protect

plant species was investigated. With the use of aeroponics chambers, foliar applica-
tion of phosphite, SA, and phosphite/SA to Lupinus augustifolius was assessed in
relation to root tip damage, in planta phosphite and SA concentration and lesion
development. Both phosphite and SA were measurable at the root tip within 24 h
of application, and all treatments significantly reduced the lesion length at 7 days.
However, while phosphite and SA application increased the in plants SA concentra-
tion, phosphite caused significantly more damage to the root tip by reducing root
cap layers and length than the SA, or phosphite/SA application. This study supports
the notion that phosphite-induced sensitivity may be SA-dependent, as both phos-
phite and SA were found to control P. cinnamomi and stimulate SA accumulation.
Phosphite is used to control Oomycetes in a wide range of horticultural and native

plant species worldwide. However, phosphite can be phytotoxic, and some pathogens
have exhibited a reduction in the effectiveness of phosphite due to prolonged use.
China
Effects of Different Cultivation Patterns on Nutrient and Safety Qualities of
Vegetables: A Review (Yue et al., 2015).
Hu Yue et al., Development Center of Plant Germplasm Resources, College
of Life and Environmental Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, China.
This is a review article on different vegetable cultivation patterns studied world-

wide in detail and the effects of these patterns on nutrient and safety qualities of
vegetables. With the improvement of living standards, consumers’ demand on large
amounts of vegetables with different varieties, high quality and safety standards
has promoted the rapid development of the vegetable industry, especially for the
vegetable cultivation industry. Protected cultivations of vegetables have had a great
growth in recent years, which was changing the vegetable cultivation methods from
a traditional soil planting to diversified cultivation patterns, including but not limited
to the greenhouse, substrate, hydroponics, and aeroponics cultivation systems.
Germany
Dynamics of Concentrations and Nutrient Fluxes in the Xylem of Ricinus communis—
diurnal Course, Impact of Nutrient Availability and Nutrient Uptake (Schurr et al., 2001).
Schurr, Ulrich et al., Institute of Bio- and Geosciences Jülich, Germany.
The diurnal courses of nutrient transport in the xylem and their response to external
availability of nutrients was studied. In soil culture, maximal concentrations in all
analyzed substances were observed during night-time. Over experimental periods of
up to 20 days, concentrations of some ions increased, most by accumulation in the
soil. Stringent nutrient conditions were established in a novel pressure chamber. An
aeroponic nutrient delivery system inside allows the sampling of xylem sap from
intact plants under full control of the nutrient conditions at the root. Analysis of
xylem transport under these highly defined conditions established that: (1) diurnal
variations in concentrations and fluxes in the xylem are dominated by plant-internal
processes; (2) concentrations of nutrients in the xylem sap are highly but specifically
correlated with each other; (3) nitrate uptake and nitrate flux to the shoot are largely
uncoupled; and (4) in continuous light, diurnal variations of xylem sap concentra-
tions vanish. Diurnal variations of xylem sap composition and use of the new tech-
nique to elucidate xylem-transport mechanisms are discussed.
Indonesia
Pengaruh Tingkat EC (Electrical Conductivity) terhadap Pertumbuhan Tanaman Sawi
(Brassica juncea L.) pada Sistem Instalasi Aeroponik Vertikal (Pratiwi et al., 2015).
Pusdima Rahma Pratiwi et al., Universitas Islam Negeri
(UIN) Sunan Gunung Djati Bandung, Indonesia.
The response of mustard growth on the nutrient EC level in a vertical aeroponic sys-
tem was studied. This research was carried out in Bekasi Timur. The design used was
Randomized Block Design with four treatments that A (EC level 1 mS/cm), B (EC level
1.5 mS/cm), C (EC level 2 mS/cm), and D (EC level 2.5 mS/cm) with four replications.
The results showed that EC level had effect on plant height, root length, and wet weight.
Singapore
Growth Irradiance Effects on Productivity, Photosynthesis, Nitrate Accumulation,
and Assimilation of Aeroponically Grown Brassica alboglabra (He et al., 2015).
He, Jie et al., Natural Sciences and Science Education Academic Group,
National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
The aeroponic growth of Brassica alboglabraplants with full nutrients under full
sunlight with average midday photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of
1,200 μmol/(m2 s) was studied. Thirty days after transplanting, plants were, respec-
tively, subjected to 10 days of average midday PPFD of 1,200 (control, L1), 600 (L2)
and 300 μmol/(m2 s) (L3). Productivity, photosynthetic carbon dioxide assimilation
and stomatal conductance were significantly lower in low-light (L2 and L3) plants
than in high-light (L1) plants. Low light plants had the highest nitrate accumulation
in the petioles. Low light also had an inverse effect on total reduced N content. After
different light treatments, all plants were re-exposed to another 10 days of full sun-
light. Low-light plants demonstrated their ability to recover their photosynthetic rate,
enhance productivity and reduce the nitrate concentration. These results have led to
the recommendation of not harvesting this popular vegetable during or immediately
after cloudy weather conditions.
USA
Contamination of Ammonium-based Nutrient Solutions by Nitrifying Organisms
and the Conversion of Ammonium to Nitrate (Padgett et al., 1993).
Pamela E. Padgett et al., USDA Forest Service Pacific
Southwest Research Station, Riverside, CA, USA.
The conversion of ammonium to nitrate and contamination by nitrifying organisms in

ammonium-based nutrient solutions was studied. Maize (Zea mays) and pea (Pisum
sativum) were grown under greenhouse conditions in aeroponic, hydroponic, and sand-
culture systems containing 2 mM ammonium chloride as the sole nitrogen source and
evaluated for the activity of contaminating nitrifying organisms. In all three culture
systems, root colonization by nitrifying organisms was detected within 5 days, and
nitrate was detected in the nutrient solution within 10 days after seedling transfer. In
sand culture, solution nitrate concentration reached 0.35 mM by the end of the 17-day
experiment. Nitrate was found in significant quantities in root and shoot tissues from
seedlings grown in ammonium-based nutrient solutions in all of the solution culture
systems. Maize seedlings grown in an ammonium-based hydroponic system contained
nitrate concentrations at 40% of that found in plants grown in nitrate-based solution.
The results have implications for the use of ammonium-based nutrient solutions to
obtain plants suitable for research on induction of nitrate uptake and reduction or for
research using solution culture to compare ammonium versus nitrate fertilization.
Canada
Control of Relative Growth Rate by Application of the Relative Addition Rate
Technique to a Traditional Solution Culture System (Stadt et al., 1992).
K.J. Stadt et al., Department of Botany University of Alberta Edmonton, Canada.
Experiments to adapt the relative addition rate (RAR) technique to a conventional

solution culture system was conducted. A background concentration requirement of
36 µM nitrogen (N), with other nutrients supplied in proportion to N, was necessary
to produce a constant relative growth rate (RGR) of Triticum aestivum L. (wheat) at a
low RAR. Solution pH changes were reduced by increasing the percentage of ammo-
nium ions in the nitrogen supply, but the plants exhibited dry weight reductions and
symptoms of toxicity above 30% ammonium.
USA
Effect of Nutrient Medium pH on Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation by Rhizobium legu-
minosarum and Pisum sativum (Evans et al., 1980).
L. S. Evans et al., Laboratory of Plant Morphogenesis, Biology
Department Manhattan College, Bronx, New York, USA.
Experiments to measure the pH-sensitive steps in nodulation and symbiotic fixa-

tion by Pisum sativum and isolate RP-212-1 of Rhizobium leguminosarum were per-
formed. An aeroponic system with rigorous pH control was used to obtain numerous
effective nodules. After exposure to various pH levels, the following responses were
measured: (1) legume root growth and development, (2) survival and growth rate of
a single effective bacterial isolate, (3) degree of nodulation, (4) rate of nitrogen fixa-
tion, (5) plant biomass, and (6) nitrogen content of plants. Both bacterial growth and
root development were adequate at all pH levels from 4.4 to 6.6, but efficient nodula-
tion and nitrogen fixation did not occur at pH 4.8 and below. The processes required
for symbiosis were about 10 times as sensitive to acidity as either bacterial growth or
root growth alone. Nodulation was the most acid-sensitive step.
OLIVE
Italy
Salt Stress Modifies Apoplastic Barriers in Olive (Olea europaea L.): A Comparison
Between a Salt-Tolerant and a Salt-Sensitive Cultivar (Rossi et al., 2015).
Rossi, Lorenzo et al., BioLabs—Institute of Life Sciences,
Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Pisa, Italy.
Frantoio and Leccino were studied and found that they differentially avoid salt intru-
sion into the roots and translocation to the shoot. They investigated the anatomi-
cal changes in olive roots under salt stress and conducted X-ray microanalysis of
frozen-hydrated samples that gave information on roots ion selectivity. They found
genotypes-depended apoplastic adjustments in roots.
Italy
Ionic Relations of Aeroponically Grown Olive Genotypes, During Salt Stress
(Tattini, 1994).
Tattini, Massimiliano, Istituto sulla Propagazione delle Specie Legnose,
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Scandicci, Florence, Italy.
Two olive (Olea europaea L.) genotypes, ‘Frantoio’ and ‘Leccino’, by exposing them
to increasing concentrations of NaCl (0–30–60–120 mM) in an aeroponic cultivation
system for 60 days were studied. Dry weights and sodium and potassium contents of
apical and basal leaves, new and old wood, and roots were measured to determine
Na uptake rate, Na translocation rate and K-Na selectivity ratio (SK, Na). ‘Frantoio’
showed a higher salt resistance than ‘Leccino’. ‘Frantoio’ and ‘Leccino’ had a simi-
lar Na uptake rate, but largely differed for Na translocation to the shoot. Furthermore
‘Frantoio’ exhibited a higher K-Na selectivity than ‘Leccino’ at both whole plant
level and above all at the level of shoot system. Resistance mechanism of ‘Frantoio’
is probably related to Na exclusion by roots and to the ability to maintain an appro-
priate K/Na ratio in actively growing tissues.
PEA
USA
Aeroponics Chambers for Evaluating Resistance to Aphanomyces Root Rot of Peas
(Pisum sativum) (Rao et al., 1995).
Rao, A. et al., University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
An aeroponics system for evaluating resistance of peas to Aphanomyces euteiches

was studied. Five pea genotypes were tested for resistance to two isolates of A. eutei-
ches at concentrations of 0–10,000 zoospores per milliliter. Pea genotypes reacted
differently to isolates of A. euteiches. Genotype 86–2231 demonstrated the low-
est amount of disease and Dark Skin Perfection the highest. Isolate 467 produced
consistently higher disease scores than isolate FB1. Inoculum concentration and
isolate × concentration effects were significant. This study provides evidence that an
aeroponics system can be useful in evaluating the reaction of peas to A. euteiches.
USA
Correlation of Pectolytic Enzyme Activity with the Programmed Release of Cells
from Root Caps of Pea (Pisum sativum) (Hawes et al., 1990).
Martha C. Hawes et al., Department of Soil, Water and Environmental
Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA.
The separation of the cells in pea (Pisum sativum) were studied using an aeroponic
system in which separated cells were retained on the root until they were washed
off for counting. It was found that cell separation is a developmentally regulated,
temperature-sensitive process that appears to be regulated independently of root
growth. No cells were released from very young roots. When plants were grown
aeroponically, cell numbers increased with increasing root length to a mean of 3,400
cells per root, at which point the release of new cells ceased. The process could
be reset and synchronized by washing the root in water to remove shed cells. Cell
separation from the root cap was correlated with pectolytic enzyme activity in root
cap tissue. Because these cells that separate from the root cap ensheath the root as it
grows and thus provide a cellular interface between the root surface and the soil, it
was propose the cells be called “root border cells.”
PEANUT
Israel
Response of Peanuts (Arachis hypogaea L.) grown in Saline Nutrient Solution to
Potassium Nitrate (Silberbush et al., 1988).
Silberbush, M. et al., Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, J.
Blaustein Institute for Desert Research, Sede-Boqer, Israel.
The use of potassium nitrate (KNO3) as a means to reduce salt damage to peanuts
(Arachis hypogaea L.) in sprayhydroponics (aeroponics) with 50 mM NaCl and 1,
3, 5, 7, and 9 mM KNO3 was tested. The addition of KNO3 caused an increase in
dry weight of the shoot, root length, chlorophyll content, nitrate reductase activ-
ity, and the reduction of salt injury symptoms in the leaves with an optimum at
5–7 mM KNO3. None of these factors was correlated with proline content. Mean
root diameter was abnormally thick in low KNO3 concentrations and became thin-
ner in higher KNO3 concentrations, reaching the lowest value at about 6 mM KNO3.
Concentrations of Na+ and CI− in the shoot, but not in the root, decreased with the
increase in KNO3 concentration. It is suggested that K+ and NO3-inhibited Na+ and
CI− translocation from the roots to the shoots so that leaf metabolism was protected
against salt damage.
PEPPER
China
Pyramid Shaped Hydroponic and Aeroponic Technology—a New Technology for
Pepper Cultivation (Chen et al., 2017).
Yinhua Chen et al., Lishui Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lishui, China.
This is a review paper on a pyramid-shape aeroponic system including the base

construction, the process of cultivation, and the daily management requirements for
growing pepper.
Evaluation of Hydroponic Techniques on Growth and Productivity of Greenhouse
Grown Bell Pepper and Strawberry (Albaho et al., 2008).
Kuwait
Albaho, M. et al., Desert Agriculture and Ecosystems Program,
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait City, Kuwait.
Two hydroponic techniques, i.e., nutrient film technique and A-shaped aeroponics,
were evaluated and a closed insulated pallet system based on continuous subirriga-
tion system with fertilizers in reservoirs to ensure a reserve within the root zone
and compared them to the conventional soil-based cultivation method (control) in
Kuwait. The experiment was conducted in an acrylic covered greenhouse having an
evaporative cooling system with ambient temperatures ranging from 15°C to 20°C
at night and 24°C to 35°C during the day throughout the period from October 2005
to May 2006. Vegetative growth, flowering, and fruiting of bell pepper (Capsicum
annuum L. cv. Yara) and strawberry (Fragaria versca L. cv. Americana Porter) were
evaluated. Yields were lower in the closed systems than for the control. There were
significant differences between amounts of water consumed in the soil-less tech-
niques with consumption ranging from 42.9% to 62.9% of the control for peppers
and 54.3%–79.1% for strawberry.
PETUNIA
USA
Stem Versus Foliar Uptake during Propagation of Petunia x hybrida Vegetative
Cuttings (Santos et al., 2009).
Santos, Kathryn M. et al., Department of Environmental
Horticulture, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
Gene expression patterns associated with suberization at the stem scar region using
aeroponic technology were identified. Changes in the relative abundance of differ-
ent transcripts suggested a potential involvement of the plant hormone abscisic acid
(ABA) in the wound‐healing processes.
POTATOES
Indonesia
Seed Potato Production Using Aeroponics System with Zone Cooling in Wet Tropical
Lowlands (Sumarni et al., 2013).
Sumarni, E. et al., Universitas Jenderal Soedirman,
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Indonesia.
The methodology to determine the appropriate cooling zone temperature on seed potato
production in wet tropical lowlands was developed. Planting potatoes in wet tropical
lowland is one alternative to help farmers and protect the environment. Cultivation
techniques used in this study were the aeroponics system with three cooling zones
(10°C, 15°C, and 20°C) and control (room temperature). The ‘Granola’ potato seeds
were used in the experiment, and were derived from tissue culture. The results showed
that the cooling zone could reduce the stress on the potato roots cultivated by aeropon-
ics in wet tropical lowlands, although burning wilt also happened due to high tempera-
tures in the plant canopy. Further studies are needed to control the temperature at the
top of the plant to prevent the plants from burning wilt due to high temperature stress.
UK
Response of three potato cultivars grown in a novel aeroponics system for mini-tuber
seed production (Mateus-Rodruguez et al., 2012).
Mateus-Rodruguez, J. et al., Crop Sciences, University of Reading, UK.
Mini-tuber production based on a novel, rustic and publicly available aeroponics

system at the International Potato Center (CIP) was developed. The technology is
proposed as an alternative to conventional systems of pre-basic seed (mini-tuber)
production that use soil-based substrates requiring bromide for sterilization. Previous
research has shown that the aeroponics technology is potentially efficient for specific
potato cultivars. The overall objective of this study was to evaluate plant growth and
mini-tuber production of three potato cultivars grown in an aeroponics system under
greenhouse conditions at CIP’s experimental station in La Molina, Lima (Peru). The
study was conducted between August 2008 and April 2009. The results showed that
the aeroponics system is a viable technological alternative for the potato mini-tuber
production component within a potato tuber seed system.
UK
Potato minituber production at different plant densities using an aeroponic system
(Abdullateef et al., 2012).
Abdullateef, S. et al., School of Agriculture, Policy
and Development, University of UK.
The effect of plant density (25, 35, and 50 plants/m2) on minituber production in
aeroponics was investigated. The aeroponic cultivation system consisted of 18 sec-
tions covered by Styrodur℗’ sheets. Nutrient solution was sprayed by fog nozzles
every 5 min for 20 s. Potato plantlets (Solanum tuberosum L. ‘Marfona’) obtained by
in vitro cultivation were acclimatised in the greenhouse and then planted in small
rockwool cubes which were fixed in holes in the Styrodur℗’ sheets.
Brazil/USA
Evaluation of “UFV Aeroponic System” to Produce Basic Potato Seed Minitubers
(da Silva et al., 2018).
A collaborative study between Federal University of
Viçosa, Brazil (de Silva et al) and Department of Botany,
University of California Riverside (M McGiffen).
Misting nozzle types and the coating on the bucket’s inner wall on the yield of basic
potato minitubers were evaluated. Dry weight of roots, stems and leaves besides
minituber number and tuber fresh weight were evaluated.
India
Effect of Micro-Plants Hardening on Aeroponic Potato Seed Production (Muthuraj
et al., 2016).
Muthuraj et al., ICAR, Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Kerala, India.
A study was conducted at the four potato research institutes (Thiruvananthapuram), to

evaluate micro-plants hardening on aeroponic potato seed production in Bangladesh
and its impact on its economics.
India
Feasibility Studies for Two Consecutive Crops of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)
under Aeroponic System in North-Western Plains of India (Singh et al., 2017).
Singh et al., Central Potato Research Station and the Punjab
Technical University, Jalandhar, Punjab, India.
Feasibility studies were conducted to optimize the use of aeroponic technology for
fast multiplication of basic seed stocks from in vitro plantlets. To make better use of
expensive aeroponics facility, two production cycles of consecutive crops per year
were tried. Experiment was conducted at ICAR-Central Potato Research Station,
Jalandhar, Punjab, on three varieties and two hardening mediums before planting to
aeroponic system for two consecutive crops. All the three varieties performed well
during main season but Kufri Surya emerged as the best performing variety under
aeroponics during second consecutive season.
Ethiopia
Determination of Nutrient Solutions for Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) Seed
Production under Aeroponics Production System (Lemma et al., 2017).
Tessema Lemma et al., Ethopian Institute of Agricultural
Research, Holette Agricultural Research Center, Ethopia.
Aeroponic nutrient solutions for the production of high yield clean potato seed at the
Holetta Agricultural Research Center were determined. Each crop has an optimum
nutritional requirement. Even each potato cultivar may require a specific nutrient solu-
tion in an aeroponics unit. It was determined that treatment B represented the optimum
nutrient concentration rate to use in an aeroponics minituber production system under.
India
Review: Methods of Pre-Basic Seed Potato Production with Special Reference to
Aeroponics—A Review (Buckseth et al., 2016).
Buckseth, T et al., Central Potato Research Institutes,
Shimla, Kufri, Thiruvananthapuram Kerala, India.
This paper reviewed methods for pre-basic seed potato production at the Central
Potato Research Institutes, Shimla, Kufri, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. The
aeroponics technology provided the good quality seed of potato and mitigated the
problem of shortage of good quality seeds and strategies for rapidly multiply the seed
tubers. The cost of growing a tuber using aeroponics is about one-quarter the cost of
a conventionally—grown tuber.
Turkey
Mini Tuber Production in Potato Via Aeroponic System (Hussein et al., 2018).
Hussein A. et al, Siirt University, Siirt, Turkey.
Evaluation of an aeroponic system for tuber production was conducted. The aero-
ponic system, which is independent of climatic conditions, has the advantage of
improving the vegetative growth, delaying tuber formation, prolonging the veg-
etative period, increasing the tuber yield per plant and total tuber yield while
decreasing the tuber weight. Due to the problems experienced in potato seedling
tuber production in recent years, it emerged as an alternative production system
for Turkey.
Brazil
Electrical Conductivity of the Nutrient Solution and Plant Density in Aeroponic
Production of Seed Potato Under Tropical Conditions (Calori et al., 2017).
Calori, Alex Humberto et al., Instituto Agronômico de Campinas, Brazil.
The influence of electrical conductivity of the nutrient solution and plant density on
the seed potato minitubers production in aeroponics system was studied. The Agata
and Asterix cultivars were produced in a greenhouse under tropical conditions. For
both cultivars, the highest yield was observed for the 100 plants∙sqm density.
Indonesia
G0 Seed Potential of The Aeroponics Potatoes Seed In The Lowlands With A Root
Zone Cooling Into G1 In The Highlands (Sumarni et al., 2016).
Eni Sumarni et al, Syiah Kuala University, Indonesia.
Due to the challenges of growing potato seeds in a temperate zone, this study was
conducted in 2016 to evaluate a modified root zone cooling method of an aeroponic
system to produce high quality of tuber seeds in lowland. The First Generations
(G0) of var. Atlantic and var. Granola were used as plant materials, and random-
ized block design (RBD) with four replications was applied in this research. The
comparison of seed weight between G 0 and G1 was about 10 g and 54 g on average,
respectively. Since the size and weight of such G1 could be categorized as Large
(L) in term of commercial seed market, it’s implied that the lowland modified aero-
phonic system could be nominated as a prospective method for producing G0 tuber
seed in the future.
United Arab Emirates

Evaluating Potential Production of Mid-Late Maturing Minituber of Potato Cultivars
and Promising Clones under Aeroponic System (Hassanpanah, 2014).
D. Hassanpanah, Islamic Azad University, UAE.
Potential production of mid-late maturing mini-tuber clones and cultivars using an

aeroponic system during 2011–2013 in both laboratory and greenhouse of Ardabil
Sabalan Behparvar Company were investigated. Five clones and cultivars (three
promising clones 397009-3, 397082-10, and 397081-1, and two cultivars, Khavaran
and Agria) were evaluated in completely randomized designs with three replications.
Mean mini-tuber weight per square meter in aeroponic system was 6.16 g.
Colombia/Peru
Genotype by Environment Effects on Potato Mini-Tuber Seed Production in an
Aeroponics System (Mateus-Rodriguez et al., 2014).
Julián F. Mateus-Rodriguez et al., Corporación Colombiana de Investigación
Agropecuaria (CORPOICA) and International Potato Center (CIP), Lima, Peru.
Experiments were conducted to evaluate the environmental effect on plant develop-

ment and mini-tuber production of a diverse group of potato genotypes grown under
an aeroponic system was carried out in greenhouses located at La Molina (Lima)
and Huancayo (Junín). Five contrasting environments were set-up and evaluated.
A combined Analysis of Variance was performed for the variables “days to tuber
set”, “days to senescence” and “plant height”. The Venturana variety (T2) was the
best performing genotype with a total average mini-tuber “weight” of 644 g/plant
while the Chucmarina variety (T1) performed best for the variable “number of mini-
tubers” with an overall average of 60.2 mini-tubers per plant. It was recommended
that the environment and management should ideally be tailored to the genotype as
this will result in significant yield gains.
Canada
A Low Nutrient Solution Temperature and the Application of Stress Treatments
Increase Potato Mini-tubers Production in an Aeroponic System (Oraby et al., 2015).
Oraby, Hesham et al., Institute of Nutrition and Functional
Food, Laval University, Québec, Canada.
This study was conducted to test the impact of the nutrient solution temperature and
the application of different stress treatments at tuberization on several growth vari-
ables for two potato cultivars grown in an aeroponic system. At 25 days after trans-
planting, low pH level, wilting stress and nitrogen withdrawal under warm (24°C)
and cool (18°C) root-zone temperatures were applied to potato plants cv. Mystere
and Chieftain. Significant differences in mini-tuber production, stolon number and
length and root length were observed among root zone temperatures, stress treat-
ments and cultivars. The results of this study demonstrate that a judicious use of
these stresses can effectively promote tuberization in aeroponics.
Spain
Differential Growth Response and Minituber Production of Three Potato Cultivars
under Aeroponics and Greenhouse Bed Culture (Tierno et al., 2014).
Tierno, Roberto et al., Basque Institute of Agricultural
Research and Development, Spain.
Different methods and cultivars for the production of quality prebasic seed in potato
were evaluated and compared. Two cultivation systems, aeroponics and greenhouse
beds with a peat moss substrate, and three potato cultivars with different vegeta-
tive cycle, Agria, Monalisa and Zorba, were assayed. Plants in the aeroponic system
showed increased growth and their vegetative cycle extended between 12% and 36%
compared to the plants cultivated in greenhouse beds. Further studies are needed to
optimize aeroponics system, which can be considered a high yield potato multiplica-
tion system, particularly for early or mid season potato cultivars that may produce
best quality minitubers.
Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Brazil

Technical and Economic Analysis of Aeroponics and Other Systems for Potato Mini-
Tuber Production in Latin America (Mateus-Rodriguez et al., 2013).
J. R. Mateus-Rodriguez et al., Tibaitatá Research Center, Corporación
Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria, Mosquera, Colombia, the
International Potato Center (CIP), Avenida La Molina, Lima, Peru,
International Potato Center, Quito, Ecuador, Empresa Brasileira de
Pesquisa Agropecuaria, Clima Temperado, Pelotas, RS, Brazil, Instituto
Nacional Autónomo de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, Quito, Ecuador.
This study systematized the technical and economic aspects of aeroponics and pro-
vided a benchmark comparison of this technology with other mini-tuber production
systems as developed in Latin America: conventional, semi-hydroponics, and fiber-
cement tiles technology. Research methodologies included: three-year registration
of cash flows and production registers of aeroponics, economic and technical sur-
veys, in-depth inquiry with managers of technologies. The results show that aero-
ponics as promoted by the International Potato Center (CIP) has several advantages,
including high multiplication rates (up to 1:45), high production efficiency per area
(>900 mini-tubers/m), savings in water, chemicals and/or energy, and positive eco-
nomic indicators.
Indonesia
Effect of Electrical Conductivity (EC) in the Nutrition Solution on Aeroponic Potato
Seed Production with Root Zone Cooling Application in Tropical Lowland (Sumarni
et al., 2019).
Eni Sumarni et al., Departement of Agricultural Technology. Faculty
of Agricultural. Jenderal Soedirman University, Indonesia.
Production of potato seeds aeroponically in wet tropical lowland with root zone cool-
ing application has been successful. This study focuses on the impact of electrical
conductivity (EC) concentration of potato seed growth and yield on aeroponics sys-
tem with root zone cooling application in the lowland. The purpose of this research
was to study and understand the effect of EC of the nutrition solution on growth and
yield of potato seed on potato seed production aeroponically with root zone cooling
application in tropical lowland. It was concluded that the best EC for potato seed
production with aeroponics system root zone cooling application was EC 1 mS/cm
in the first 3 weeks, and 4 mS/cm in the 4th week to harvest.
Indonesia
Aplikasi Zone Cooling pada Sistem Aeroponik Kentang di Daratan Medium Tropika
Basah (Nurwahkyuningsih, 2013).
Nurwahkyuningsih et al., Program Studi Teknik Pertanian, Unsoed, Jl.dr.
Soeparno Karangwangkal Purwokerto, 53113. Email: arny0879@yahoo.com.
A study was conducted to obtain an appropriate cooling temperature on seed potato

production in medium land. Aeroponic cultivation techniques used with three zone
cooling (15°C, 19°C and 24°C) and controls. Potato varieties used in this study is
Granola is from tissue culture. The results showed that the highest plant cooling
obtained at day and night regions 19°C and 24°C at night. The highest number of
leaves was obtained at 24°C day and night. The highest number of tubers obtained
at 19°C day and night.
Malawi
Performance of different potato genotypes under aeroponics system (Chipanthenga
et al., 2013).
Chipanthenga, Margaret et al., Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water
Development, Department of Agricultural Research Services, Lilongwe, Malawi.
This study was aimed at exploring the use of tissue culture and aeroponics techniques
in the production of quality potato seed. Potato plantlets were produced in the tissue
culture laboratory at Bvumbwe Research Station, Thyolo district of Malawi and then
transferred to an aeroponics facility at Njuli Estate, Chiradzulu district of Malawi.
Potato yields in developing countries are below potential yield because potato pro-
duction is mainly constrained by lack of quality seed. Lack of potato seed systems
to provide farmers with quality clean and certified potato seed has led majority of
farmers save their own seed. Such potato seed is characterized by systemic viral and
bacterial diseases that are transmitted from generation to generation and this leads to
low crop yields. In this study, on an average 30 tubers were produced per plant under
aeroponics system which is six times more than the conventional (use of soil-based
substrate) seed potato production system under screen house conditions (5 tubers per
plant) under Malawian conditions.
Spain
Comparison of hydroponic and aeroponic cultivation systems for the production of
potato minitubers (Ritter et al., 2001).
Ritter, E. et al., NEIKER-Instituto Vasco de Investigación
y Desarrollo AgrarioVitoria-Gasteiz, Spain.
Two cultivation systems, aeroponics and hydroponics in greenhouse beds for the
production of potato minitubers were studied. Plants in the aeroponic system
showed increased vegetative growth, delayed tuber formation and an extended vege-
tative cycle of about 7 months after transplanting. Therefore in 1999, two production
cycles were obtained with the hydroponic system, but only one with the aeroponic
system. However, compared with total production in hydroponics, the tuber yield
per plant in the aeroponic system was almost 70% higher and tuber number more
than 2.5 fold higher.
Spain
Potato minituber production using aeroponics: Effect of plant density and harvesting
intervals (Farran et al., 2006).
Farran, Imma et al., Department of Plant ProductionInstitute
of Agrobiotechnology, Navarra, Spain.
A study was conducted to optimize minituber production through aeroponics. Potato

plantlets, cv Zorba, were grown aeroponically at two different plant densities (60
and 100 plants/m2). Plants showed an extended vegetative cycle of about 5 months
after planting. A higher number of stolons was obtained at low plant densities. The
best productivity obtained in this study was 800 minitubers/m2 for weekly harvests
and a low plant density (60 plants/m2).
China
Manipulating Aeroponically Grown Potatoes with Gibberellins and Calcium Nitrate
(Wang et al., 2018).
Wang, Cui-Cun et al., Sichuan Academy of Agricultural
Sciences Crop Research Institute, Chengdu, China.
A study was conducted to maximize tuber number and yield in an aeropon-

ics production system. Manipulating the plants hormonal makeup is a strategy.
GA3(GA), Calcium Nitrate (CaN) and their combination were foliarly applied
several times to potato plants of cvs. Favorita and Mira during both the autumn
and spring growing seasons in a semi tropical setting in Sichuan. For the cv.
Favorita, CaN + GA and GA increased tuber weight per plant by 63% and 49% in
autumn and 53% and 73% in spring, respectively, as compared to the control(CK);
tuber number per plant under CaN + GA and GA treatments increased by 90%
and 85% in autumn and 35% and 52% in spring, respectively. Tuber numbers over
1,400/m 2 were harvested with cv. Mira during the spring season with the GA and
CaN + GA treatments.
Indonesia
An Early Detection of Latent Infection of Ralstonia solanacearum on Potato Tubers
(Baharuddin, 2014).
Baharuddin et al., Department of Plantation Crop, Agriculture
Polytechnic Pangkep, Pangkep, Indonesia.
A study was conducted to determine an early and accurate detection of Ralstonia

solanacearum in potato seedsource production (G0) aeroponics cultivation system,
which previously was treated with microbial antagonists and artificially infected
with Ralstonia solanacearum. Ralstonia solanacearum is not only a soil-borne
pathogen but also a seedborne bacterial pathogen. Although the symptoms of wilt
disease appeared in plants, “the seeds did not show typical symptoms. The result
of polymerace chain reaction (PCR) using OLI1 and Y2 primers on tubers without
antagonist with 100% disease incidence showed, that all of the tubers have positive
results. From visually healthy seeds, only a few of them have positive result and
mostly other tubers showed negative result. This means that the role of antagonists
on suppression of wilt disease, cannot totally guarantee the tubers free from latent
infection of R. solanacearum.
China
Study on Optimization of Hydroponic Technology of Virus-free Potato Plantlets in
Winter in Chengdu Plain (Sang et al., 2014).
Sang, Youshun; et al., Chengdu Academy of Agricultural
and Forestry Services, Chengdu, China.
A study was conducted on the effects of different heating measures on breeding

virus-free potato plantlets with hydroponic technology. The virus-free plantlets of
potato (Favorita) were used as test material. The potato seedlings grown in heat-
ers and thermal insulation device-installed seedbed rooted 6.4 d earlier and emerged
13 d earlier compared to that in traditional seedbed. The growth of potato seedlings
grown in heaters and thermal insulation device-installed seedbed was more robust.
Their root length, stem diameter, plant height, leaf number and fresh weight were all
higher than that of traditional potato seedlings. Moreover, the fruiting of aeroponics
seedlings is also advanced. The heating hydroponics plays an important role in actual
production.
South Korea
Nutritional and Structural Response of Potato Plants to Reduced Nitrogen Supply in
Nutrient Solution (Chang et al., 2016).
Chang, Dong et al., Highland Agriculture Research Institute
National Institute of Crop Science, South Korea.
In 2008 and 2014, the nutritional and structural response of potato leaves to reduced
nitrogen (N) supply in the nutrient solution was investigated. Tissue culture plant-
lets of cultivars Atlantic and Superior were transplanted into a recirculating aero-
ponic system and grown using various nitrogen concentrations and at different time
sequences compared with control plants which were grown under a constant nitro-
gen concentration. Potato shoots grown under reduced nitrogen supply exhibited
suppression of total nitrogen (N), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) uptake, and
enhancement of phosphorus (P) uptake in the leave tissues. The suppression of N
uptake decreased shoot growth and leaf mesophyll development with inhibited chlo-
rophyll accumulation. The data indicated that careful control of nitrogen concentra-
tion is necessary to minimize possible decrease in tuberization and tuber growth,
especially for the cultivar Atlantic and during the spring season.
South Korea
Growth and Tuberization of Hydroponically Grown Potatoes (Chang et al., 2012).
Three hydroponic systems (aeroponics, aerohydroponics, and deep-water culture)

were compared for the production of potato (Solanum tuberosum) seed tubers.
Aerohydroponics was designed to improve the root zone environment of aeropon-
ics by maintaining root contact with nutrient solution in the lower part of the beds,
while intermittently spraying roots in the upper part. Root vitality, shoot fresh and
dry weight, and total leaf area were significantly higher when grown in the aeroponic
system. This better plant growth in the aeroponic system was accompanied by rapid
changes of solution pH and EC, and early tuberization. The first tuberization was
observed in aeroponics on 26–30 and 43–53 days after transplanting for cvs Superior
and Atlantic, respectively. Tuberization in aerohydroponics and deep-water culture
system occurred about 3–4 and 6–8 days later, respectively. The number of tubers
produced was greatest in the deep-water culture system, but the total tuber weight
per plant was the least in this system. For cv. Atlantic, the number of tubers <30 g
weight was higher in aerohydroponics than in aeroponics, whereas there was no
difference in the number of tubers >30 g between aerohydroponics and aeroponics.
Brazil
Potato Basic Minitubers Production in Three Hydroponic Systems (Factor et al.,
2007).
Factor, Thiago et al., Universidade Estadual Paulista, Brazil.
The production of potato basic minitubers in three hydroponic systems: aeroponic,

DFT (deep flow technique) and NFT (nutrient film technique), using cultivars Agata
and Monalisa were evaluated. The experiment was carried out under protected cul-
tivation, from May to September, 2005, in Brazil, in a completely randomized block
design, with split-plots. Tuber fresh weight and longitudinal diameter were not influ-
enced by the hydroponic systems, with average values of 6.2 g and 30.2 mm, 6.3 g
and 30.0 mm, 6.8 g and 31.0 mm, for hydroponic systems NFT, DFT and aeroponic,
respectively. Minituber yield per plant and m² was significantly higher in the aero-
ponic system (49.3 e 874.4) in comparison the NFT (39.5 e 246.6) and DFT systems
(41.6 e 458.0), respectively.
China
Effects of Elevated CO Applied to Potato Roots on the Anatomy and Ultrastructure
of Leaves (Sun et al., 2011).
Sun, Z. et al., Institute of Plant Protection, Shandong Academy
of Agricultural Sciences and General Station for Plant
Protection of Shandong Province, Jinan, China.
The root system of potato plants were treated with different oxygen and carbon
monoxide concentrations for 35 days in aeroponic culture. Using 5% and 2% oxy-
gen in the root zones, the thickness of leaves and palisade parenchyma significantly
increased at 3,600 μmol(CO) mol in the root zone, compared with CO concentration
380 μmol mol or low CO concentration (100 μmol mol). In addition, smaller cells of
palisade tissue, more intercellular air spaces and partially two layers of palisade cells
were observed in the leaves with root-zone CO enrichment. Furthermore, there was
a significant increase in the size of chloroplasts and starch grains, and the number of
starch grains per chloroplast due to elevated CO only under 21% oxygen. The accu-
mulation of starch grains in the chloroplast under elevated CO concentration could
change the arrangement of grana thylakoids and consequently inhibited the absorp-
tion of sun radiation and photosynthesis of potato plants.
South Korea
Growth and Yield Response of Three Aeroponically Grown Potato Cultivars
(Solanum tuberosum L.) to Different Electrical Conductivities of Nutrient Solution
(Chang et al., 2011).
Appropriate electrical conductivity (EC) recommendations were developed for the

nutrient solutions used in hydroponic seed potato production for two new potato
(Solanum tuberosum L.) cultivars with different maturing characteristics, Haryeong
and Jayoung. The two cultivars, along with the standard cultivar, Superior, were
grown with four nutrient solutions differing in EC (0.6, 1.2, 1.8, and 2.4 dS m). The
EC of nutrient solution did not influence photosynthetic rate (Pr) or water use effi-
ciency (WUE) of leaves, whereas it affected total chlorophyll content, transpiration
rate (Tr), and stomatal conductance (Sc) in some cultivars, highest at 0.6 dS m EC for
Tr and Sc, and lowest at the same EC for total chlorophyll content. The nutrient con-
tent of shoots was significantly affected by ECs of the nutrient solution. The total-N
content was higher in 2.4 dS m EC, whereas a lower P, Ca, and Mg content was mea-
sured in plants grown at the same EC. Plants grown with a lower EC had inhibited
shoot and stolon growth and earlier tuber formation compared to those grown with
higher ECs. For higher EC treatments, tubers were observed 5–6 days later, particu-
larly for the new cultivars. At harvest, the number of tubers produced from Superior
and Jayoung plants was not affected by EC, whereas those of Haryeong increased at
1.8 dS m EC. The results suggest that potato cultivars Superior and Jayoung are able
to grow at a wide range of solution EC levels, but that the new cultivar Haryeong
needed optimal management of solution EC at 1.8 dS m to yield higher tuber produc-
tion under an aeroponic cultivation system.
India
Effect of Supporting Medium on Photoautotrophic Microplant Survival and Growth
of Potato (Solanum tuberosum) (Kaur et al., 2016).
Kaur, RP et al., ICAR-Central Potato Research
Station, Jalandhar-(Punjab), India.
The effects of different supporting medium on photoautotrophic micropropagation

PAM in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) using higher carbon dioxide concentration
and ample light intensity were studied. Four different supporting mediums were eval-
uated including peat moss (PM), sand (SD), perlite (PL), vermiculite (VM) and liq-
uid nutrition medium (NM) containing no supporting matrix as control. There were
significant differences between the different supporting mediums used. Peat moss
not only produced higher survival percentage (67.7%), but also significantly higher
shoot length, root length, leaf area and fresh weight. Control (NM) was observed to
be mostly at par to the other treatments sand (SD) and vermiculite (VM). Perlite was
significantly inferior producing lesser shot lengths and fresh weight. Therefore, peat
moss may be used as a suitable supporting medium for PAM in potato. The method
reported in the study is simple, easy, effective and economical for micropropagation
of potato and may be used for supplementing the Hi-tech potato seed production
involving tissue culture and aeroponics technologies.
South Korea
Physiological Growth Responses by Nutrient Interruption in Aeroponically Grown
Potatoes (Chang et al., 2008).
A study was conducted to retard potato (Solanum tuberosum L. cultivars Superior,

Atlantic, and Jasim) shoot growth by nutrient interruption and thereby induce tuber
formation in an aeroponic cultivation system. In the period between 25 and 55 days
after transplanting (DAT), a 10-day nutrient interruption was carried out on the
potato plants. The interruption of nutrient supply significantly increased root activity
and stolon anthocyanins, but it decreased photosynthesis and transpiration rates, and
nutrient uptake in leaves. These changes in physiological growth responses induced
tuber formation along the short, thin, and purple-pigmented stolons. Nutrient inter-
ruptions decreased shoot growth by 50%–60% and thereby decreased tuber growth
5%–36%, when compared with the control plants.
Kenya
Multiplication of Seed Potatoes in a Conventional Potato Breeding Programme: A
Case of Kenya’s National Potato Programme (Muthoni et al., 2014).
Muthoni, Jane et al., Kenya Agricultural Research Institute
(KARI), National Potato Research Centre, Tigoni, Kenya.
This is a review article on breeding programmes for good cultivars to reduce the cost
and encourage innovation. In the Kenyan potato breeding programme, at least 10
tons of seed potato tubers are required before a new potato cultivar can be officially
released. Potato tuber bulking methods that have a high multiplication rate and at the
same time reduce the number of field plantings should be adopted in order to produce
planting materials of high health standards. Use of aeroponics system appears to be
a good method for producing both basic seeds from true potato seeds or bulking of
existing cultivars prior to production of certified seeds.
Kenya
Alleviating Potato Seed Tuber Shortage in Developing Countries: Potential of True
Potato Seeds (Muthoni et al., 2013).
Muthoni, Jane et al., Kenya Agricultural Research Institute
(KARI), National Potato Research Centre, Tigoni, Kenya.
The production of potatoes in developing countries was studied. Potato production in

developing countries is hampered by constraints such as low soil fertility, pest and
diseases and inadequate supply of good quality seed tubers. Lack of good quality seed
is mostly a consequent of the prevailing seeds system; in most developing countries,
majority of farmers recycle their own seeds or get them from informal sources. This
leads to seed degeneration and buildup of tuber-borne diseases and hence low yields. In
mitigating the problem of shortage of good quality seeds, strategies to rapidly multiply
the seed tubers such as tissue culture in conjunction with hydroponics and aeroponics
have been tried. However, these are expensive for most developing countries and thus
unsustainable. Use of true potato seeds (TPS) is a technology that might solve the prob-
lem once and for all. The seeds are cheap, easy to carry and store, can be stored for long
and do not transmit most diseases. The technology needs to be given serious thought
and should be promoted in most developing countries so as to increase potato yields.
USA
Solid Matrix and Liquid Culture Procedures for Growth of Potatoes (Tibbitts
et al., 1994).
Tibbitts, T.W. et al, University of Wisconsin,
Department of Horticulture, USA.
The advantages and limitations of several different procedures for growth of potatoes
for controlled ecological life-support system (CELSS) in space were reported. Solution
culture, in which roots and stolons are submerged, and aeroponic culture were not found
useful for potatoes because stolons did not produce tubers unless a severe stress was
applied to the plants. In detailed comparison studies, three selected culture systems were
compared, nutrient film technique (NFT), NFT with shallow media, and pot culture with
deep media. It was concluded that there are serious limitations to the use of NFT alone
for growth of potatoes in a CELSS system. These limitations can be minimized by using
a modified NFT with a shallow layer of media, such as arcillite, yet additional work is
needed to ensure high tuber production with this system under long photoperiods.
India
Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Inoculum Production Using Ipomoea batata Hairy
Roots in Bioreactor (Chandran et al., 2009).
Chandran, R. et al., Department of Biotechnology, K.V.M. College
of Engineering and Information Technology, Kerala, India.
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and their role in plant nutrition, protection
against plant pathogens and soil quality were studied. The multiplication of AMF
is possible only through the conventional pot culture technique and aeroponic
culture system. Contamination is the major disadvantage of these techniques. To
overcome these difficulties and to produce axenic culture of AMF, co-cultivation
of AMF was done with spores of Glomus microcarpum var. microcarpum and trans-
genic hairy roots of Ipomoea batata, which were initiated through the mediation
of Agrobacterium rhizogenes ATCC 15834. Mycorrhized I. batata hairy roots were
grown in a simple bioreactor constructed for this purpose.
RADISH
Israel
Differences in Responses of Various Radish Roots to Salinity (Waisel et al., 1987).
Y. Waisel et al., Department of Botany, the George S. Wise Faculty
of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
Extension growth of tap-roots, initiation of lateral roots and extension growth of

first lateral roots with young radish plants (Raphanus sativus cv. Rex) in aeroponic
growth cabinets were investigated. Growth was not affected by 50 mM NaCl. At
higher NaCl concentrations the three growth processes were adversely affected, but
not at the same magnitude: Initiation of new laterals was found to be the most salt-
tolerant process, whereas growth of laterals was the most sensitive one. Thus, it
seems that even within one root system, different root-types respond independently
to environmental stresses. Such individual responses may alter the appearance of the
root system and, thus, be of ecological significance.
REVIEW
USA
Research Review Paper: Aeroponics for the Culture of Organisms, Tissues, and
Cells (Weathers et al., 1992).
Weathers, P.J. et al., Department of Biology and Biotechnology,
Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, USA.
This paper reviewed the characteristics of aeroponics. Contrast is made, where

appropriate, with hydroponics and aero-hydroponics as applies to research and com-
mercial applications of nutrient mist technology. Topics include whole plants, plant
tissue cultures, cell and microbial cultures, and animal tissue cultures with regard
to operational considerations (moisture, temperature, minerals, gaseous atmosphere)
and design of apparati.
RICE
China
Distribution and Speciation of Cu in the Root Border Cells of Rice by STXM
Combined with NEXAFS (Peng et al., 2016).
Peng, Cheng et al., Chengdu University of Traditional
Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China.
The effects of copper (Cu) upon the Root border cells (RBC), as well as its distri-
bution and speciation within the RBCs of rice (Oryza sativa L.) under aeroponic
culture were investigated. RBCs serve plants in their initial line of defense against
stress from the presence of heavy metals in the soil. In this research, light micros-
copy and synchrotron-based scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM) com-
bined with near edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy (NEXAFS) with
a nanoscale spatial resolution were used. The results indicated that with increasing
exposure time and concentration, the attached RBCs were surrounded by a thick
mucilage layer which changed in form from an ellipse into a strip in response to Cu
ion stress. Copper was present as Cu(II), which accumulated not only in the cell wall
but also in the cytoplasm. It was believed that this is the first time that STXM has
been used in combination with NEXAFS to provide new insight into the distribution
and speciation of metal elements in isolated plant cells.
Phillipines
IRRI’s drought stress research in rice with emphasis on roots: accomplishments over
the last 50 years (Henry, 2013).
Henry, Amelia, International Rice Research Institute, Crop
Environmental Sciences Division, Metro Manila, Philippines.
The activities of the IRRI from 1960 to the present were reviewed. IRRI was founded
in 1960, and large efforts for research on root growth in response to drought were ongo-
ing by the mid-1970s, with an emphasis on deep root growth, formation of coarse nodal
roots, and the root pulling force method. In the 1980s, aeroponic studies on root morphol-
ogy and anatomy and line-source sprinkler field studies were commonly conducted. The
use of crosses to better understand the genetics of root traits started in the 1980s. Further
characterization of the genetics behind root traits was conducted in the 1990s, specifi-
cally the use of molecular markers to select for root trait QTLs. A shift toward rainfed
lowland experiments in addition to upland conditions began in the 1990s, with increased
recognition of the different types of drought stress environments and characterization of
root water uptake. In the 2000s, drought breeding efforts moved from selection of root
traits to direct selection for yield under drought. In the 2010s IRRI identified two major
drought-yield QTLs to be related to root traits, and phenotyping for association mapping
of genes related to root traits and functions was underway. After direct selection for yield
during the past decade that is now approaching impact at the farm level, it was found that
root traits are indeed involved in improved yield under drought.
China
Developmental Characteristics and Response to Iron Toxicity of Root Border Cells
in Rice Seedlings (Xing et al., 2008).
Xing, Cheng-hua et al., Jinhua College of Profession and
Technology Bioengineering Institute Jinhua, China.
Experiments were conducted to investigate the ferrous iron (Fe2+) effects on root
tips in rice plant using border cells in vitro. The border cells were pre-planted in
aeroponic culture and detached from root tips. Most border cells have a long ellipti-
cal shape. The number and the viability of border cells in situ reached the maxima
of 1,600 and 97.5%, respectively, at 20∼25 mm root length. This mortality was more
pronounced at the first 1∼12 h exposure to 250 mg/L Fe2+ than at the last 12∼36 h.
After 36 h, the cell viability exposed to 250 mg/L Fe2+ decreased to nought, whereas
it was 46.5% at 0 mg/L Fe2+. The decreased viabilities of border cells indicated that
Fe2+ dosage and treatment time would cause deadly effect on the border cells. The
increased cell death could protect the root tips from toxic harm. Therefore, it may
protect root from the damage caused by harmful iron toxicity.
Japan
Hydraulic conductivity of rice roots (Miyamoto et al., 2001).
Naoko Miyamoto et al., Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University
of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu, Tokyo, Japan.
The hydraulic conductivities of rice roots (root Lpr/m2 of root surface area) were mea-
sured using a pressure chamber and a root pressure probe technique. Young plants
of two rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties (an upland variety, cv. Azucena and a lowland
variety, cv. IR64) were grown for 31–40 days in 12 h days with 500 μmol/(m2 s) PAR
and day/night temperatures of 27°C and 22°C. Root Lpr was measured under condi-
tions of steady-state and transient water flow. Different growth conditions (hydroponic
and aeroponic culture) did not cause visible differences in root anatomy in either
variety. Values of root Lpr obtained from hydraulic (hydrostatic) and osmotic water
flow were of the order of 10–8 m/(s MPa) and were similar when using the different
techniques. In comparison with other herbaceous species, rice roots tended to have
a higher hydraulic resistance of the roots per unit root surface area. The data suggest
that the low overall hydraulic conductivity of rice roots is caused by the existence of
apoplastic barriers in the outer root parts (exodermis and sclerenchymatous (fibre)
tissue) and by a strongly developed endodermis rather than by the existence of aeren-
chyma. According to the composite transport model of the root, the ability to adapt
to higher transpirational demands from the shoot should be limited for rice because
there were minimal changes in root Lpr depending on whether hydrostatic or osmotic
forces were acting. It is concluded that this may be one of the reasons why rice suffers
from water shortage in the shoot even in flooded fields.
ROOTS
USA
An Intermittent Aeroponics System Adaptable to Root Research (Peterson et al., 1991).
Peterson, L.A. et al., Horticulture Dept., University
of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, USA.
A functionally reliable intermittent aeroponics system for plant growth studies was
designed and implemented. The system provides the benefits of easy access to the
root system and control of various parameters of the root environment. Misting the
plant roots with about a 1/2 strength Hoagland’s nutrient solution from 3 to 7 s at
10 min intervals has been sufficient for normal growth of a number of plant species.
Installation of the aeroponics system into an environmental control chamber extends
the capacity of the system to measure shoot and root responses in relation to con-
trolled environmental parameters.
Israel
Aeroponics: A Search for Understanding Roots (Eshel and Waisel, 1997).
Eshel, A. et al., Department of Plant SciencesTel Aviv UniversityTel Aviv, Israel.
This is a chapter in a book on root formation and described a study of plant shoots.
This formation was thoroughly studied and amply reported in the literature. Certain
aspects of the functional significance of these shapes with regards to their ability to
sustain mechanical strains and to capture light, were analyzed in detail.
South Africa
The Use of Aeroponics to Investigate Antioxidant Activity in the Roots of Xerophyta
viscosa (Kamies et al., 2010).
Kamies, Rizqah et al., Molecular and Cell Biology,
University of Cape Town, South Africa.
An aeroponic plant growth system was designed and optimized to observe the root’s
response to desiccation without the restrictions of a soil medium, allowing easy access
to roots. Successful culture of both X. viscosa and the control, Zea mays, was achieved
and dehydration stress was implemented through reduction of nutrient solution spray-
ing of the roots. After drying to the air dry state (achieved after 7 days for roots and
10 days for shoots), rehydration was achieved by resumption of root spraying. X. vis-
cosa plants survived desiccation and recovered but Z. mays did not. The root tissues
appear to retain antioxidant potential during drying, for use in recovery upon rehydra-
tion, as has been reported for leaf tissues of this and other resurrection plants.
South Africa
The Changes in Morphogenesis and Bioactivity of Tetradenia riparia, Mondia
whitei, and Cyanoptis speciosa by an aeroponic system (Kumari et al., 2016).
Kumari, Aloka et al., Research Centre for Plant Growth
and Development, School of Life Sciences, University of
KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.
Antibacterial, antiplasmodial and cytotoxicity properties of 3-month-old Tetradenia

riparia, Cyanoptis speciosa and Mondia whitei maintained in an efficient aero-
ponic system in a greenhouse were evaluated. The species were selected based on
the importance of their roots in traditional medicine and their current conservation
status. An aeroponic system provides an opportunity for improving quantity, qual-
ity, consistency, and biomass production of roots of medicinal plants. The study
revealed that the aeroponic system could be used to produce clean, high-quantities
and excellent quality of roots of T. riparia, M. whitei and C. speciosa for basic
pharmacological research. In addition, aeroponic-grown T. riparia and M. whitei
plants facilitate commercial and rapid propagation for therapeutic potential and
conservation purposes. It could also satisfy traditional medicine and pharmaceuti-
cal industry demands.
USA
Aeroponic System for Control of Root-Zone Atmosphere (Kratsch et al., 2006).
Kratsch, Heidi A. et al., Interdepartmental Plant Physiology Program,
Department of Horticulture, Iowa State University, USA.
An aeroponic gas-delivery system was designed that allows statistical treatment of

individual plants as discrete experimental units when root-zone-targeted treatments
are imposed. Roots of intact plants were held in closed 1-L canning jars, with one
plant per jar and the stem emerging from a hole drilled in the jar lid. Extra-fine fog
nozzles controlled by a programmable timer sprayed roots periodically with nutrient
solution. Gases were mixed and delivered to jars at a prescribed rate by using a sys-
tem of capillary tubes. During a study of oxyge effects on formation of root nodules,
100% survival of plants and profuse nodulation resulted after 4 weeks. The system is
easy to construct with inexpensive materials, has many applications for rhizosphere
biology, and is unique among systems used previously.
Aeroponics is a viable alternative to other soil-less culture systems for maintain-
ing plants with a controlled root-zone atmosphere.
USA
An Aeroponic Culture System for the Study of Root Herbivory on Arabidopsis thali-
ana (Vaughan et al., 2011).
Vaughan Martha M et al., Department of Biological
Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
An aeroponic culture system was developed based on a calcined clay substrate that
allows insect herbivores to feed on plant roots while providing easy recovery of the
root tissue. The culture method was validated by a root-herbivore system developed for
Arabidopsis thaliana and the herbivore Bradysia spp. (fungus gnat). Arabidopsis root
mass obtained from aeroponically grown plants was comparable to that from other
culture systems, and the plants were morphologically normal. Bradysia larvae caused
considerable root damage resulting in reduced root biomass and water absorption.
After feeding on the aeroponically grown root tissue, the larvae pupated and emerged
as adults. Root damage of mature plants cultivated in aeroponic substrate was com-
pared to that of Arabidopsis seedlings grown in potting mix. The culture method will
allow simple profiling and in vivo functional analysis of root defenses such as chemical
defense metabolites that are released in response to below ground insect attack.
Austria
Implementation and Application of a Root Growth Module in HYDRUS (Hartmann
et al., 2018).
Hartmann, Anne et al., Department of Water, Atmosphere, Environment,
Institute of Hydrobiology and Aquatic Ecosystem Management, BOKU—
University of Natural Resources & Applied Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria.
A root growth module was adapted and implemented into the HYDRUS software
packages to model root growth as a function of different environmental stresses. The
model assumes that various environmental factors, as well as soil hydraulic proper-
ties, can influence root development under suboptimal conditions. The implementa-
tion of growth and stress functions in the HYDRUS software opens the opportunity
to derive parameters of these functions from laboratory or field experimental data
using inverse modeling. One of the most important environmental factors influenc-
ing root growth is soil temperature. The effects of temperature in the root growth
module was the first part of the newly developed HYDRUS add-on to be validated by
comparing modeling results with measured rooting depths in an aeroponic experi-
mental system with bell pepper.
USA
Unleashing the Potential of the Root Hair Cell as a Single Plant Cell Type Model in
Root Systems Biology (eQiao et al., 2013).
Zhenzhen eQiao et al., University of Oklahoma, USA.
Procedures were optimized for obtaining root hair cell samples. They cultured
the plants using an ultrasound aeroponic system maximizing root hair cell den-
sity on the entire root systems and allowing the homogeneous treatment of the
root system. Then they isolated the root hair cells in liquid nitrogen. Isolated
root hair yields could be up to 800–1,000 mg of plant cells from 60 root systems.
Using soybean as a model, the purity of the root hair was assessed by comparing
the expression level of genes previously identified as soybean root hair specific
between preparations of isolated root hair cells and stripped roots, roots devoid
in root hairs.
USA
Secondary Metabolism of Hairy Root Cultures in Bioreactors (Yoojeong et al., 2001).
Yoojeong, Kim et al., Department of Chemical Engineering
Worcester Polytechnic Institute, USA.
Vitro cultures as an alternative to agricultural processes for producing valuable

secondary metabolites. Most efforts that use differentiated cultures instead of
cell suspension cultures have focused on transformed (hairy) roots. Bioreactors
used to culture hairy roots can be roughly divided into three types: liquid-phase,
gas-phase, or hybrid reactors that are a combination of both. The growth and
productivity of hairy root cultures are reviewed with an emphasis on success-
ful bioreactors and important culture considerations. Together with genetic engi-
neering and process optimization, proper reactor design plays a key role in the
development of successful large-scale production of secondary metabolites from
plant cultures.
USA
Transformed Roots of Artemisia annua Exhibit an Unusual Pattern of Border Cell
Release (Weathers et al., 2001).
Weathers, Pamela et al., Department of Biology and Biotechnology,
Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, USA.
Border cells from Artemisia annua from hairy roots grown in shake flasks, cul-
ture plates, a bubble column reactor, and a nutrient mist (aeroponic) reactor were
examined. When well-hydrated roots were subjected to shear, border cells were
first released as an agglomerate and did not disperse for several hours. Staining
with neutral red and fluorescein diacetate (FDA) showed that both agglomerates
and dispersed cells were alive. It was determined that FDA is cleaved by pectin
methylesterase (PME) and that PME may not be particularly active in the released
agglomerates until the border cells disperse. These results suggest that our hairy
root clone is deficient in border cell release perhaps resulting from the transforma-
tion process.
USA
Grenzwurzeln? (Hays, 1993).
Hays, Sandy Miller, US Department of Agriculture ARS Belsville, Maryland, USA.
This is a report on the German scientist Richard Zobel’s study of ‘grenzwurzeln’ or

boundary roots in the 1970s while working on mutant tomatoes and his use of aero-
ponics in the experiments. He studied how plant roots take up soil elements.
USA
Using an Aerosol Deposition Model to Increase Hairy Root Growth in a Mist Reactor
(Towler et al., 2007).
Towler, Melissa J. et al., Department of Biology and Biotechnology,
Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, USA.
The growth of hairy roots were studied using gas-phase reactors including a mist
reactor. These reactors have distinct advantages over liquid-phase reactors includ-
ing the ability to manipulate the gas composition, to allow effective gas exchange
in a densely growing biomass, and to affect secondary metabolite production.
Mathematical modeling suggested that roots in a mist reactor are often too sparsely
packed to capture mist particles efficiently and cannot, therefore, meet the nutrient
demands required to maintain high growth rates. Indeed, growth rates of Artemisia
annua hairy roots increased significantly when the initial packing density increased
or when a higher sucrose concentration was used in the medium.
Italy
Effects of pH in the Root Environment on Leakage of Phenolic Compounds and
Mineral Ions from Roots of Rosa indica major (Abolitz et al., 1995).
M. Abolitz et al., Department of Horticulture, University of Florence, Italy.
The effects of pH on leakage of phenolic substances and ions from roots of rose (Rosa
indica major) cuttings propagated in a nutrientless aeroponic fogging system were
examined by incubation of root segments or intact roots in solutions of biological
MOPSO+BTP buffer with pH 6.2, 7.6 or in water, following exposure to the buffers. The
content of phenolic substances was measured spectrophotometrically at an absorbance
of 260 nm, whereas the contents of K+ and N+ were measured by means of Inductively
Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and the content of K+ was
also measured by flame photometry. The direct effects of high pH on root function, in
addition to the indirect effects on the availability of mineral ions, are discussed.
SAFFRON
Poland
The Growth of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) in Aeroponicsand Hydroponics (Souret
et al., 2000).
Souret, Frédéric F. et al., Institute of Genetics and
Biotechnology, University of Warsaw, Poland.
The development of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) plants and the production of com-
mercial saffron and saffron constituents were compared in three culture systems:
aeroponics, hydroponics, and soil. On a dry weight, but not fresh weight basis, corm
growth was increased in aeroponics and hydroponics as compared with growth in
soil. Root length in aeroponics and hydroponics was reduced as compared with root
length in soil, but shoot development was not significantly affected. Flowering was
poor in all three culture systems, probably due to the small-sized (2.6 cm) bulbs used
in propagating the plants. The production of stigmas and the concentration of the main
constituents of saffron in the stigmas was similar in all three culture systems, suggest-
ing saffron bulbs grown aeroponically and hydroponically may be used as a practical
and renewable source of pharmacological compounds extracted from saffron.
SEED
USA
Seed Production from Aeschynomene Genetic Resources Rescued and Regenerated
Using Aeroponics (Morris, 2014).
J.B. Morris, Plant Genetic Resources Conservation Unit,
Geneticist Plants, USDA, Griffin, Ga, USA.
An aeroponic system was evaluated for rescuing and regenerating photoperiod- and
freeze-sensitive Aeschynomene accessions (cover crops). One-month-old seedlings
from 11 accessions were field-planted in Griffin in 2012 and 2013. Four mature veg-
etative stem cuttings per accession, with at least 3 true leaves, were removed from
plants that produced flowers but did not have enough time or photoperiod exposure
to produce mature seed. Each cutting was placed in a hydroponic cloning machine.
After approximately 2 weeks, 4 cuttings with healthy root systems were transferred
to an aeroponic system. Productive plants yielding mature seed (22–584 seeds) were
regenerated from 100% of the accessions. The success rate for cuttings was 71%.
Seed weight and number were influenced by production year. Seed weights and num-
bers ranged from 0.630 to 2.317 g and 110–584, respectively, in 2012. In 2013, only
the Mexican accession PI 544176 produced significantly higher seed weight (0.390 g)
with the most seeds (203), compared to other accessions. However, PI 544176 pro-
duction was lower compared to 2012 due to exposure to two hard freezes in the field
that damaged plants enough to make them less vigorous in the aeroponic system.
The aeroponic system’s ability to produce productive plants demonstrated its use-
fulness for rescuing and regenerating seed from photoperiod- and freeze-sensitive
Aeschynomene accessions.
SHALLOT
Indonesia
Aplikasi Root Zone Cooling System Untuk Perbaikan Pembentukan Umbi Bawang
Merah (Allium cepa var. aggregatum) (Nurwahyuningsih, 2017).
Nurwahyuningsih et al., Departemen Teknik Mesin dan
Biosistem Institut Pertanian Bogor, Indonesia.
This study analyzed the effect of different root zone temperature to some extent
the temperature is 10°C, 15°C, control and vernalization of plant growth and the
formation of shallot bulbs by using aeroponic system. The experimental design

used was a draft Plots Divided (Split Plot Design), which was arranged in a ran-
domized block design with four replications. The main plot was a vernalization
treatment (without vernalization and with vernalization). The subplots in the form
of a nutrient solution temperature at 10°C, 15°C, and without cooling system as a
control. The parameters measured were the number of leaves, the number of til-
lers, the number of bulbs, the weight of bulbs and the wet weight of root. There
are no interaction between the annealing temperature by vernalization to the num-
ber of leaves, the bulb number, the weight of bulbs, and the weight of the roots.
Cooling temperatures nutrient solution to improving root growth and bulb forma-
tion of shallot. Optimal root growth can improve nutrient uptaken by plants then
can improve plant growth and bulb yield larger and heavier. Temperatures suitable
for shallot cultivation in lowland tropical for producing tubers with quenching tem-
perature is 10°C, nonvernalization.
SOCIAL IMPACT
USA
Aeroponic Gardens and Their Magic: Plants/Persons/Ethics in Suspension (Battaglia,
2017).
Battaglia, Debbora, Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, MA, USA.
This paper delves into the question are plants ‘for’ persons or persons ‘for’ plants? Is
it ethical to separate growing plants from earth/Earth and from earthlings? Where
might ‘responsible innovation’ and ‘innovative eclecticism’ find a place in post-
genomic discourse? And might a commitment to a dividual ethics guide lives in co-
becoming to devise (as Latour recognizes in like terms) a scitech-diplomacy capable
of resisting the programmatic pressures of new climatic regimes? She describes that
out of the fire bombed ruins and food deprivation of the Second World War came one
innovator’s prototype for growing edible plants, suspended above earth and requir-
ing a minimum of water. His aeroponic apparatus would later be referred to as The
Genesis Machine, from the movie Star Trek II. This paper travels with roots in air
into different spheres where the relations of persons, plants, and technology conspire
to place future—growing into ethical suspension. The aim is to open questions for
an anthropocenic future.
SOYBEANS
France
Charge Balance in NO3−-fed Soybean. Estimation of K+ and Carboxylate Recirculation
(Touraine et al., 1988).
Touraine, Bruno et al at the Biochimie et Physiologie Végétales,
Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Ecole
Nationale Supérieure Agronomique, Cedex, France.
Soybeans (Glycine max L. Merr., cv Kingsoy) were grown on media containing

NO3− or urea. The enrichments of shoots in K+, NO3−, and total reduced N (Nr),
relative to that in Ca2+, were compared to the ratios K+/Ca2+, NO3−/Ca2+, and Nr/Ca2+
in the xylem saps, to estimate the cycling of K+, and Nr. The net production of car-
boxylates (R−) was estimated from the difference between the sums of the main
cations and inorganic anions. The estimate for shoots was compared to the theo-
retical production of R− associated with NO3− assimilation in these organs, and the
difference was attributed to export of R− to roots. The net exchange rates of H+ and
OH− between the medium and roots were monitored. The shoots were the site of
more than 90% of total NO3− reduction, and Nr was cycling through the plants at a
high rate. Alkalinization of the medium by NO3−-fed plants was interrupted by stem
girdling, and not restored by glucose addition to the medium. It was concluded that
the majority of the base excreted in NO3− medium originated from R− produced in
the shoots, and transported to the roots together with K+. As expected, cycling of K+
and reduced N was favoured by NO3− nutrition as compared to urea nutrition.
USA
Detoxification and Evaluation of Foam Supports for Aeroponically Grown Soybean
(Wagner et al., 1991).
Wagner, R. E. et al., Department of Agronomy,
University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA.
Using polyurethane-based foam plugs as supports this study aeroponically grew soy-
bean plants [Glycine mu (L.) Merr.] that contain a phytotoxic compound. Plugs were
detoxified after soaking in 1.0 M NaOH for 1 h and then in 950 mL/L ethanol for
12 h. Five additional foam materials were evaluated as substitutes for polyurethane
foam plugs. Four of the five foams tested (reticulated ether-based foam, etbafoam,
Dowstrand foam, and L/C 200 foam) were nontoxic to soybean plants. Of these,
reticulated ether-based foam (39.4 or 31.4 pores/cm) had physical properties similar
to polyurethane foam and is recommended as a substitute for this material.
China
Immobilization of Aluminum with Mucilage Secreted by Root Cap and Root Border
Cells is Related to Aluminum Resistance in Glycine max L (Cai et al., 2013).
Cai, Miaozhen et al., College of Geography and Environmental
Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China.
Two soybean cultivars differing in Al resistance were aeroponically cultured and the
effects of Al on root mucilage secretion, root growth, contents of mucilage-bound Al for
root tip Al and the capability of mucilage to bind Al were investigated. The root cap and
root border cells (RBCs) of most plant species produced pectinaceous mucilage, which
can bind metal cations. Increasing Al concentration and exposure time significantly
enhanced mucilage excretion from both root caps and RBCs, decreased RBCs viability
and relative root elongation except roots exposed to 400 μM Al for 48 h in Al-resistant
cultivar. Removal of root mucilage from root tips resulted in a more severe inhibition
of root elongation. Of the total Al accumulated in root, mucilage accounted 48%–72%

and 12%–27%, while root tip accounted 22%–52% and 73%–88% in Al-resistant and
Al-sensitive cultivars, respectively. A 27Al nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum of
the Al-adsorbed mucilage showed Al tightly bound to mucilage. Higher capacity to
exclude Al in Al-resistant soybean cultivar is related to the immobilization and detoxi-
fication of Al by the mucilage secreted from root cap and RBCs.
USA
An Aeroponics System for Investigating Disease Development on Soybean Taproots
Infected with Phytophthora sojae (Wagner et al., 1992).
Wagner, R. E. et al., Department of Plant Pathology, University
of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA.
Pathogenesis on taproots of soybean (Glycine max) plants infected with P. sojae

nondestructively with an aeroponics system was investigated. The main feature of
the system is accessibility to the roots for direct observations, measurements, and
application of inoculum. Lesion expansion on the taproots of the cultivar Corsoy
was more rapid at 25°C than at 15°C. Lesion length after compatible interactions
on the cultivars Corsoy, Sloan, and Agripro 26 was 8.0, 6.8, and 4.5 cm at 15°C and
13.5, 11.1, and 7.2 cm at 25°C, respectively, 9 days after inoculation. Cultivars were
evaluated effectively for single-gene resistance based on the length and type of lesion
formed 4 days after inoculation. Cultivars containing the genes Rps7 or Rps1 were
susceptible, and cultivars containing the genes Rps1-b, Rps1-c, Rps1-d, Rps2, Rps3,
or Rps6 were resistant to race 3 of the fungus.
USA
Use of Aeroponic Chambers and Grafting to Study Partial Resistance to Fusarium
solani f. sp. glycines in Soybean (Mueller et al., 2002).
Mueller, D. S. et al., Crop Sciences, University of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA.
Plant introductions (PIs) and cultivars that are partially resistant (PR) to sudden
death syndrome were studied. However, little is known about the nature of resis-
tance to this disease. Seedlings of two PR PIs and two susceptible cultivars were
inoculated with Fusarium solani f. sp. glycines in aeroponic chambers. Plants were
inoculated by taping two sorghum seeds infested with F. solani f. sp. glycines to
the main root. Foliar symptoms of the susceptible cultivars were higher than those
on the PR PIs and were associated with lower root and plant dry weight. Root lesion
lengths of the four soybean lines differed (P < 0.05), but did not correlate with foliar
disease or any other variable. To better understand the resistance mechanism by
distinguishing between root and plant resistance, three partially resistant PIs (PI
520.733, PI 567.374, and PI 567.650B) and one susceptible soybean cultivar (GL3302)
were compared using different grafting combinations in aeroponic chambers. The
results of sudden death syndrome evaluation indicated that resistance is conditioned
by both the scion and the rootstock. All three PIs evaluated had resistance associated
with the scion; resistance in PI 567.650B also was associated with the rootstock.
Although the PR PIs used appear to have little or no root resistance, an aeroponic
system and grafting may help identify new sources of resistance to F. solani f. sp.
glycines with root- or whole-plant resistance.
SPACE APPLICATIONS
Poland
Concept of experimental platform to investigate aeroponic systems in microgravity
conditions (Jurga et al., 2018a).
Jurga Anna et al., Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,
Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wroclaw, Poland.
The concept of experimental research system to investigate aeroponic cultivation

in microgravity condition was studied. The main scientific objective is to define the
forces acting in droplet-root system exposed to microgravity conditions especially
the adhesion and cohesion phenomena. The concept of a research platform is pre-
sented in this paper and includes electrical, hydraulic and optical system.
USA
Planet Moon: The Future of Astronaut Activity and Settlement (Thangavelu, 2014).
Thangavelu, Madhu, Earth-Moon Cislunar Cycler, Department
of Astronautical Engineering, School of Engineering,
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA.
This paper explores the possibilities and extreme environmental challenges posed by
human settlement of our closest planetary neighbour, the Moon.
Australia
Martian Base Agriculture: The Effect of Low Gravity on Water Flow, Nutrient
Cycles, and Microbial Biomass Dynamics (Maggi et al., 2010a).
Maggi, Federico et al., School of Civil Engineering,
The University of Sydney, Australia.
This paper a study of bioregenerative strategies for long-term life support in extra-
terrestrial outposts such as on Mars to determine whether soil-based cropping could
be an effective approach for waste decomposition, carbon sequestration, oxygen
production, and water biofiltration as compared to hydroponics and aeroponics crop-
ping. However, it is still unknown if cropping using soil systems could be sustainable
in a Martian greenhouse under a gravity of 0.38 g. The most challenging aspects
are linked to the gravity-induced soil water flow; because water is crucial in driv-
ing nutrient and oxygen transport in both liquid and gaseous phases, a gravitational
acceleration lower than g = 9.806 m/s2 could lead to suffocation of microorganisms
and roots, with concomitant emissions of toxic gases.
The effect of Martian gravity on soil processes was investigated using a highly
mechanistic model previously tested for terrestrial crops that couples soil hydraulics
and nutrient biogeochemistry. Net leaching of NO3− solute, gaseous fluxes of NH3,
CO2, N2O, NO, and N2, depth concentrations of O2, CO2, and dissolved organic car-
bon (DOC), and pH in the root zone were calculated for a bioregenerative cropping
unit under gravitational acceleration of Earth and for its homologous on Mars, but
under 0.38 g. Martian cropping would require 90% less water for irrigation than on
Earth, being therefore favourable for water recycling treatment; in addition, a sub-
stantially lower nutrient supply from external sources such as fertilizers would not
compromise nutrient delivery to soil microorganisms, but would reduce the large N
gas emissions observed in this study.
Australia
Space Agriculture in Micro- and Hypo-Gravity: A Comparative Study of Soil
Hydraulics and Biogeochemistry in a Cropping Unit on Earth, Mars, the Moon, and
the Space Station (Maggi et al., 2010b).
Maggi, Federico et al., School of Civil Engineering,
The University of Sydney, Australia.
A highly mechanistic model coupling soil hydraulics and nutrient biogeochemistry

on soils on Earth (g = 9.806 m/s2) was tested to highlight the effects of gravity on
the functioning of cropping units on Mars (0.38 g), the Moon (0.16 g), and in the
international space station (ISS, nearly 0 g). For each scenario, a comparison the net
leaching of water, the leaching of NH3, NH4+, NO2− and NO3− solutes, the emissions
of NH3, CO2, N2O, NO, and N2 gases, the concentrations profiles of O2, CO2, and dis-
solved organic carbon (DOC) in soil, the pH, and the dynamics of various microbial
functional groups within the root zone against the same control variables in the soil
under terrestrial gravity was made.
USA
A Greenhouse for Mars and Beyond (Rahaim et al., 2008).
Rahaim, Christopher P. et al., HyperTech Concepts
LLC, Huntsville, Alabama, USA.
A detailed design study was conducted for a deployable greenhouse for Mars mis-
sion. The greenhouse has been designed so that it has a life span of at least 20 years,
a leakage rate of no more that 1% of the total volume per day at the target working
pressure of 50 kPa and provides at least six crew members with approximately 25%
of their food supply. Artificial light is provided by high intensity red and blue light
emitting diodes, but sunlight is also used by installing small Lexan windows on the
rooftop. The greenhouse structure is a rigid graphite/epoxy sandwich structure with
a footprint of 38 m2. Radioisotope thermal electric generators are used to produce
power for the greenhouse and its subsystems and the plants are grown in nested
pockets located on vertical cylinders which allows for a growth area of 48 m2. An
aeroponic water and nutrient delivery system is used in order to reduce the green-
house water usage. Harvesting and planting is achieved through the use of robot-
ics specifically designed for this mission. The greenhouse structure and subsystems
have a total weight of less than 10 metric tons. In this paper the design highlights of
several of the subsystems of the greenhouse design were summarized.
Japan
A Spaceflight Experiment for the Study of Gravimorphogenesis and Hydrotropism
in Cucumber Seedlings (Takahashi et al., 1999).
Takahashi, Hideyuki et al., Institute of Genetic
Ecology, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.
The effect of modified gravity on the lateral positioning of a peg in cucumber seedlings
in spaceflight was studied. It has been suggested that auxin plays an important role in
the gravity-controlled positioning of a peg on the ground. Furthermore, cucumber seed-
lings grown in microgravity developed a number of the lateral roots that grew towards
the water-containing substrate in the culture vessel, whereas on the ground they ori-
ented perpendicular to the primary root growing down. The response of the lateral roots
in microgravity was successfully mimicked by clinorotation of cucumber seedlings on
the three dimensional clinostat. However, this bending response of the lateral roots was
observed only in an aeroponic culture of the seedlings but not in solid medium. This
system with cucumber seedlings is thus a useful model of spaceflight experiment for the
study of the gravimorphogenesis, root hydrotropism and their interaction.
Japan
Trickle water and feeding system in plant culture and light-dark cycle effects on
plant growth (Takano et al., 1987).
Takano, T. et al., Meijo University, Tempaku, Japan.
The use of rockwool, as an inert medium covered or bagged with polyethylene film
for plant culture in space station was studied. The most important machine is the
pump adjusting the dripping rate in the feeding system. Hydro-aeroponics may be
adaptable to a space laboratory. The shortening of the light-dark cycles inhibits plant
growth and induces an abnormal morphogenesis. A photoperiod of 12-hr-dark may
be needed for plant growth.
SPRUCE
Sweden
Growth Responses of Rooted Cuttings from Five Clones of Picea abies (L.) Karst.
after a Short Drought Period (Nordborg et al., 2001).
Nordborg, Fredrik et al., SLU, Southern Swedish
Forest Research Centre, Alnarp, Sweden.
Rooted cuttings of five clones of Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] were studied in
a well-watered and in an environment with a 5-day drought period. The study was per-
formed an intermittent aeroponics system in a controlled environment chamber. During
the root elongation was reduced to 1 mm/day compared with 3 mm/day in the treatment,
but no significant reduction in shoot elongation was registered days after rewatering,
the root elongation of drought-treated plants had recovered. At the end of the study, the
increase in root length for the measured period did differ significantly between treat-
ments, whereas the leading shoot length and biomass were in well-watered plants. The
five clones, which had been selected for fast growth, similarly to the drought treatment
and no interaction between clone and drought was In conclusion, drought affected the
root growth directly, whereas the shoot growth was affected. This may reduce future
growth as a result of a smaller leaf area and thereby a less assimilate production.
STRAWBERRY
Egypt
Effect of side and level of cultivation on production and quality of strawberry
produced by aeroponic system (El-Behairy et al., 2003).
El-Behairy, U.A. et al., Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
Experiments were conducted at the Central Laboratory for Agricultural Climate

Experimental Station, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt to investigate the effect of side and level
of cultivation on production and quality of strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa) cv.
Camarosa grown in aeroponic system. The experiment was carried out during two
seasons (1999/2000 and 2000/2001). The experiment included two cultivation sides
(north and south) of the aeroponic system and four cultivation levels (L1, L2, L3, and
L4) in each side.
SUNFLOWER
Spain
Net simultaneous hydrogen and potassium ion flux kinetics in sterile aeroponic
sunflower seedling roots: effects of potassium ion supply, valinomycin, and dicyclo-
hexylcarbodiimide (Garrido, 1998).
Garrido, I. et al., U. E. Fisiologia, Vegetal, Facility Ciencias,
Universidad Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain.
This study involved the simultaneous monitoring of pH and potassium ion (K+)
concentration in a medium bathing 48 h sterile, aeroponic dark-grown sunflower
(Helianthus annuus L.) seedling roots using specific noncombined high-sensitivity
electrodes for pH and K(+). Net K(+) influx rates for different K(+) concentrations
(0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, and 5 mM) lagged by approximately 60 min with respect to the, hydro-
gen ion (H+) efflux, and showed the biphasic saturable kinetics (Epstein’s Systems I
and II) described by other authors.
Spain
Redox-related peroxidative responses evoked by methyl-jasmonate in axenically cul-
tured aeroponic sunflower (H. annuus L.) seedling roots. (Garrido, 2003).
Garrido I, Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias,
Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain.
The evocation of defense reactions was studied, as the oxidative burst in plants,
substituting the elicitors or enhancing their effect. 48 h dark- and sterilely cultured
(axenic) aeroponic sunflower seedling roots excised and treated with different con-
centrations of methyl-jasmonate (MeJA) showed a strong and quick depression of the
H(+) efflux rate, 1.80 µM MeJA totally stopping it for approximately 90 min and then
reinitiating it again at a lower rate than controls. These results were wholly similar to
those obtained with nonsterilely cultured roots and have been interpreted as mainly
based on H(+) consumption for O(2)(*−) dismutation to H2O2. Also, K(+) influx was
strongly depressed by MeJA, even transitorily reverting to K(+) efflux. These results
were consistent with those associated to the oxidative burst in plants.
Spain
Effect of some electron donors and acceptors on redox capacity and simultaneous
net H+/K+ fluxes by aeroponic sunflower seedling roots: Evidence for a CN−-resistant
redox chain accessible to nonpermeative redox compounds (Garrido, 1998).
Garrido, I., Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias,
Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain.
Studies were conducted on excised roots from aeroponic axenically 48 h dark-grown

sunflower (H. annuus L.) seedlings which showed redox activities. Being able to oxi-
dize/reduce all the exogenously added electron donors/acceptors, that affected the H+/K+
net fluxes was simultaneously measured in the medium. Trials were performed with in
vivo and CN−-poisoned roots; these showed null+/K+ net flux activity but still oxidized/
reduced all the e− donors/acceptors tested except NADH. NADH enhanced the rate of
H+ efflux by in vivo roots, otherwise not changing any of the normal flux kinetic char-
acteristics, suggesting that NADH donates e− and H+ to the exocellular NADH oxido-
reductase activity of a CN−-sensitive redox chain in the plasmalemma of the root cells.
TECHNOLOGY
Singapore
Aeroponics: Experiences from Singapore on a Green Technology for Urban Farming
(Subramaniam et al., 2011).
R. Subramaniam et al., National Academy of Science and
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
This is a chapter in an environmental leadership reference book on their experience

with urban farming in Singapore.
Canada
Continuous Production of Greenhouse Crops Using Aeroponics (Nichols et al., 2002).
Nichols, M.A. et al. at the Department of Agriculture, Massey University, Canada.
An aeroponic production system that provides the opportunity to increase yield

potential by up to 25%/year, without considering any potential advantages of the
improved root environment is presented. The production system also provides a rela-
tively simple technology for the easy management of stem numbers per unit area,
so that the “plant density” can be adjusted to compensate for seasonal variations
in solar radiation. Plants studied included tomato, cucumber, capsicum, egg plant,
watermelon and honeydew and cantaloupe melon.
USA
Effect of Light Regimen on Yield and Flavonoid Content of Warehouse Grown
Aeroponic Eruca sativa (Mattson et al., 2012).
Mattson, N.S. et al., Department of Horticulture, Cornell University, Ithaca, USA.
A study was conducted to determine whether LED arrays could provide necessary
light quality and irradiance without affecting plant yield and quality. Flavonoids
were the chosen qualitative proxy due to their known nutraceutical properties. A
custom computerized LED array (Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute, Troy, NY, USA) with an aeroponic growing system was used to provide dif-
fering intensity regimens of blue (460 nm, 8% of total light) and red (620 nm, 92% of
total light) light to grow baby Arugula (Eruca sativa ‘Astro’). Based on these results,
LED arrays were found to be a suitable replacement to HPS, ideally with light levels
increasing over developmental time.
China
Modern Plant Cultivation Technologies in Agriculture Under Controlled
Environment: A Review on Aeroponics (Lakhiar et al., 2018a).
Imran Ali Lakhiar et al., Key Laboratory of Modern Agricultural Equipment
and Technology, Ministry of Education, Institute of Agricultural Engineering,
Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, People’s Republic of China.
This is a review article on aeroponics. This review paper of the existing literature
revealed as the population increases the demands for clean and fresh food increases
alarmingly. People will turn to new plant growing technologies to fill up increasing
food demands. Moreover, this review article concluded that aeroponics is a modern,
innovative and informative technology for plant cultivation without incorporation of
the soil. The system is the best plant growing technology in many aspects compared
with different cultivation systems. The system is quickly increasing momentum, pop-
ularity and fastest growing sector of modern agriculture. It would be effectively used
in various countries for vegetable production where natural resources are insufficient.
Indonesia
Applications of Temperature and Humidity Monitoring System at Aerophonic Plants
Based on IoT (Saraswati et al., 2018).
Irma Saraswati et al., University of Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa, Indonesia.
A monitoring system was developed based on Android smartphone. This system was
used to monitor temperature and humidity. Android-based monitoring system used
java programming and was open source, besides the user can monitor the devel-
opment of spinach plants, by looking at data that has been stored into the data-
base so that users can track the development of the plant. This application can be
accessed via smartphone with android operating system as a client server. Although
the Indonesian agricultural system has improved significantly in recent years avail-
able agricultural land is becoming scarce. To overcome this problem and to reduce
the impact of environmental climate changes one solution is the development of
aeroponic system combined with IoT (internet of things).
Singapore
Farming of Vegetables in Space-limited Environments (He, 2015).
He, J, National Institute of Education, Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore.
Farming systems were proposed for Singapore that not only increase productivity
many-fold per unit of land but also produce all types of vegetables, all year-round for
today and the future. This could be resolved through integrated vertical aeroponic
farming system. These include low-cost urban community gardening and innovative
rooftop and vertical farms integrated with various technologies such as hydroponics,
aquaponics and aeroponics. This could involve manipulation of root-zone (RZ) envi-
ronments such as cooling the RZ, modifying mineral nutrients and introducing ele-
vated RZ carbon dioxide using aeroponics. It could also involve energy saving light
emitting diodes (LEDs) for vertical aeroponic farming system to promote uniform
growth and to improve the utilization of limited space via shortening the growth
cycle, thus improving vegetable production in a cost-effective manner. Before 2011,
vertical farms found in Japan, Korea, Holland, and England were all prototypes.
Several commercial vertical farms have emerged in Singapore. The fi rst ̄ vertical
farm, Sky Greens was publicised in 2011, and commercialised in 2012. By growing
vegetables in pots with soils under natural sunlight, Sky Greens mainly produces
tropical vegetables. The greatest limiting factor for vegetable production in vertical
farms is insufficient light for the plants.
Indonesia
Web-based Monitoring and Control System for Aeroponics Growing Chamber (Sani
et al., 2016).
Sani, Muhammad Ikhsan et al., Computer Engineering Department,
Faculty of Applied Science, Telkom University, Bandung, Indonesia.
A prototype system was designed and implemented for plant water and nutrients
distribution to support the optimal application of an aeroponics system. It is based on
a monitoring system which was used to observe the aeroponics growing chamber’s
parameters such as temperature, light, and pH. Meanwhile, the control system was
used to manage actuators, i.e., mist maker and fan for delivering water moisture.
Sensor data are transmitted via internet into a server in order to facilitate easier
monitoring for users.
Thailand
Heat Pipe as a Cooling Mechanism in an Aeroponic System (Srihajong et al., 2006).
Srihajong, N. et al., Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, Chiang Mai University, Thailand.
A mathematical model was developed explaining the operation of an aeroponic sys-

tem for agricultural products. The purpose of this study was to determine the rate
of energy consumption in a conventional aeroponic system and the feasibility of
employing a heat pipe as an energy saver in such a system. A heat pipe can be theo-
retically used to remove heat from the liquid nutrient that flows through the growing
chamber of an aeroponic system. To justify the heat pipe application as an energy
saver, numerical computations have been done on typical days in the month of April
from which maximum heating load occurs and an appropriate heat pipe set was theo-
retically designed. It was found from the simulation that the heat pipe can reduce the
electric energy consumption of an evaporative cooling and a refrigeration system in
a day by 17.19% and 10.34%, respectively.
China
Development of Droplets Penetrating Roots Performance Test Device and Tests
Applied this Device in Ultrasonic Aeroponic System (Teng et al., 2014).
Yue Teng et al., Key Laboratory of Modern Agricultural Equipment and
Technology Ministry of Education and Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China.
Two ultrasonic nozzles were developed whose working frequencies were 1.7 MHz
and 40 kHz, respectively, nozzle drive circuit, acquisition system of humidity and
temperature. The objective was to be able to penetrate into the core of roots in an
aeroponic system. This phenomenon is so-called “external is wet but internal is dry”
and seriously affects aeroponic efficiency. It was concluded that for a cherry tomatoes
root system density grown in an aeroponic system, droplets generated by 1.7 MHz
ultrasonic atomizing nozzle were easier to penetrate into the core of the root; both
size and concentration of droplets influenced droplets penetrating into the root.
India
Original Papers: IoT-based Hydroponics System Using Deep Neural Networks
(Mehra et al., 2018).
Mehra, Manav et al., Department of Information Technology,
SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, India.
Control systems for aeroponic systems were developed by applying machine learning
algorithms like Neural Networks and Bayesian network. Internet of Things allows
for Machine to Machine interaction and controlling the system autonomously and
intelligently. The system developed is intelligent enough in providing the appropri-
ate control action for the hydroponic system based on the multiple input parameters
gathered. A prototype for tomato plant growth as a case study was developed using
Arduino, Raspberry Pi3 and Tensor Flow.
USA
Regeneration of Plants Using Nutrient Mist Culture (Weathers et al., 1988).
Pamela J. Weathers, et al., Department of Biology and
Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, USA.
A nutrient mist used for in vitro culture of plant tissue in a novel bioreactor, wherein
the tissues were grown on a biologically inert screen within a sterile chamber which
allows excess media to drain away from the tissue was developed. Plants tested
included Daucus, Lycopersicon, Ficus, Cinchona, and Brassica. The latter 4 genera
were fully regenerated within the bioreactor. Cost analysis estimates showed a 65%
savings in production costs (labor and materials) could be realized using nutrient
mist culture. Nutrient mist culture offers significant improvements in the microprop-
agation of plants for aeroponic growing.
USA
An Intermittent Aeroponics System (Peterson et al., 1988).
Peterson, Lloyd A. et al., Horticulture Department College of Agricultural
and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA.
An intermittent aeroponic system was developed and tested for potential use in plant
growth studies. Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) were grown in the system from the
cotyledon stage to flowering and fruiting within 40 days on a misting schedule of 7 s
at 10 min intervals with about one half strength Hoagland’s solution. The root envi-
ronment was controlled at 20 ± 1.1°C. Root growth was rapid with good branching
and root hair development. The proposed plant growth system provides the benefits
of easy access to the root system and control of the misting solution composition as
related to elemental concentration or to an application of a plant growth regulator at
different stages in the developing root. It may also provide a system for testing short-
term water stress in relation to plant development.
China
Prediction Model for Fundamental Frequency of Low Frequency Bending Vibration
Piezoelectric Vibrator of Ultrasonic Atomizing Nozzle (Jianmin et al., 2015).
Gao Jianmin et al., College of Vehicles and Energy,
Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao, China.
Ultrasonic atomization spraying technique was developed for small droplets, uni-
form size distribution, high roundness, large atomization quantity, and low liquid
delivery pressure for application in aeroponics, agricultural humidifying fields,
reagents atomization treatment, and semiconductor etching.
USA
The Vertical Farm: A Review of Developments and Implications for the Vertical City
(Al-Kodmany, 2018).
Kheir Al-Kodmany, University of Illinois, Chicago, USA.
The need for vertical farms by examining issues related to food security,
urban population growth, farmland shortages, “food miles”, and associated
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions was presented. Urban planners and agricultural
leaders have argued that cities will need to produce food internally to respond
to demand by increasing population and to avoid paralyzing congestion, harmful
pollution, and unaffordable food prices. The paper examines urban agriculture
as a solution to these problems by merging food production and consumption in
one place, with the vertical farm being suitable for urban areas where available
land is limited and expensive. Luckily, recent advances in greenhouse technolo-
gies such as hydroponics, aeroponics, and aquaponics have provided a promising
future to the vertical farm concept. Economic feasibility, codes, regulations, and
a lack of expertise remain major obstacles in the path to implementing the verti-
cal farm.
USA
One-Step Acclimatization of Plantlets Using a Mist Reactor (Correll et al., 2001).
Correll, M. J. et al., Department of Biology and Biotechnology,
Worcester Polytechnic Institute, USA.
A mist reactor was developed to grow and acclimatize carnation plants in vitro
without using ex vitro acclimatization techniques. The acclimatization protocol in
the reactor consisted of altering the mist-on period during the course of the culture
period and a stepwise reduction in the relative humidity surrounding the plants
from 98% to 70% relative humidity (RH) during the final week of in vitro growth.
After transfer and further growth in an aeroponic greenhouse for 5 weeks, survival
was 91% for plants grown in reactors, 81% from vented boxes, and 50% from
unvented boxes. After 5 weeks in the greenhouse, the quantity of mid- and high-
quality plants obtained from reactors and ventilated boxes was similar. Conditions
in the mist reactor can be manipulated to produce plants that are readily accli-
matized and are equal or better in quality and yield than plants produced using
conventional methods.
USA
Method for Growing Plants Aeroponically (Zobel et al., 1975).
Zobel, R.W., Cabot Foundation, Harvard
University, Petersham, MA, USA.
A simple, inexpensive system was developed for growing plants with their roots
bathed in nutrient mist. The aeroponics system uses a spinner from a home humidi-
fier to propel nutrient solution into a polyethylene-lined plywood box atop which
plants are supported on plastic light-fixture “egg crating.” Success in growing a num-
ber of herbaceous and woody species, including nodulated legumes and nonlegumes,
was reported.
China
Pyramid Shaped Hydroponic and Aeroponic Technology—a New Technology for
Pepper Cultivation (Chen et al., 2017).
Yinhua Chen et al., Lishui Academy of Agricultural Science, China.
A pyramid shaped aeroponic system was developed to grow plants in an air or mist
environment instead of using soils. The research reviewed pyramid-shaped hydro-
ponic and aeroponic system and made conclusions from base construction, process
of the cultivation and daily management.
Japan
Study of New Technology supporting design of Home Use Plant Factory (Li et al., 2014).
Li, Zhenpeng et al., Graduate School of Engineering, Chiba University, Japan.
A new technology was proposed for a plant factory for home use due to the growing
demand of planting vegetables at home in China. Home plant factory presented a huge
development potential and broad market prospect. This technology is an improve-
ment of conventional aeroponics and it cannot only help grow vegetables easily and
quickly, but also requires less water and energy than conventional hydroponics. In
the research the UNPF (Ultrasonic Nebulizer Plant Factory) was compared with
conventional hydroponics in the environment of indoor and to the application of the
UNPF for the design of home plant factory. It was found that the potherb mustard
and lettuce grew better in UNPF than in a control group.
TOMATO
China
Effects of Substrate-Aeration Cultivation Pattern on Tomato Growth (Zhao et al., 2010).
Zhao X et al., Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Protected Horticulture,
College of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, China.
A comparative study was conducted on the seedlings growth. Aeroponics can

increase the fruit yield of tomato plant, but its cost is very high. In this paper, tomato
seedlings were planted with three cultures, i.e., whole perlite culture (CK), perlite-
aeration culture (T1), and aeroponics (T2). Compared with CK, T1 improved the gas
environment in root zone significantly, with the carbon dioxide and oxygen concen-
trations in root zone being 0.2 and 1.17 times higher, and increased the plant height
and stem diameter after 60 days of transplanting by 5.1% and 8.4%, respectively. The
plant net photosynthetic rate of T1 was significantly higher than that of CK, with
the maximum value after transplanting 45 days increased by 13%. T1 also increased
the root activity and ion absorbing ability significantly, with the root activity after
transplanting 45 days being 1.23 times of CK, and the root K, Ca, and Mg con-
tents after transplanting 60 days increased by 31%, 37%, and 27%, respectively. The
fruit yield of T1 was 1.16 times of CK. No significant differences in these indices
were observed between T1 and T2, and less difference in the fruit soluble sugar and
organic acid contents as well as the sugar-acid ratio was found among CK, T1, and
T2. It was suggested that perlite-aeration cultivation pattern was an easy and feasible
way to markedly improve the fruit yield of tomato plant.
Israel
Roots of Tomato Respond to Mechanical Stimulation by Induction of Touch Genes.
(Eshel et al., 2005).
Eshel, A. et al., Department of Plant Sciences, The George S. Wise
Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
A study was conducted on the molecular events associated with the response to
mechanical impedance in plant shoots but not in their roots was studied. Plant roots
growing in soil are subjected constantly to friction and mechanical resistance. The
goal of the study was to identify components of the response mechanism to short
and long term mechanical simulation of tomato root apices at the morphological and
molecular level. Taking advantage of the unique aeroponic chambers of The Sarah
Racine Root Research laboratory the effect of mechanical impedance on tomato
roots was studied. The results show that mechanical stimulation brought about an
increase in the root branching.
USA
Physiological and Molecular Responses of Aeroponically Grown Tomato Plants to
Phosphorus Deficiency (Biddinger, 1998).
Biddinger et al., Department of Horticulture, Purdue
University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
The physiological changes occurring under phosphate (P) starvation to gene expression
was studied. Phosphorus is one of the essential but limiting nutrients in nature. Roots of
aeroponically grown tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) plants were sprayed intermit-
tently with nutrient solutions containing varying concentrations of P. Decreasing the con-
centration of P in the nutrient solution resulted in reduced biomass production and altered
the tissue concentration of nutrients in roots and shoots. Phosphorus starvation increased
the root:shoot biomass ratio and decreased net carbon dioxide assimilation and stomatal
conductance. Phosphorus concentrations in roots and shoots decreased with decreasing
concentration of P in the nutrient solution. P-deficient plants had a higher concentration
of Ca in roots and Mg in shoots. Expression of the P starvation-induced gene, TPSI1,
persisted even after 3 weeks of P starvation. The transcript accumulation in leaves was
found to be a specific response to P starvation and not to the indirect effects of altered
N, K, Fe, Mg, or Ca status. Accumulation of transcripts was also observed in stem and
petioles, suggesting a global role for TPSI1 during P starvation response of tomatoes.
Spain
Net simultaneous hydrogen and potassium ion flux kinetics in sterile aeroponic
sunflower seedling roots: effects of potassium ion supply, valinomycin, and dicyclo-
hexylcarbodiimide (Garrido et al., 1998).
Garrido, Inmaculada et al., Plant Physiology,
Extremadura University, Badajoz, Spain.
This study involved the simultaneous monitoring of variation of pH and potassium ion
(K) concentration in a medium bathing 48 h sterile, aeroponic dark‐grown sunflower
(H. annuus L.) seedling roots using specific noncombined high‐sensitivity electrodes
for pH and K. Net K influx rates for different K concentrations (0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, and
5 mM) lagged by ≈60 min with respect to the, hydrogen ion (H) efflux, and showed
the biphasic saturable kinetics (Epstein’s Systems I and II) described by other authors.
USA
Localization of Ethylene Biosynthesis in Roots of Sunflower (H. annuus) Seedlings
(Finlayson et al., 1996a).
Finlayson, Scott A. et al., Soil and Crop Sciences, College of
Agriculture and Life Sciences, Texas A&M, Texas, USA.
Sunflower (H. annuus L.) seedlings were grown in aeroponic chambers which
allowed for easy access to and easy harvesting of undamaged roots. In different
portions of these roots we followed the rate of ethylene production, levels of 1-amin
ocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC), N-malonyl-ACC and ACC oxidase mRNA
and activity of ACC oxidase. ACC oxidase was measured with an in vitro assay.
ACC and N-malonyl-ACC by selected ion monitoring gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry. Ethylene production was highest in the tip of the root and lower in the
middle and basal (part nearest the hypocotyl) portions of the root. Treating the seed-
lings with ACC produced a rapid rise in ACC content and ethylene production and
inhibited root elongation ACC oxidase activity was not induced by ACC treatment.
Canada
Drought-induced Increases in Abscisic Acid Levels in the Root Apex of Sunflower
(Robertson et al., 1985).
J. Mason Robertson et al., University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada.
Abscisic acid (ABA) levels were measured in 3-mm apical root segments of slowly
droughted sunflower plants (H. annuus L. cv Russian Giant) as the methyl ester by
selected ion monitoring gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. An internal stan-
dard, hexadeuterated ABA (d6ABA) was used for quantitative analysis. Sunflower
seedlings, grown in aeroponic chambers, were slowly droughted over a 7-day period.
Drought stress increased ABA levels in the root tips at 24, 72, and 168 h sample
times. Control plants had 57–106 ng/g ABA dry weight in the root tips (leaf water
potential, −0.35 to −0.42 megapascals). The greatest increase in ABA, about 20-fold,
was found after 72 h of drought (leaf water potential, −1.34 to −1.47 megapascals).
Levels of ABA also increased (about 7- to 54-fold) in 3-mm apical root segments
which were excised and then allowed to dessicate for 1 h at room temperature.
USA
The Effect of Carbon Dioxide on Ethylene Evolution and Elongation Rate in Roots
of Sunflower (H. annuus) Seedlings (Finlayson et al., 1996b).
Finlayson, Scott A. et al., Soil and Crop Sciences, College of
Agriculture and Life Sciences, Texas A&M, Texas, USA.
The effects of varying carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations were investigated

on ethylene production by excised and intact sunflower roots (H. annuus L. cv.
Dahlgren 131). Seedlings were germinated in an aeroponic system in which the
roots hung freely in a chamber and were misted with nutrient solution. This allowed
for treatment, manipulation and harvest of undamaged and minimally disturbed
roots. While exposure of excised roots to 0.5% CO2 could produce a small increase
in ethylene production (compared to roots in ambient CO2), CO2 concentrations
of 2% and above always inhibited ethylene evolution. This inhibition of ethylene
production by CO2 was attributed to a reduction in the availability of ACC; how-
ever, elevated CO2 had no effect on 1-aminocylopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC)
oxidase activity. ACC levels in excised roots were depressed by CO2, at a concen-
tration of 2% (as compared to ambient CO2), but n-malonyl-ACC (MACC) levels
were not affected.
TREES
Israel
Root–Shoot Allometry of Tropical Forest Trees Determined in a Large-Scale
Aeroponic System (Eshel et al., 2013).
Eshel, Amram et al., Department of Molecular Biology and
Ecology of Plants, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
The allometric relationships among the tropical tree organs, and carbon fluxes
between the various tree parts and their environment were studied. Information
on canopy-root interrelationships is needed to improve understanding of above-
and below-ground processes and for modelling of the regional and global carbon
cycle. Allometric relationships between the sizes of different plant parts will be
determined.
Two tropical forest species were used in this study: Ceiba pentandra (kapok),
a fast-growing tree native to South and Central America and to Western Africa,
and Khaya anthotheca (African mahogany), a slower-growing tree native to
Central and Eastern Africa. Growth and allometric parameters of 12-month-old
saplings grown in a large-scale aeroponic system and in 50-L soil containers
were compared. The main advantage of growing plants in aeroponics is that
their root systems are fully accessible throughout the plant life, and can be
fully recovered for harvesting. The expected differences in shoot and root size
between the fast-growing C. pentandra and the slower-growing K. anthotheca
were evident in both growth systems. Roots were recovered from the aeroponi-
cally grown saplings only, and their distribution among various diameter classes
followed the patterns expected from the literature. Stem, branch and leaf allo-
metric parameters were similar for saplings of each species grown in the two
systems. The aeroponic tree growth system can be utilized for determining the
basic allometric relationships between root and shoot components of these trees,
and hence can be used to study carbon allocation and fluxes of whole above- and
below-ground tree parts.
Portugal
Propagation of the Azorean native Morell afaya (Aiton) Wilbur (João et al., 2014).
Pereira Maria, João et al., Technical University of Lisbon, Centre
for Natural Resources and Environment, Lisbon, Portugal.
The production of Morella fay a (Aiton) Wilbur plants for Azorean wildlife habitat and
conservation landscaping was studied. With that purpose several germination and cut-
ting trials were conducted and the plantlets development on different substrates were
measured. In the germination trials the effect of chemical scarification, stratification,
temperature and photoperiod on seeds germination characteristics were studied. In
the cuttings trials semi-hardwood cuttings harvested in October and planted in sub-
strate and softwood cuttings harvested in April and placed in aeroponic conditions,
to test the effect of (0% and 0.4%) indole butyric acid on rooting were conducted.
After 34 weeks, fruits’ scarification under a suitable light and temperature regime
enhanced the percentage of germination. The best regimes of temperature and light
were: 15°C/8 h or environmental conditions (starting in October), resulting, respec-
tively, in 23% and 22.5% germination, 134 and 126 days of mean time of germination,
and 82 and 72 days for the first radicle emergence. Survival of the produced plants was
superior (95%) when using the soil from the plant’s habitat but plant development was
superior on the mixture: BVB (NPK): perlite (2:1). Mortality of cuttings was 100%.
USA
Evaluation of Three Root Growth Potential Techniques with Tree Seedlings
(Rietveld, 1989).
Rietveld, W., Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Rocky Mountain
Forest and Range Experiment Station, Lincoln, NE, USA.
Two tropical forest species: Ceiba pentandra (kapok), a fast-growing tree native to
South and Central America and to Western Africa, and Khaya anthotheca (African
mahogany), a slower-growing tree native to Central and Eastern Africa. Growth and
allometric parameters of 12-month-old saplings grown in a large-scale aeroponic
system and in 50-L soil containers were compared. The main advantage of growing
plants in aeroponics is that their root systems are fully accessible throughout the
plant life, and can be fully recovered for harvesting.
Australia
Influence of Low Oxygen Levels in Aeroponics Chambers on Eucalypt Roots
Infected with P. cinnamomi (Burgess et al., 1998).
Burgess, Treena et al., School of Veterinary and Life
Sciences Murdoch University Murdoch, Australia.
The differences in shoot and root size were studied between the fast-growing C.
pentandra and the slower-growing K. anthotheca. Roots were recovered from the
aeroponically grown saplings only, and their distribution among various diameter
classes followed the patterns expected from the literature. Stem, branch and leaf allo-
metric parameters were similar for saplings of each species grown in the two systems.
Australia
Effects of Sheared-Root Inoculum of Glomus intraradices on Wheat Grown at
Different Phosphorus Levels in the Field (Mohammad et al., 2004).
Mohammad, A. et al., School of Science, Food and
Horticulture, University of Western Sydney, Australia.
An aeroponic tree growth system were studied for determining the basic allometric
relationships between root and shoot components of these trees, and hence can be used
to study carbon allocation and fluxes of whole above- and below-ground tree parts.
VEGETABLES
Colombia
Development of An Aeroponic System for Vegetable Production (Reyes et al., 2012).
Reyes, J.L. et al., Department of Agricultural Sciences,
National University of Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia.
A study was conducted using aeroponic systems and proposed structures, ways of
monitoring, watering and plant care that are flexible for the diverse types of crops so
that Colombia could reduce technology dependency from overseas. Aeroponics is a
way of planting in which plants are suspended on the air and grow in a humid envi-
ronment without soil. This technique has most advantages when compared to other
planting techniques used commonly in Mexico. With aeroponics one can control
humidity, temperature, pH, and water conductivity under a greenhouse.
USA
Increased Oxygen Bioavailability Improved Vigor and Germination of Aged
Vegetable Seeds (Liu et al., 2012).
Guodong Liu et al., Horticultural Sciences Department,
IFAS, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
Germination of selected vegetable seeds were studied including corn (Zea mays L.),
squash (Cucurbita pepo L.), and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) in water with
different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide solution ranging from 0.06% to 3.0%
(v/v) or in aeroponics, all with 0.5 mM calcium sulfate. Imbibition, oxygen consump-
tion, proton extrusion, and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADHase) activity of corn seeds
were measured gravimetrically, electrochemically, and colorimetrically as appropri-
ate. The results showed that 0.15% hydrogen peroxide provided the optimum oxy-
gen concentration for seed germination. The germination percentage of aged corn
seeds treated with peroxide was significantly greater than those without treatment.
Corn embryo orientation in relation to a moist substrate also significantly impacted
oxygen bioavailability to the embryo and hence ADHase activity. The results from
this research imply that consideration should be given to including oxygen fortifica-
tion in seed coatings for aged seeds and for large seeds regardless of age.
WHEAT
Hungary
Lack of Active K+ Uptake in Aeroponically Grown Wheat Seedlings (Zsoldos et al.,
1987).
Zsoldos, Ferenc et al at the University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary.
A comparative study was conducted of the potassium (K+) uptake and the growth of
intact wheat seedlings (Triticum aestivum L. cv. GK Szeged) grown in 0.5 mM CaCl2
solution and of seedlings grown on wet filter paper in Petri dishes under different experi-
mental conditions. Aeroponic (AP) and hydroponic (HP) conditions brought about strik-
ing differences in the growth of the roots, whereas the shoot growth was not influenced.
The dry weight of the roots was higher for the AP plants than for the HP plants. The AP
grown seedlings exhibit a low rate of K+ uptake, which seems to be a passive process.
The effect of 2, 4–dinitrophenol (2, 4–DNP) clearly shows the absence of an active
component of the K+ uptake in roots grown in air with a high relative humidity. In plants
grown under AP conditions the effect of Ca2+ on the K+ uptake is unfavourable, i.e., there
is an inhibition (negative Viets effect). The results relating to the effect of 2,4–DNP sug-
gest that the “negative Viets effect” is a feature of the passive K+ uptake. The data suggest
that the AP growth conditions play a very important role in the induction and/or develop-
ment of the ion transport system(s), which becomes impaired under the AP conditions.
Iran
Role of Scavenging Enzymes and Hydrogen Peroxide and Glutathione S-transferase
in Mitigating the Salinity Effects on Wheat (Esfandiari et al., 2014).
Esfandiari, Ezatollah et al., University of Maragheh, Faculty of Agriculture,
Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Maragheh, Iran.
The effects of salt stress on activities of hydrogen peroxide scavenging enzymes,

glutathione S-transferase, some oxidative stress markers and Na+ and K+ distribu-
tion patterns in sensitive (Koohdasht) and tolerant (Gaskogen) wheat varieties using
aeroponics culture were studied. The seedlings were fed by nutrition solution till 3–4
leaf stage then the medium was added 200 mM NaCl. The plants were held at this
condition for 14 days. The results indicated that Gaskogen had always more shoot
dry matter than Koohdasht. The results obtained from this study showed that activity
of scavenging enzyme like hydrogen peroxide together with glutation S-transferase
caused controlling of toxic compounds in the Gaskogen variety and suppressed oxi-
dative stress affects in compared to Kouhdasht that could refer to lower rate of hydro-
gen peroxidase and less lipid peroxidation in Koohdasht. As a final result, it could be
stated that H2O2-scavenging enzymes and glutathione S-transferase had special roles
in detoxification of toxic compounds leading to keep stable conditions inside the
plant cells in salinity conditions. In addition, it is suggested that for better evaluation
of salt tolerance in wheat genotypes or varieties and optimum utilization of genetic
resources, addition to sodium rate and its allocation in various parts of the plant,
defense mechanisms should be considered against oxidative stress induced salinity.
Iran
Evaluation of Cd Effects on Growth and Some Oxidative Stress Parameters of Wheat
Cultivars During Seedling Stage (Esfandiari et al., 2016).
Ezatollah Esfandiari et al., University of Maragheh, Faculty of Agriculture,
Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Maragheh, Iran.
Six different cultivars of wheat cultivated by aeroponic system were studied. They
were treated by 200 mM cadmium chloride for 14 days at the 3 or 4 leaves stage.
Finally, plants were sampled and morphological characteristics, parameters subjected
to defense mechanisms as well as amount of accumulated Cd in tissues were evaluated.
The results showed that cadmium accumulation in tissues significantly decreased root
length and dry matter of root, shoot, and whole plant. Cd accumulation also increased
hydrogen peroxide amount in leaf cells of Kohdasht and Pishtase cultivars.
USA
Effects of Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus on Root and Shoot Growth of Winter Wheat
Seedlings Grown in Aeroponic Culture (Hoffman et al., 1997).
Hoffman, T. K. et al., Department of Crop Sciences,
University of Illinois, Urbana, USA.
Seedlings of eight soft red winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) cultivars were grown in
an aeroponic mist box to study the effects of barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV) on
root and shoot growth and to look for differences in root and shoot growth among
cultivars. The cultivars selected for the study were Caldwell, Cardinal, Clark, Howell,
IL 87–2834, Tyler, and Pioneer brands 2548 and 2555. A split-plot treatment design
was used, with uninfected and inoculated treatments as whole plots and cultivars as
subplots. Differences among cultivars were found for most growth characteristics
under both control and BYDV-infected conditions. There was a strong positive corre-
lation between shoot and root dry weights in both the control and BYDV treatments,
indicating that cultivars with vigorous shoot growth tended to have more vigorous
root growth. The results indicate that, initially, the root system is affected more
severely than the shoot in BYDV-infected wheat seedlings.
YAMS
Nigeria
Aeroponics: High-quality Seed Yam Production (Alawode et al., 2017).
Oluyinka Alawode, International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria.
The mass production of seed yams were studied in a rapid and affordable process,
which avoids using soil and transferring disease. A project in Ghana and Nigeria is
using aeroponics to address the inefficiency of traditional seed yam production and
increase yields of the staple crop.
Nigeria
Improved Propagation Methods to Raise the Productivity of Yam (Dioscorea rotun-
data Poir.) (Aighewi et al., 2015).
Aighewi, B. et al., Department of Crop Science, University of Abuja, Nigeria.
The white Guinea yam (Dioscorea rotundata Poir.) which is an important staple
to millions of people in West Africa was studied. Obtaining good quality planting
material for yam cultivation is a major challenge. Multiplication ratios are low, and
seed tubers are prone to contamination with pests and pathogens in the traditional
systems of production. New methods that have been developed to address some of
the challenges of quantity and quality of seed tubers are not yet widely applied, so
farmers continue to use traditional methods and save seed from a previous harvest to
plant the ware crop. This document presents an overview of traditional and modern
methods of seed yam production and gives a perspective for the future. Among the
modern methods of seed yam production, only the minisett technique, which uses
25–100 g tuber pieces, is currently used at farmer level, although on a limited scale.
While tissue and organ culture techniques are the most rapid methods of multiply-
ing disease-free propagules, their limitations include high costs, need for skilled
personnel, and specialized equipment. The aeroponics and temporary immersion
bioreactor methods of producing seed yam are relatively new, and still need more
research. To build and sustain a viable seed yam production system, a multiplication
scheme is required that combines two or more methods including tissue culture for
cleaning the seed stock.
Nigeria
Yam Production using Aeroponics Technology (Balgun et al., 2014).
Balgun, M.N. et al., Department of Crop Protection and
Environmental Biology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
Scientists at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture have successfully

propagated yam by planning vine cuttings in Aeroponics System (AS) boxes. A loan
agreement was signed with the African Development Bank (AfDB) for the Artisanal
Fisheries Support Project.
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Taylor & Francis
5 Aeroponics Innovations
Every once in a while, a new technology, an old problem, and a big idea turn
into an innovation.
Dean Kamen
The pioneers in aeroponic technology have been Disneyworld in EPCOT and NASA.
These organizations have been the innovators and have launched this technology in
last 30 years.
AEROPONICS AT DISNEY WORLD

In the 1990s, Walt Disney World launched the Land as part of the EPCOT park. It
became the place where innovative farming technology was developed. There were
2.5 million square feet of active greenhouses which produced enormous amounts
of the food served in the park’s restaurants while providing a space for scientists
to research indoor plant growing techniques. Among those techniques are verti-
cal growing techniques. They asked the key questions—is there a way to increase
food production while using less water, less fertilizer, fewer pesticides, and even
less space. Plants are grown vertically using either stacked gardens or specialized
trellises that allow crops to reach gravity-defying heights. Produce grown in this
way uses a fraction of the space required by conventional methods, which results in
saving water and increasing yields. Another groundbreaking way to grow food more
efficiently is to grow it without soil. Hydroponics is a method of growing plants using
just water and nutrients, and Disney uses this technology throughout their green-
houses (Lynch, 2018).
Epcot produces over 27,000 heads of lettuce a year using a form of hydropon-
ics called the nutrient film technique. This technique allows a shallow stream of
nutrient-infused water to circulate past the plants’ exposed roots, providing all the
good stuff a plant would usually get from the soil. However, it is quicker than grow-
ing crops in the soil, it uses less water, and it allows growers to stack plants closer
together. Aeroponics is another form of dirt-free farming at Epcot. It is similar to
hydroponics, but instead of feeding the plants with a stream of water, their roots
dangle freely in the air and are periodically sprayed with a fine mist of atomized
nutrients. Epcot has partnered with NASA to pioneer new ways of growing food
aeroponically because it is exactly the sort of technology that could be used for a
long-term space mission.
141
AEROPONICS AT NASA
Plants have been to space since 1960, but NASA’s plant growth experiments began in
earnest during the 1990s (Spinoff, 2007). Experiments aboard the space shuttle and
International Space Station have exposed plants to the effects of microgravity. These
experiments use the principles of aeroponics: growing plants in an air/mist environ-
ment with no soil and very little water (NASA).
In 1997, NASA-sponsored studies aboard the Mir space station using Adzuki
bean seeds and seedlings, a high-protein Asian food crop. While the beans were
growing in zero gravity, ground control experiments were performed to see how
another group of seeds and seedlings responded on Earth. Both sets of plants were
treated with an all-natural, organically derived, disease control liquid known as
Organic Disease Control or Organically Derived Colloidals (ODC).
While all of the seeds grew well, those aboard Mir grew more than those on
Earth. Both sets of plants treated with the ODC method grew more robustly and
exhibited less fungal infection than the untreated seeds and seedlings.
Results from NASA’s research aboard Mir have contributed to rapid-growth
systems now used on Earth. Plants are sown from either cuttings or seeds and
then suspended mid-air in a growing chamber. The developing root systems grow
under an enclosed, air-based environment, which is regularly misted with a fine,
nutrient-rich spray. Aeroponic growing systems provide clean, efficient, and rapid
food production. Crops can be planted and harvested in the system year round
without interruption and without contamination from soil, pesticides, and residues.
Since the growing environment is clean and sterile, it greatly reduces the chances
of spreading plant disease and infection commonly found in soil and other grow-
ing media.
The suspended system also has other advantages. Seedlings do not stretch or wilt
while their roots are forming. Once the roots are developed, the plants can be easily
moved into any type of growing media without the risk of transplant shock, which
often sets back normal growth.
Aeroponics systems can reduce water usage by 98%, fertilizer usage by 60%, and
pesticide usage by 100%, all while maximizing crop yields. Plants grown in the aero-
ponic systems have also been shown to uptake more minerals and vitamins, making
the plants healthier and potentially more nutritious.
Tomato growers traditionally sow their plants in pots, waiting at least 28 days
before transplanting them into the ground. Using an aeroponic system, growers can
sow the plants in the growing chamber, and then transplant them just 10 days later.
This advanced technology produces six tomato crop cycles per year, instead of the
traditional one to two crop cycles.
Successful long-term missions into deep space will require that crews grow some
of their own food during flight. Aeroponic crops are also a potential source of fresh
oxygen and clean drinking water. But this is about more than a breath of fresh air
or taking a quick shower. Each ounce of food and water produced aboard a space-
craft reduces payload weight, allowing space for other cargo that cannot be produced
onboard.
Aeroponics Innovations 143
60
Number of Patents Issued
45
30
15
0
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
FIGURE 5.1 Number of US Patents related to aeroponics issued from 2001 to 2018.
There are several ways to measure innovation. The pioneers, Disneyworld and
NASA, have been summarized and next the intellectual property related to aeropon-
ics will be reviewed with a focus on the US Patents issued since 2001. Figure 5.1
shows the number of patents related to aeroponics by the year the patent was issued.
The graph follows a similar trend to the peer-reviewed articles published since 1970
(Figure 4.1) in Chapter 4 on the Science of Aeroponics. The number of patents seems
to be increasing by year which may mean that this technology is increasing in value
and applicability as a sustainable commercial agricultural method.
Of the 308 patents issued since 2001–2018, 44% were assigned to a company,
research foundation, or university. The remainder are held by private individuals.
The top ten assignees are listed in Table 5.1. The leader is Xyleco with 23 patents.
Xyleco was founded by Marshall Medoff with the vision to increase the worlds
sustainable resources. It is a privately held research and manufacturing company
started in Woburn, MA and moved to Wakefield in 2015. Xyleco is developing a pro-
cess to convert biomass into useful products, including cellulosic ethanol. Xyleco’s
global intellectual property portfolio exceeds 5,000 patents and applications in
100 countries worldwide (Xyleco website).
Xyleco’s Board of Directors includes three Nobel prize winners in science
(chemistry and physics), a senior professor in chemical engineering at MIT, a for-
mer US Secretary of Energy and a former Chief Executive Officer of the world’s
largest oil company. Their patents describe methods that can be used to process
biomass using hydroponics. Hydroponics is a method of growing plants using min-
eral nutrient solutions, without soil. Plants may be grown with their roots in the
TABLE 5.1
Top 10 Aeroponic Patent Holders
Xyleco, Inc. 23
Bayer Crop Science AG 17
Aerogrow International, Inc. 12
Indigo AG, Inc. 9
Living Greens Farm, Inc. 7
Bayer Intellectual Property GMBH 5
Cal Safe Soil, LLC 5
Colorado Energy Research Technologies, LLC 5
Research Development Foundation 5
Indoor Farms of America, LLC 4
mineral nutrient solution only (solution culture) or in an inert medium (medium

culture) such as perlite, gravel, or mineral wool. The three main types of solu-
tion cultures are static solution culture, continuous flow solution culture, and
aeroponics.
Xyleco is followed by Bayer CropScience with 17 and Bayer Intellectual Property
GMBH with five additional patents (CropScience website). So Bayer holds 22 patents.
Patents describe methods and compositions for the control of rust fungi by inhibiting
specific genes. Applications may be made as seed treatment, foliar application, stem
application, drench or drip application (chemigation) to the seed, the plant or the
fruit, to the soil or to inert substrate.
AeroGrow holds 12 patents which are focused on home use aeroponic devices.
A countertop gardening appliance dimensioned to fit on a countertop and a
controller adapted to activate the artificial light source and the gas pump on pre-
determined time cycles. AeroGrow International, Inc. is the manufacturer and dis-
tributor of an indoor gardening system—the AeroGarden line of Smart Countertop
Gardens. Headquartered in Boulder, Colorado, AeroGrow has a commitment to
helping people successfully grow healthy, fresh food regardless of season, location,
or experience (Aerogrow website).
Since introducing the first AeroGarden in March 2006, AeroGrow has expanded
the product line to include multiple gardens with different price points and con-
sumer benefits. From small to tall and from simple to sophisticated, AeroGarden
provides products for every consumer regardless of their aptitude or gardening
experience.
AeroGrow also develops, manufactures, and markets a variety of consumable
products for use in its gardens including Seed Kits, Grow Lights, hydroponic nutri-
ents, and accessory products. On April 23, 2013, the Company announced that
Scotts Miracle-Gro made a $4.5 million equity investment and IP acquisition with
the Company, resulting in a 30% beneficial ownership interest in AeroGrow. In the
process, AeroGrow took steps to entirely eliminate its long-term debt, restructured
the balance sheet to facilitate potential future transactions, and gained a valuable
partnership for growth. The agreement affords AeroGrow the use of the glob-
ally recognized and highly trusted Miracle-Gro brand name while also providing
AeroGrow a broad base of support in marketing, distribution, supply chain logistics,
R&D, and sourcing.
AeroGrow was founded in July 2002 and became a publicly-traded company on
February 24, 2006. AeroGrow is headquartered in Boulder, Colorado and employs
approximately 25 people.
Indigo AG holds nine patents mainly focused on the microbiome but also has
a patent on a modular aeroponic system. The history of the company starts with
Flagship Venture Labs, the innovation foundry of Flagship Ventures, which began
research in 2012 and created Symbiota in 2014. Symbiota then became Indigo. They
sought to recreate the plant’s natural microbial makeup, involving the identification
and sequence 40,000 endosymbionts—microbes that live inside the plant itself—
creating the largest body of data on earth for these microbes. To reintroduce these
beneficial microbes back into crops, they created a seed coating that provides a path
for these microbes to return to their native habitat. This in turn yields more abun-
dant, healthier crops that are more resistant to stresses like insufficient water, low
nitrogen, high temperature, and salty soils, while bolstering crops’ resistance to dis-
ease and harmful insects (6).
Most of their patents focus on the endophyte populations are intended to be useful
in the improvement of agricultural plants, and as such, may be formulated with other
compositions as part of an agriculturally compatible carrier. It is contemplated that
such carriers can include, but not be limited to: seed treatment, root wash, seedling
soak, foliar application, soil inocula, in-furrow application, sidedress application,
soil pretreatment, wound inoculation, drip tape irrigation, vector-mediation via a
pollinator, injection, osmopriming, hydroponics, aquaponics, and aeroponics. The
carrier composition with the endophyte populations, may be prepared for agricul-
tural application as a liquid, a solid, or a gas formulation. Application to the plant
may be achieved, for example, as a powder for surface deposition onto plant leaves,
as a spray to the whole plant or selected plant element, as part of a drip to the soil or
the roots.
One patent describes a modular aeroponic system that accommodates different
support-media and misting or spray configurations. It comprises a root chamber with
plumbing that is coupled to a nutrient distribution system and a misting system.
Living Greens Farms Inc. hold seven aeroponic-related patents. It consists of a
vertical triangular shaped aeroponic system and irrigation system. It consists of a
chamber into which plant roots may extend, and into which one or more exit ports
are able to grow their plants (Living Greens website).
Faribault, Minnesota-based Living Greens Farm Inc., which runs one of the larg-
est indoor farms in the world, is looking to turn a new leaf. The produce grower
has so far raised $3 million in new capital as part of a $12 million Series A round.
Once fundraising is complete, Living Greens Farm CEO Dana Anderson will use the
money to grow the scale of its operations.
The farm currently has 20,000 square feet of grow space, allowing for annual
production of about 760,000 heads of lettuce. The $12 million infusion would help
the company expand and re-design their space for more efficiency. Ultimately,
Anderson said he would like to see the space grow to about 60,000 square feet of
farm space—a possibility in their 45,000 square-foot building because the vertical
structure of the farm magnifies floor space. Living Greens Farm is not your typical
farm. Rather, it grows plants indoors using aeroponics, which involves the practice
of suspending a plant’s roots in the air and spraying them with a nutrient-rich solu-
tion instead of burying them in soil. The method is said to be the fastest way to
grow greens. The company also uses a computer system to control elements such as
light, temperature, humidity, and carbon dioxide, and has its own patented vertical
growing and traversing misting systems. Living Greens Farm claims its system uses
200 times less land and 95% less water than a traditional farm. The enhanced grow-
ing area that the Series A capital could multiply Living Greens Farm production to
3 million heads of lettuce annually. Anderson noted that production level would be
equal to that of a roughly 200-acre farm.
Furthermore, Anderson said the $12 million will be used to commercialize
Living Greens Farm’s technology. The company currently holds four patents and
though Anderson said they’ll continue to invent new assets, they are focused primar-
ily on refining their existing technology and proliferating it across the world. “There
continues to be a lot of issues with field-grown products,” he said, citing instances
of recalls of romaine and people getting sick from bad lettuce. “We’re offering the
safer, healthier option consumers are looking for.”
The companies with the next highest number of patents in this field are:
Cal Safe Soil LLC (focused on nutrient compositions)

Colorado Energy Research Corp (fermentation methods)
Research Development Corp (saponin mixtures and compounds from Acacia
that exhibit potent anti-tumor effects against a variety of tumor cells)
Indoor Farms of America (vertical aeroponic systems)
Other companies that have patents on aeroponic growing systems in alphabetic order:
Aero Development Corp USA (commercial vertical aeroponic systems)

Aessense Technology USA (sensors for aeroponic systems)
Agricool France (Container system)
AirGrow IP USA (Apparatus for aeroponically growing and development
plants)
AliGroWorks USA, Inc. (automated watering system and plant growing
system)
Azoth Solutions, LLC USA (vertical aeroponic cultivation system)
Croptimize APS Denmark (hydroponic/aeroponic horizontal stacked verti-
cally system)
Double J Holdings, LLC USA (hydroponic/aeroponic horizontal stacked
vertically system)
Econow Systems, LLC USA (self-contained compact automated aeroponic
systems)
EZ-Clone Enterprises, Inc. USA (aeroponic horizontal stacked vertically

system)
GnomeWorks Greenhouse Inc. Canada (aeroponic horizontal stacked verti-
cally grow tube system)
Green Thumb Technology Inc. USA (vertical hydroponic/aeroponic system)
GrowX Inc. USA (vertical aeroponic system)
Harvest Urban Farms Inc. USA (commercial aeroponic horizontal stacked ver-
tically system)
Intelligent Growth Solutions Ltd. UK (aeroponic horizontal stacked vertically
system)
Inventagon LLC USA (horizontal fabric based aeroponic system)
Land Green and Technology Co. Ltd. Taiwan (aeroponic horizontal stacked
vertically system)
Living Box Ltd. USA (horizontal hydroponic/aeroponic system)
Microwave Ltd. Gibraltar (horizontal hydroponic/aeroponic system)
MJNN LLC USA (vertical hydroponic/aeroponic curved wall system)
Ohneka Farms LLC USA (vertical hydroponic/aeroponic system)
Opusculum PTE Ltd. Singapore (vertical aeroponic system using perforated
materials)
Orbital Technologies, Inc. USA (horizontal rotary cylinder hydroponic/aero-
ponic system)
Perfect Plant LLC Cook Island (hydroponic/aeroponic system)
Phidro LLC USA (vertically angled modular areohydroponic system)
Plantui Oy USA (indoor aerohydroponic horizontal system)
RoBotany Ltd. USA (vertically stacked aerohydroponic horizontal system)
SproutslO, Inc. USA (aerohydroponic system)
STMicroelectronics, Inc. USA (single plant misted aeroponic system)
Sustainable Strategies LLC West Indies (overhead spray aerohydroponic
system)
University of Guelph Canada (vegetated mats in an aerohydroponic horizontal
system)
Xiamen SUPERPRO Technology CO., Ltd. China (hydroponic system)
Other companies have patents related to aeroponics but are focused on nutrient solu-
tion compositions, fungicides, sensors, artificial lights, materials, pesticides, green-
houses, and other concomitant topics.
In addition to the company assigned patents there are 56% of the patents that
were not assigned to any company. Of those 17% were plant growing systems and
the word ‘aeroponic’ was used in the patent title in 6% of those. Many of these pat-
ents were hydroponic systems or variations on hydroponic systems and the word
‘aeroponic’ was used in the patent description, but in most cases was not the focus
of the patent.
Table 5.2 is a list of the patents by number, inventor, assignee, and date of issue.
These are sorted in chronological order from the most current to the oldest based on
date of issue.
TABLE 5.2
US Patents Related to Aeroponics Since 2001 by Number, Title, Principal
Investigator, and Date of Issue
Patent Date of
Number Title Principal Investigator Issue
20190021247 Aqueous Grow Chamber Recirculating Boerema; Martin; et al. January
Nutrient Control System and Sensor 24, 2019
Calibration
20190008158 Endophyte Compositions and Methods On Maltzahn; Geoffrey January
for Improvement of Plant Traits in 10, 2019
Plants of Agronomic Importance
20190008104 Root Trellis for Use in Hydroponic Sabzerou; Nate; et al. January
Growing and Methods of Using 10, 2019
Same
20180368346 Fogponic Plant Growth System Watson; Michael C. December
27, 2018
20180368343 Sustainable Growing System and O’Rourke; Greg December
Method 27, 2018
20180361420 Low Frequency Electrostatic Gao; Jianmin; et al. December
Ultrasonic Atomizing Nozzle 20, 2018
20180354868 Soluble Fertilizer Formulation and Taganov; Igor; et al. December
Method for Use Thereof 13, 2018
20180352761 Bio Cell System Hall; David R.; et al. December
13, 2018
20180347406 Quintuple-Effect Generation Friesth; Kevin Lee December
Multi-Cycle Hybrid Renewable 6, 2018
Energy System With Integrated
Energy Provisioning, Storage
Facilities And Amalgamated Control
System
20180338440 Cloner Dearinger; Robert November
29, 2018
20180338439 Temperature and Light Insulated Gao; Wanjun November
Aeroponics Root Chamber Built with 29, 2018
Opaque High-Density Expanded
Polypropylene
20180338430 Aeroponic Irrigation System Cobzev; Anton N.; et al. November
29, 2018
20180332777 Vegetation Grow Light Embodying Thosteson; Eric; et al. November
Power Delivery and Data 22, 2018
Communication Features
20180325056 Aeroponic Growing Column and Stolzfus; Samuel A.; et al. November
System 15, 2018
20180325055 Aeroponic Apparatus Krakover; Gilad November
15, 2018
(Continued)
TABLE 5.2 (Continued)

Patent Date of
20180325052 Aeroponic Installation, System and GRU; Gonzague; et al. November
Freight Container 15, 2018
20180325038 Automated Vertical Plant Cultivation Spiro; Daniel S. November
System 15, 2018
System 8, 2018
System 8, 2018
20180317409 Vertical Aeroponic Growing Apparatus Staffeldt; Benjamin Jon November
8, 2018
20180308028 Control of Plant-Growing Facilities Zhang; Hong; et al. October
And Workforces 25, 2018
20180298398 Methods and Compositions for the Gautier; Pierrick; et al. October
Control of Rust Fungi by Inhibiting 18, 2018
Expression of the HXT1 Gene
20180295800 Vertically Oriented Modular Kiernan; John Thomas October
Aerohydroponic Systems and 18, 2018
Methods of Planting and Horticulture
20180288954 Method of Growing Plants and System Glaser; Grant; et al. October
Therefore 11, 2018
20180288949 Method of Growing Plants, Growing Glaser; Grant; et al. October
Chamber and System Therefore 11, 2018
20180251776 Endophyte Compositions and Methods Riley; Raymond September
for Improvement of Plant Traits 6, 2018
20180249716 Endophyte Compositions and the Riley; Raymond September
Methods for Improvement of Plant 6, 2018
Traits
20180242539 An Intelligent Integrated Plant Growth Bhattacharya; Deb Ranjan; August 30,
System and a Process of Growing et al. 2018
Plant Thereof
20180242531 Device for Promoting Root Function Berry, III; Henry Kistler; et al. August 30,
in Industrial Farming 2018
20180237352 Soluble Fertilizer Formulation and Taganov; Igor; et al. August 23,
Method for Use Thereof 2018
20180220603 Industrial Aeroponics Burford; Gerek Levi August 9,
2018
20180213800 Penicillium Endophyte Compositions Djonovic; Slavica; et al. August 2,
and Methods for Improved 2018
Agronomic Traits in Plants
20180206420 Irrigation Device Kendall; John William July 26,
2018
(Continued)

Patent Date of
20180177196 Fungal Endophytes for Improved Crop Sword; Gregory A. June 28,
Yields and Protection from Pests 2018
20180177143 Soil-less Pre-Vegetated Mat and Yuristy; Greg; et al. June 28,
Process for Production Thereof 2018
20180153174 Modulated Nutritional Quality Traits Riley; Raymond; et al. June 7,
in Seeds 2018
20180153115 Apparatus for Crop/Plant/Life-Form Edke; Rajesh; et al. June 7,
Cultivation 2018
20180153114 Modular Aeroponic System and Riley; Raymond; et al. June 7,
Related Methods 2018
20180132434 Method and System for Capable of Fu; Lid May 17,
Selecting Optimal Plant Cultivation 2018
Method
20180105827 Method for Producing High-Quality Gomord; Veronique; et al. April 19,
Recombinant Allergens in a Plant 2018
20180098515 Controlled Environment and Method Anderson; Dana; et al. April 12,
2018
20180092314 Vertical Hydroponics Systems McGuinness; Jennifer; et al. April 5,
2018
20180084744 Column Element for a Device for the Tidona; Marco April 12,
Vertical Cultivation of Plants 2018
20180077884 Apparatus and Method for Automated Barker; Stephen F.; et al. March 22,
Aeroponic Systems For Growing 2018
Plants
20180070545 Ventusponic Automated Hydroponic Perry; Stanley J.; et al. March 15,
Plant Growth Apparatus and Method 2018
20180064048 Growing Systems and Methods Joseph; Timothy E.; et al. March 8,
2018
20180042191 Aeroponics System with Rack and Blackburn; William J.; et al. February
Tray 15, 2018
20180020677 Seed Endophytes across Cultivars and Ambrose; Karen V.; et al. January
Species, Associated Compositions, 25, 2018
and Methods of Use Thereof
20180014486 Control and Sensor Systems for an Creechley; Jaremy; et al. January
Environmentally Controlled Vertical 18, 2018
Farming System
20180014485 Environmentally Controlled Vertical Whitcher; John L.; et al. January
Farming System 18, 2018
20180014471 Vertical Growth Tower and Module for Jensen; Rob; et al. January
an Environmentally Controlled 18, 2018
Vertical Farming System
(Continued)

Patent Date of
20180007849 Hydroculture System Cohen; Mordehay Shlomo; January
et al. 11, 2018
20180007845 Systems, Methods, and Devices for Martin; John-Paul Armand January
Aeroponic Plant Growth 11, 2018
20180000029 Vertical Aeroponic Plant Growing Martin; David W.; et al. January 4,
Enclosure 2018
20170347548 System and Method for Cultivating Jollie; Jesse L. December
Plants 7, 2017
20170339846 Apparatus and Method for Lawrence; Austin Blake; et al. November
Autonomous Controlled Environment 30, 2017
Agriculture
20170332567 Aerobic, Bioremediation Treatment Gencer; Mehmet A.; et al. November
System Comprising Floating Inert 23, 2017
Media in an Aqueous Environment
20170332544 Data Driven Indoor Farming Conrad; Travis Anthony; et al. November
Optimization 23, 2017
20170321233 Processing Biomass Medoff; Marshall November
9, 2017
20170208757 Horticultural Nutrient Control System Valmont; Justin Jean Leonard July 27,
and Method for Using Same 2017
20170202163 Aeroponic Culture Line Aschheim; Raymond; et al. July 20,
2017
20170188531 Accelerated Plant Growth System Daniels; John J. July 6,
2017
20170188526 Aeroponics System with Microfluidic De Fazio; Marco; et al. July 6,
Die and Sensors for Feedback 2017
Control
20170181394 Hydroponic Growing System Kotsatos; Vasilios M. June 29,
2017
20170152532 Processing Biomass Medoff; Marshall June 1,
2017
20170152468 Biodigestion Reactor, System Fernandez; Todd; et al. June 1,
Including the Reactor, and Methods 2017
of Using Same
20170150687 Device for Hydroponic Cultivation Loiske; Janne; et al. June 1,
2017
20170150686 Container for Supplying Plant Roots Erbacher; Clemens June 1,
with Nutrient Solution without the 2017
Use of Soil
20170150684 Hydroponic Indoor Gardening Method Vuorinen; Kari; et al. June 1,
2017
(Continued)

Patent Date of
20170137311 System and Method of Treating Fernandez; Todd; et al. May 18,
Organic Material 2017
20170130252 Processing Biomass Medoff; Marshall May 11,
2017
20170105373 Fluid Filtration and Distribution Byron, III; James Edgar; et al. April 20,
System for Planting Devices 2017
20170105368 Hybrid Hydroponic Plant Growing Mehrman; Edward L. April 20,
Systems 2017
20170105358 Led Light Timing in a High Growth, Wilson; James G. April 20,
High Density, Closed Environment 2017
System
20170099791 Growing Systems and Methods Joseph; Timothy E.; et al. April 13,
2017
20170099790 Modular Automated Growing System Gonyer; Daegan; et al. April 13,
2017
20170097329 Optical Sensor for Fluid Analysis Smeeton; Tim Michael; et al. April 6,
2017
20170094920 Integrated Incubation, Cultivation and Ellins; Craig; et al. April 6,
Curing System and Controls for 2017
Optimizing and Enhancing Plant
Growth, Development and
Performance of Plant-Based Medical
Therapies
20170088477 Nutrient Rich Compositions Morash; Daniel M.; et al. March 30,
2017
20170086399 Irrigation System Anderson; Dana; et al. March 30,
2017
20170064912 Growing Vegetables within a Closed Tabakman; Zale Lewis David March 9,
Agricultural Environment 2017
20170055472 Rotary Plant Growing Apparatus Gunther; Matt March 2,
2017
20170055461 Automated Hydroponics System and Neuhoff J. R.; Robert V.; et al. March 2,
Method 2017
20170045488 Methods and Apparatus for Riess; Mark James; et al. February
Determining Fertilizer/Treatment 16, 2017
Requirements and/or Predicting Plant
Growth Response
20170035008 Method for Optimizing and Enhancing Ellins; Craig; et al. February
Plant Growth, Development and 9, 2017
Performance
(Continued)

Patent Date of
20170035002 Apparatus for Optimizing and Ellins; Craig; et al. February
Enhancing Plant Growth, 9, 2017
Development and Performance
20170023193 Grow Light Embodying Power Thosteson; Eric; et al. January
Delivery and Data Communications 26, 2017
Features
20170013810 Portable Agrarian Biosystem Grabell; Herb; et al. January
19, 2017
20160366892 Designed Complex Endophyte Ambrose; Karen V.; et al. December
Compositions and Methods for 22, 2016
Improved Plant Traits
20160324086 Aeroponic Growth Unit for Growing Steuart; Douglas Osborne November
Plants, System, Greenhouse and 10, 2016
Methods Thereof
20160318820 Plant Nutrient Coated Nanoparticles Deb; Nilanjan November
and Methods for their Preparation 3, 2016
and Use
20160316760 Isolated Complex Endophyte Ambrose; Karen V.; et al. November
Compositions and Methods for 3, 2016
Improved Plant Traits
20160316645 Hydroponic System Neufeld; Jon November
3, 2016
20160298265 Spider Silk and Synthetic Polymer Lewis; Randolph V.; et al. October
Fiber Blends 13, 2016
20160298147 Processing Biomass Medoff; Marshall October
13, 2016
20160295820 Automatic Tower with Many Novel Aykroyd; Henry; et al. October
Applications 13, 2016
20160289710 Processing Biomass Medoff; Marshall October 6,
2016
20160289709 Processing Biomass Medoff; Marshall October 6,
2016
20160270311 Vertical Aeroponic Plant Growing Martin; David W.; et al. September
Enclosure with Support Structure 22, 2016
20160262391 Pesticidal Composition Comprising a Hungenberg; Heike; et al. September
Pyridylethylbenzamide Derivative 15, 2016
and an Insecticide Compound
20160255781 Wireless Sensor Systems for Chen; Tianshu; et al. September
Hydroponics 8, 2016
20160235025 Aeroponic Cultivation System Bray; Jon Aaron August 18,
2016
(Continued)

Patent Date of
20160235024 Flexible Hydroponics Growing Model Xu; Liqiang; et al. August 18,
and System 2016
20160227719 Aeroponic System Orff; Dylan August 11,
2016
20160215251 Systems and Methods of Improved Powell; Wayne J.; et al. July 28,
Fermentation 2016
20160214945 Agricultural Chemicals Urch; Christopher; et al. July 28,
2016
20160212997 Agricultural Chemicals Urch; Christopher; et al. July 28,
2016
20160198650 Compact Plant Growing Unit Lahaeye; Eric July 14,
2016
20160192594 Central Processing Horticulture Mawendra; Aravinda Raama July 7,
2016
20160183487 System and Method for Detecting the Kabakov; Bentsion June 30,
Absence of a Thin Nutrient Film in a 2016
Plant Growing Trough
20160183486 System and Method for Growing Kabakov; Bentsion June 30,
Crops and Components Therefor 2016
20160183476 Mobile Plant Service System and Kabakov; Bentsion June 30,
Components Therefor 2016
20160174546 Nano Particulate Delivery System Berg; Paulo Sergio; et al. June 23,
2016
2016
20160165925 Nutrient Rich Compositions Morash; Daniel M.; et al. June 16,
2016
20160159705 Nutrient Rich Compositions Morash; Daniel M.; et al. June 9,
2016
20160135395 Modular Hydroponic Growing System Umpstead; Neil May 19,
2016
20160135394 Hydroponic System For Growing Wagner; Daniel Davidson May 19,
Plants 2016
20160128289 Hydroponic System with Actuated Wong; Simon; et al. May 12,
Above-Plant Platform 2016
20160128288 Self-Watering, Self-Lighting Pettinelli; Gabrielle; et al. May 12,
Hydroponic System 2016
20160120141 Aeroponic Growing Column and Stolzfus; Samuel A.; et al. May 5,
System 2016
(Continued)

Patent Date of
20160088810 Apparatus for Growing Plants Rabii; Mehdi; et al. March 31,
Hydroponically 2016
20160083309 System, Method, and Composition for Pina; Tinia March 24,
Enhancing Solutions from 2016
Bioreactors for Processes Including
Liquid Fertilizer Preparation and
Nutrient Extraction
20160081281 Active Polymer Material for Horinek; David March 24,
Agriculture Use 2016
20160054281 Optical Sensor for Fluid Analysis Smeeton; Tim Michael; et al. February
25, 2016
20160029581 Vertical Aeroponic Plant Growing Martin; David W.; et al. February
Enclosure with Support Structure 4, 2016
20160029578 Aeroponic Commercial Plant Martin; David W.; et al. February
Cultivation System Utilizing a Grow 4, 2016
Enclosure
20160021837 Apparatus for Providing Water and Kernahan; Kent January
Optionally Nutrients to Roots of a 28, 2016
Plant And Method of Using
20160021836 Aeroponic Growth System Wireless Kernahan; Kent January
Control System and Methods of 28, 2016
Using
20160017225 Nutrient Rich Compositions Morash; Daniel M.; et al. January
21, 2016
20160016944 Fungicidal 3—Heterocycle Derivatives Rebstock; Anne-Sophie; et al. January
21, 2016
20160007607 Fungicidal 3—Oxadiazolone Rebstock; Anne-Sophie; et al. January
Derivatives 14, 2016
20160002217 Fungicidal 3—Oxadiazolone Rebstock; Anne-Sophie; et al. January 7,
Derivatives 2016
20160000078 Fungicidal 3—Oxadiazolone Rebstock; Anne-Sophie; et al. January 7,
Derivatives 2016
20150361143 Method for Producing High-Quality Gomord; Veronique; et al. December
Recombinant Allergens in a Plant 17, 2015
20150359181 Soil-less Pre-Vegetated Mat and Yuristy; Greg; et al. December
Process for Production Thereof 17, 2015
20150353974 Processing Biomass Medoff; Marshall December
10, 2015
3, 2015
(Continued)

Patent Date of
20150334930 Modular Aeroponic Growing Column Stoltzfus; Samuel A.; et al. November
and System 26, 2015
20150334929 Self-Contained Aeroponic Growing Miller; Scott November
Unit 26, 2015
20150320047 Pesticide Composition Comprising Hungenberg; Heike; et al. November
Fosetyl-Aluminium, Propamocarb- 12, 2015
Hcl and an Insecticide Active
Substance
20150315466 Nutrient Rich Compositions Morash; Daniel M.; et al. November
5, 2015
20150305313 Integrated Multi-Trophic Farming Licamele; Jason October
Process 29, 2015
20150305258 Methods and Apparatus for a Hybrid Broutin Farah; Jennifer; et al. October
Distributed Hydroculture System 29, 2015
20150292120 Apparatus and Methods for Producing Lewis; Randolph V.; et al. October
Fibers from Proteins 15, 2015
20150257387 Pesticide Composition Comprising a Coqueron; Pierre-Yves; et al. September
Tetrazolyloxime Derivative and a 17, 2015
Fungicide or an Insecticide Active
Substance
20150237807 Continuous Bioprocess for Organic Valiquette; Marc-Andre August 27,
Greenhouse Agriculture 2015
20150223418 Light-Weight Modular Adjustable Collins; Fred; et al. August 13,
Vertical Hydroponic Growing System 2015
and Method
20150196002 Automated Hybrid Aquaponics and Friesth; Kevin July 16,
Bioreactor System Including Product 2015
Processing and Storage Facilities
with Integrated Robotics, Control
System, and Renewable Energy
System Cross-Reference to Related
Applications
20150173315 Method and Modular Structure for Aznar Vidal; Carlos June 25,
Continuously Growing an Aeroponic 2015
Crop
20150143806 Quintuple-Effect Generation Friesth; Kevin Lee May 28,
Multi-Cycle Hybrid Renewable 2015
Energy System with Integrated
Energy Provisioning, Storage
Facilities and Amalgamated Control
System Cross-Reference to Related
Applications
(Continued)

Patent Date of
20150102137 Irrigation System Anderson; Dana; et al. April 16,
2015
20150101082 Processing Seeds by Cold Plasma Bormashenko; Edward; et al. April 9,
Treatment to Reduce an Apparent 2015
Contact Angle of Seeds Coat Surface
20150082495 RNAi for the Control of Fungi and Delebarre; Thomas; et al. March 19,
Oomycetes by Inhibiting 2015
Saccharopine Dehydrogenase Gene
20150068122 Commercial Aeroponics System Juncal; Shaun; et al. March 12,
2015
20150045221 Composition Comprising an Elicitor Buonatesta; Raffaele; et al. February
of the Plant Immune System 12, 2015
20150040477 Aquaponic Growth Bucket Wang; Shumin; et al. February
12, 2015
20150031730 Fungicidal 3-[(1,3-thiazol-4- Braun; Christoph;; et al. January
ylmethoxyimino)(phenyl)methyl]-2- 29, 2015
substituted–1,2,4-oxadiazoL-5(2H)-
one Derivatives
20150027051 Controlled Environment and Method Anderson; Dana; et al. January
29, 2015
20150008191 Low-Turbulent Aerator and Aeration Ladouceur; Richard January 8,
Method 2015
20150000190 Automated Plant Growing System Gibbons; Adam January 1,
2015
20140350058 Fungicidal 3-[(pyridin-2- Braun; Christoph;; et al. November
ylmethoxyimino)(phenyl)methyl]-2- 27, 2014
substituted-1,2,-4-oxadiazol-5(2h)-
one Derivatives
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Material Products, MP
(Continued)

Patent Date of
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(Continued)

Patent Date of
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and Use
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2013
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Tetrazolyloxime Derivative and a 2013
Thiazolylpiperidine Derivative
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Hcl and an Insecticide Active
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(Continued)

Patent Date of
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(Continued)

Patent Date of
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Strigolactone Compound and a 23, 2012
Chito-Oligosaccharide Compound
for Enhanced Plant Growth and Yield
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Substance
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8, 2011
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for Use Thereof 1, 2011
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Substance
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Derivatives 2011
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Derivatives 2011
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Farming 2011
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2011
2011
(Continued)

Patent Date of
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or Aeroponics 2011
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Tetrazolyloxime Derivative and a 2011
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Method 3, 2011
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Plants 27, 2011
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Plants and Hydroponics Tank Having 28, 2010
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23, 2010
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Strigolactone Derivative and a 2010
Fungicide Compound
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Strigolactone Derivative and an 2010
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(Continued)

Patent Date of
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Pyridylethylbenzamide Derivative 2010
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2010
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Synthetic Compound Useful as 2010
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Plants and a Fungicide Compound
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Plants and an Insecticide Compound
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(Continued)

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Taylor & Francis
6 Aeroponic Business
Achieve the greatest volume and highest quality of produce possible, while
reducing operating costs, and maximizing your profitability by growing smart.
Tom Blount, Expert at US Hydroponic Association
The business of growing food using aeroponics is limited to a small number of
start-up companies. These ventures employ different variations on the aeroponic
system and many have patents on their technology (see Chapter 5). Some use
vertical columns and trickle down nutrient solution similar to hydroponics nutri-
ent flow technique (NFT) only going vertical. Others are using the traditional
misting approach either in conjunction with vertical columns or germinating seeds
in a fabric matrix or using horizontal trays stacked vertically. The term vertical
farming needs to be clearly defined since it can have multiple meanings. Vertical
columns or walls are one method that can be described as vertical farming.
However, stacking horizontal trays with layers of LED lights for each layer in a
vertical configuration is the alternative version of vertical farming. So, this chap-
ter includes initially a description of the most successful pioneering work in this
area, the Tower Garden, and its proliferation around the US. It then describes a
number of other companies, both manufacturers and growers, who are selling or
using aeroponic systems, some in greenhouses and others indoors, to grow food.
These companies are located in the US and around the world. The companies are
described in alphabetical order for reference purposes after several examples of
the Tower Garden systems are given.
The success of aeroponic business activity in the last 20 years can be attributed in
a large extent to the innovative work done at Disneyworld in the 90’s and specifically
the entrepreneurial efforts of Tim Blank and Tower Gardens at the beginning of the
21st century (Tower Garden, 2019). These simple units that can be used by hobby-
ists, by academic institutions, by restaurants, and many other venues have opened
the door for this technology to get exposure and mature. Blank has expanded this
technology by selling hundreds of these systems. Here are some examples of what
these systems are being used for.
TOWER GARDENS (WWW.TOWERGARDENS.COM)

Tower Garden makes a vertical aeroponic growing system with a nutrient reservoir
with 20 gallons and towers that can grow 20–40 plants. Figure 6.1 is a picture of two
Tower Gardens with plants growing on them. The reservoir contains a submerged
pump that pumps the nutrient solution to the top of the tower and then it flows inside
the tube and back to the reservoir, irrigating the roots of the plants growing on the
outside of the tower.
167
FIGURE 6.1 Tower Garden vertical systems.
AlAskA
Andrew Hohenthaner is an indoor gardener who enjoys the science of aeroponics
(Aeroponic blog, 2015). Hohenthaner gardens in a small (12-by-15-foot) greenhouse
in his back yard in Juneau. In 2009, he decided to purchase his “top-of-the-line” aero-
ponic system, which is expandable and has room to grow 36 plants. Hohenthaner’s
system looks like a science project, with tubes and pumps coming out of plastic trays.
There are pumpkin flowers growing from succulent vines. The pumpkins didn’t ger-
minate the first year, but he did grow cilantro, oregano, basil, habanera peppers,
lettuce, tomatoes, sugar peas, and cucumbers. He plans to grow strawberries and
try the pumpkins again. During the winter, he plans to move the entire system into
his garage and keep growing. There is no weeding to be done, no pesticides needed,
and no working in the rain. His first plants grew in 38 days and he is now growing
a second crop of plants. Hohenthaner said that his basil plants are producing three
pounds of basil per week.
ArizonA
In 2014, Kathleen Rose began selling an aeroponics system with Juice Plus (Acoba,
2014). “I’ve always wanted a garden,” says Rose, a Foothills resident who sells
nutritional supplements and the Tower Garden for the company. “But I never had
time or space.” The 4.5-foot Tower Garden with seeds and plant food costs $525.
Because water circulates, aeroponic gardening uses far less water than in-ground
plants, Rose says. She’s growing kale, celery, zucchini, cucumber, cherry tomatoes,
Aeroponic Business 169
herbs and nasturtium in the standard tower and a 6-foot model. Any type of plant
that doesn’t grow on a tree or in the soil, such as root vegetables, can be grown in an
aeroponics system.
CAliforniA
In 2017, UCLA installed 50 aeroponic towers on campus (Bazak, 2017). Each tower
has up to 44 growing sites and will help supply leafy greens to Bruin Plate, the
university restaurant. The plants produce new greens every 4 weeks. The towers use
about 90% less land and water than conventional farming. They each have a reser-
voir for plant roots to hang inside and a pump that recycles the water. The process
better oxygenates the plant roots and speeds up plant growth. Similar towers are
already located outside the Stewart and Lynda Resnick Neuropsychiatric Hospital.
Christina Lee, the undergraduate student government student wellness commis-
sioner and member of UCLA‘s Healthy Campus Initiative, said she thinks the project
will be educational for students. “It is definitely a useful project,” Lee said. “It might
be inspiring to students to see that sustainability can be achieved in an urban land-
scape, and that something like this can also produce more food. So it is also useful
for food security in a broader aspect.”
ColorAdo
Montrose resident, Doreen Dwyer, has a Tower Garden in her home. She purchased
the tower and planted it in 2015 (Wright, 2015). She already has been growing let-
tuce, peppers, parsley, tomatoes, and even strawberries. It may sound like science
fiction to garden without dirt, no weeds, with about 1/10th of the water normally
utilized and never sit on your knees to tend to plants. However, it is successfully
being done through aeroponics and vertical gardening. “We eat a green salad every
evening,” Dwyer said. “And the taste of the produce that comes off this (tower) is
so much better.” Dwyer also said everything she has grown tastes richer, “more
like it should.”
Riverhouse Children’s Center, with support from Alpine Bank, in 2017 launched a
program to grow year-round organic fruits and vegetables through a soil-free method
called aeroponics in Durango (Andersen, 2017). The program involves four “tower
gardens” to be grown at the school and provide Science, Technology, Engineering
and Mathematics programming to students.
floridA
In a city clustered with high-rise condos, Arthur Chernov and his wife Cheyenne
live in one of the few pockets of houses in Aventura. Although fortunate to have
a backyard, the Chernovs prefer aeroponics over traditional gardening (Devaney,
2015). This method eliminates soil and uses only water and nutrients to grow edible
fruits and vegetables. The Chernovs like to use the Tower Garden they purchased in
2015, a system that can grow up to 20 different plants vertically, reducing the amount
of space that a regular backyard garden would use. The system requires electricity
for the built-in fountain that distributes the nutrient and water mix to the plants, as
well as a minimum of 4 h of sunlight daily. Some of the pros of aeroponic gardening
are that the plants are pesticide-free, grown locally, and the technology reduces the
chance of pesticide and nutrient runoff from contaminating the land, air, and sea.
Arthur is pushing to get Tower Gardens into the local schools, so that students of
all academic levels can learn the science behind aeroponics and the importance of
growing their own food. For the 2014–2015 school year, the Sunny Isles Beach K-8
School Fund purchased six Tower Gardens, giving three each to both the Norman S.
Edelcup Sunny Isles Beach K-8 School and Alonzo & Tracy Mourning Senior High
School. “The kids loved getting involved with their hands with growing and doing,”
Arthur said. “If you get kids young enough that have an open mind and are willing
to listen, you can change a generation.”
illinois
O’Hare Airport uses 11’ Tower Gardens to grow herbs and veggies. In 2011, Sarah
Gardner stated, “Yep, it’s right between Terminals 2 and 3 on Concourse G: A no-
soil, vertical garden that grows everything from Swiss Chard to green beans” (CDA,
2011).
Chicago’s aviation commissioner Rosemarie Andolino became enamored with
these “aeroponic” gardens after seeing one on an episode of “Nightline.” She asked
airport concessionaire HMS Host to fund one at O’Hare. Now some of O’Hare’s
restaurants are serving the garden’s veggies to customers. Brad Maher, HMS host
stated, “It’s very functional. I was very surprised at the amount of crops that we
actually harvest out of here. We get a full crop every 4 weeks. O’Hare’s new garden
looks pretty too. Maybe, O’Hare hopes, pretty enough to take your mind off that
flight delay.”
Dr. John Saran and his wife, Janet, of Naperville purchased an aeroponic garden
for their business and home (Reality Fitness, 2014). I am hoping that our grandchil-
dren will have memories of our “garden” and the fresh produce we picked together
for our meals. It will be different from my grandparents’ gardens, but I am excited
to share with them the miracle of watching our seeds grow into food for our table.
Many aeroponic garden users choose to bring their gardens in the house for the
winter months, and by adding lights, they can continue to have fresh vegetables and
grow flowers all year long.
indiAnA
Liberty Christian School Garden Club in Anderson started in 2008. “Our science
teachers are real excited to use this in the classroom,” she said (Bibbs, 2018). Though
science instruction doesn’t really start till first grade at Liberty Christian, kindergar-
ten teacher Tammy Ramsey said she’s excited about the aeroponics tower. One Tower
Garden was purchased in 2018. Logan Parker, 11, helped stack the pots labeled A, B
and C onto the 20-gallon water tank of the aeroponics garden tower in the hallway at
Liberty Christian School. “The base was already assembled, so all we had to do was
put in the rods and the pots,” the fifth-grader said. “Before we did this, we watched
two videos on it, how it would look in the end and how we put it together. It was fun,
and I don’t think I’ll ever forget it.” The aeroponics tower, where students will grow
flowers, fruits and vegetables, is the first activity of several the school’s garden club
plans this year. Cory Bohlander, president of Madison County Farm Bureau, said his
organization was excited to donate the funds to purchase the tower, which has a base
cost of $500, not including the grow lights and additional pots.
louisAnA
Rouses Markets installed in 2012 a sustainable aeroponic rooftop garden above a
downtown New Orleans store—New Roots on the rooftop urban farm was the first
in the country (Rouses Market, 2012). Parsley, basil and cilantro are among the herbs
the company is growing to package and sell on the building’s ground floor. Rouses
Markets is the first grocer in the country to develop its own aeroponic urban farm
on its own rooftop, says managing partner Donny Rouse. And they could not have
picked a more picturesque location. “The flat rooftop on this store is perfect for
urban farming,” says Rouse. “And the view of downtown is postcard-perfect. I imag-
ine we will do a lot of dinners up here on the farm.” Rouses Markets downtown
store sits just blocks from the Superdome, French Quarter, and Mississippi River.
The vertical aeroponic Tower Garden uses water rather than soil, and allows you to
grow up instead of out. Chef Louis “Jack” Treuting, Rouses Culinary Director, first
saw Roots on the Rooftop as a way to provide fresh herbs for the food Rouses chefs
prepare, but quickly saw potential to expand the program to include retail. “I knew
if our chefs wanted it, so would our customers.”
new York
SUNY Potsdam brought Tower Garden farms on campus in 2017 that grow greens
in mid-air: Plastic pillars allow plants to thrive without soil and water; uses a system
known as aeroponics (Kenmore, 2017). At SUNY Potsdam’s new greenhouse, col-
lege students, elementary school kids and local residents are learning how to grow
greens—in mid-air.
Bronx Green Machine was established in New York City public schools to grow
food. Probably the most unique factor is that the towers do not use soil or water as a
growing medium. Instead, the plants are suspended in air, with water and nutrients
dripped onto the roots, a system known as aeroponics (Green Bronx Machine, 2017).
“Everybody thinks of growing things—things need soil,” said Mr. McCarthy. “But
not everything needs soil. The students, all in sixth or seventh grade, assembled and
planted two of the nine towers completed during the workshop.” “Ray (Bowdish) and
I have been working on bringing stuff the students grow on campus to the dining ser-
vices,” said Ms. Conger. She plans on using four of the Tower Farms to grow greens
and herbs in buildings around campus, so students can see their food being grown.
“We’re hoping it will get to the point where we have outdoor raised beds the dining
service can use,” said Ms. Conger. “But this is a great first step.”
OklahOma
Scissortail Farms in Tulsa run by John Sulton and his partner, Rob Walenta, oper-
ate Scissortail Farms on a 7.5-acre site west of Tulsa (Smith, 2014). In recent weeks
they started growing 50 varieties of lettuce, including kale, chard, mustard greens
and arugula in their 26,800-square-foot, state-of-the-art greenhouse. “It is nice to
have everything indoors,” Sulton said. Juniper Restaurant in Tulsa buys from Sulton.
“We buy from Scissortail Farms because their plants are grown locally; the quality
is there,” said Todd Phillips, general manager of Juniper. Sulton and Walenta employ
aeroponic farming to grow the vegetables. In aeroponics, farmers grow plants with-
out soil and with little water. They use pumps and gravity to feed the roots with water
loaded with nutrients.
The method is more expensive than traditional farming, but customers prefer the
produce, Sulton said. Phillips said Scissortail’s prices are higher than buying veg-
etables from a traditional farm. “A lot higher,” Phillips said. “However, the product
has a much longer shelf life. It has the freshness, flavor, and the vitamins.”
The growing method allows Scissortail Farms to consistently provide fresh pro-
duce within 24 hours of harvest, rather than waiting several days for shipment from
outside the community, Sulton said. The process also eliminates the need for fertil-
izer or manure. The thousands of plants growing out of 11-foot-tall white aeroponic
tubes are watered every 5 min with conditioned water, Sulton said. Each tower has 44
slots for growing plants. A few towers are 13-feet tall. “Altogether, we’ve got a little
over 62,000 individual slots for plants at any given time.”
START-UP AEROPONIC COMPANIES

In the past 10 years there have been many companies formed providing aeroponic
growing systems. The key businesses described in this chapter include 12 manu-
facturers (Aero Development, AssenceGrows, Agrihouse, Cloudponics, Green
Hygenics Holdings, Gro-pod, Helioponics, Podplants, and Treevo); 16 Growers
(Aerofarms, Aero Spring Gardens, Agricool, 80 Acre Farms, Farmedhere, Grow
Anywhere, Growx, Indoor Farms of America, Indoor Harvest Corp, James E.
Wagner Cultivation, Just Green, Lettuce Abound Farms, Living Greens, Plenty,
Riviera Creek, and True Garden), and one Manufacturer and Grower (Amplified
Ag Inc.) These companies are involved with a variety of different systems, appli-
cations, and designs. Each of these companies is listed in Table 6.1 and described
below alphabetically. Two companies have gone out of business in the past couple of
years—FarmedHere and Indoor Farms of America.
A
Manufacturer of Vertical Commercial and R&D Column Systems—Pennsylvania
(Aero Development website, www.thinkaero.co)
Since 2011, Aero Development Corp has been an early pioneer in the design,
development, and testing of Aeroponic growing systems, capable of being scaled for
large, commercial installations. Their unique, patented, vertical growing systems
TABLE 6.1
Aeroponic Companies
Company Type of Business Location Type of Aeroponics
Aero Development Corp Manufacturer PA, USA Vertical
AeroFarms Grower NJ, USA Stacked misted
Aero Springs Garden Grower Singapore Stacked
Aessense Grows Manufacturer CA, USA Vertical stacked
Agricool Grower France Vertical walls
Agrihouse Manufacturer CO, USA Vertical walls
Amplified Ag Mfgr/Grower SC, USA Stacked/Controllers
Cloudponics Manufacturer Controllers
80 Acres Grower OH, USA Vertical
Green Hygenics Holdings Manufacturer Hybrids
Grow Anywhere Grower CO, USA Vertical misted
Gro-Pod Manufacturer UK Education
GrowX Grower Netherlands Horizontal
FarmedHere Grower
Helioponics Manufacturer IN, USA Vertical
Indoor Farms of America Grower NV, USA Vertical
Indoor Harvest Corp Grower TX, USA Custom
Just Green Grower NY, USA Stacked misted
JWC Inc Grower Canada Horizontal
Lettuce Abound Grower MN, USA Vertical
Living Greens Grower MN, USA Vertical
Plenty Grower CA, USA Vertical
PodPlants Manufacturer Australia Vertical
Riviera Creek Grower OH, USA Horizontal Misted
Treevo Manufacturer Israel Tree designs
True Garden Grower AZ, USA Vertical
have a proven track record of producing a virtually unlimited variety of high caliber,
chemical, and pesticide-free produce. Growing vertically allows the generation of high
volumes of produce in less space compared to conventional soil-based growing as well
as hydroponic horizontal growing systems. Their unique closed loop irrigation system
requires less than 10% water than soil-based growing, and without the algae challenges
faced by other water-based growing systems. Their cloud-based monitoring system
provides comprehensive, real-time data on every aspect of the growing environment,
as well as tracking all the back office operating components from seed to sale.
They manufacture five different aeroponic growing systems from ones that can be
used in the kitchen to commercial units. These include:
• AERO Kitchen Garden which comes with a bonus starter kit, which
includes everything needed to start growing vegetables, herbs, and fruits
at home. This system can grow 18 plants in less time than it takes in soil.
It measures 8ʺ wide × 32ʺ high. This unit is capable of growing fruits and
almost any vegetable, herb, or flower (Figure 6.2).
• AERO Mini Mobile Garden which is a versatile growing system designed

to bring a fresh harvest of vegetables, herbs, and fruits to the kitchen from
the convenience of a patio or porch.
• AERO Midi Mobile Garden (indoor/outdoor) which is on caster wheels has
grow cups for up to 36 plants. It measures 26ʺ wide × 57ʺ high × 13ʺ deep
(Figure 6.3).
• AERO Midi Mobile Garden which is similar to the Mini except it has grow
cups for up to 54 plants. It measures 50ʺ wide × 57ʺ high × 13ʺ deep (Figure 6.4).
• AERO Mobile Garden which has three towers and has grow cups for
72 plants.
FIGURE 6.2 AERO kitchen garden.
FIGURE 6.3 AERO mini mobile garden.

FIGURE 6.4 AERO midi mobile garden.
The fifth system is the commercial inline system that can be installed in a green-
house or a warehouse and consists of 8 ten-foot tall columns arranged on a 6-foot
diameter base pod with a capacity of 608 plants in this footprint (approximately
20 plants per square foot). In a greenhouse at Garden Spot Retirement Village in
New Holland, PA, is a 4,600 square foot greenhouse that has 25 pods with a capac-
ity of 15,000 plants. The inline system is the newest generation of aeroponic verti-
cal column and it increases the capacity by almost three times the pod systems can
achieve. In a 4,600 square foot greenhouse, these systems could grow approximately
43,000 plants.
AerofArms (www.AerofArms.Com)
Grower Stacked Horizontal Trays Indoors—New Jersey (Aerofarms website)
AeroFarms based in Newark, NJ recently started its ninth farm, billed as the
world’s largest vertical farm, at its new global headquarters, and it has others in
development in multiple US states and in four continents. The initial farm was built
in 2014 in downtown Newark, NJ inside a former nightclub and lounge. The farm
consists of a 15-foot-high stack of planters, each one 10 feet long, 3 feet wide, and a
foot or 2 deep. There is not any soil beneath the leafy green vegetation bursting from
the flower boxes. There is only air (Figure 6.5).
Essentially, an aeroponic farmer sprays a mist of a high-nutrient solution on plants
to make them grow. The process takes far less space and water than nature would
require, and zero pesticides. Until recently, technological limits kept true aeroponics
largely beyond the reach of commercial growers.
AeroFarms founder Ed Harwood says cheaper, more advanced equipment, from
software to lights to fabric, has made aeroponics feasible. AeroFarms raised more
FIGURE 6.5 Aerofarms indoor vertical farm.
than $36 million in venture capital. According to an article in Bloomberg Business

2014, AeroFarms planned to expand to 70 employees from 15 and build an urban
farm capable of turning out 1.5 million pounds of produce per year, enough to supply
about 60,000 people (Friedman, 2014).
For a crop such as kale or arugula, Harwood says his setup can grow plants faster
with as little as 10% of the water. AeroFarms begins by scattering seeds on a perme-
able microfleece cloth stretched over a planter. Inside the modular, stackable con-
tainer, nozzled hoses pump oxygen and the nutrient mist onto the fabric, forming
a membrane on which the seeds germinate. Eventually they sprout silky roots that
poke down through the micro-fleece to absorb more of the mist. As the plants grow,
additional hoses feed them carbon dioxide as sensors monitor humidity and room
temperature. A conveyor belt propels the greens through a trimming device and dis-
cards the roots from the microfleece so the fabric can be washed and reused.
Harwood, who holds a doctorate in dairy science from the University of
Wisconsin at Madison, was the associate director of the Cooperative Extension at
Cornell, which links up with local farmers to research agriculture and food systems.
There, in 2002, he built a prototype aeroponic system with microfleece after test-
ing other textiles. “I became friends with all the ladies at JoAnn Fabrics,” he says.
The following year he launched farming venture GreatVeggies, but he couldn’t get it
off the ground. In 2009, he received $500,000 in funding from 21 Ventures and the
Quercus Trust to start AeroFarms.
The company’s plan was to sell aeroponic equipment, but as it conducted more
trials—and lights and other equipment grew radically cheaper—growing vegeta-
bles began to seem more profitable, says Chief Executive Officer David Rosenberg,
adding that produce prices will be similar to those of typical large field growers.
AeroFarms has focused on the multibillion-dollar market for leafy-green salad
ingredients, including fresh herbs and specialty microgreens.
In 2015, The New York Times published an article entitled Prime Newark
Farmland, Inside an Old Steel Factory (Hughes, 2015). A former Grammer,
Dempsey, and Hudson steel plant in the Ironbound section of Newark is being razed
by the RBH Group to make way for a giant custom-built complex for its sole tenant,
AeroFarms, a company producing herbs and vegetables in an indoor, vertical envi-
ronment. Instrumental in reviving parts of Newark, the RBH Group sees the venture
as a way to create jobs, clear a shabby block, and supply a healthy, locally grown
food source. The complex, a group of metal-block, low-slung buildings, some con-
nected, some not, also has prominent backers. Through its Urban Investment Group,
Goldman Sachs is picking up the bulk of the $39 million cost for development of the
AeroFarms Ironbound complex, using equity, debt and bridge financing. Prudential
Financial, whose headquarters are now in Newark, is also an investor. The project
has been awarded $9 million in city and state money, in tax credits and grants. This
69,000-square-foot complex will also contain labs, offices, and a cafe and was fin-
ished in 2016.
Unlike urban vegetable gardens of the past that took advantage of empty lots
or evolved in rooftop greenhouses, AeroFarms employs so-called aeroponics and
stacks its produce vertically, meaning plants are arrayed not in long rows but upward.
Because the farming is completely indoors, it relies on LED bulbs, with crops grow-
ing in cloth and fed with a nutrient mist.
Critics of vertical farming have complained that taste can suffer when food is
cultivated without soil or sun, while proponents say vertical farms are extremely
efficient and have a small environmental impact. They take up minimal space, grow
round the clock, and are near the markets that sell their crops, reducing the need for
long truck trips. Vertical farms are also far less susceptible to the vagaries of unpre-
dictable weather like droughts or floods.
“We can deliver anything the plant wants, when it wants it, how it wants it and
where it wants it,” said David Rosenberg, chief executive of AeroFarms. AeroFarms
projects it will reap up to 30 harvests a year, or 2 million pounds of greens, including
kale, arugula, and romaine lettuce, Mr. Rosenberg said. At that output, AeroFarms
would be among the most productive vertical farms in the country, analysts say. But
in an industry where profitability is elusive, success is hardly guaranteed. Indeed,
AeroFarms is still lining up customers, which ideally will include grocery chains,
schools, and restaurants.
Comparing vertical farms can be tricky. Unlike AeroFarms, some sell whole
plants, or by-products like juice and salad dressing. Also, because the height of
rooms in vertical farms is often more important than their width, floor measure-
ments can be misleading, some farmers say. Still, in real estate terms, the Ironbound
operation would be among the country’s largest. About 2/3 of the complex, or 46,000
square feet, will be dedicated to crops, according to the company, in rooms with
lofty 30-foot ceilings.
In contrast, FarmedHere, an Illinois company, has grown plants in about 47,000
square feet of a low-slung 93,000-square-foot former box factory near Chicago
Midway International Airport. Founded in 2011, FarmedHere was selling its produce
to nearly 50 Whole Foods markets, plus other grocery stores, said Mark Thomann,
the chief executive (Hughes, 2015).
But in a sign of the risks inherent to the industry, other fledgling companies try-
ing to grow crops in small spaces have sputtered and failed. For example, Alterrus
Systems, maker of the shelf-like VertiCrop system, with a greenhouse-like farm on
a sun-dappled roof of a parking garage in Vancouver, British Columbia, declared

bankruptcy in 2015.
AeroFarms sued FarmedHere in 2014, alleging the Midwestern company stole
trade secrets and infringed patents by refusing to pay licensing fees after leasing
Harwood’s proprietary equipment (Hughes, 2015).
Perhaps the most important element is an array of light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
A control panel built by the Lighting Research Center at Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute lets Harwood fine-tune the color wavelength and intensity of the light,
which, he says, alter crop yields, taste, appearance, and nutrient levels. Small changes
can make kale taste sweeter or arugula more peppery. Lighting is among the big-
gest costs for an aeroponic grower. Neil Mattson, a professor at Cornell’s School of
Integrative Plant Science who worked closely with Harwood to develop his “light
recipes,” says using only red and blue LEDs cut energy costs by 15% (AgFunder,
2014). AeroFarms has benefited from an 85% fall in the price of LEDs, even as the
output per watt doubled. That’s a huge advantage over earlier efforts to commercial-
ize aeroponics.
In 2016, Diana Swain reported on CBS TV about Aerofarms in a segment entitled
“No sunlight, no soil, no problem: Vertical farms take growing indoors.” CEO of
Aerofarms, David Rosenberg stated that this is fully controlled aeroponic agriculture.
It allows us to understand plant biology in ways that humans have never achieved.
This vertical farm used LED lights instead of the sun, and cloth instead of soil. The
staff at Aerofarms includes electrical engineers, structural engineers, mechanical
engineers, as well as plant scientists, crop physiologists, and plant pathologists.
There are farms across Canada trying similar concepts, trying to extend grow-
ing seasons and bring fresh produce to cold climates. Experts say the sales pitch for
vertical farms is compelling, capitalize on the local food trends like growing plants
in dense urban areas. AeroFarms says their system uses less water and no pesticides,
produces more plants, more often - all without the waste that comes with industrial
agriculture.
But experts say there is a big obstacle. Bruce Bugbee at Utah State University is
concerned about the cost of electrical energy. His chief objection is the exorbitant
power requirement for such a vertical structure. Plants on the lower floors would
require artificial light year-round or expensive mechanical systems to get more light
to them. And during a typical winter in northern US cities, he said, average sunlight
is only 5%–10% of peak summer levels due to sapped intensity and shorter days
(Nelson, 2007). He believes that sunlight is still the gold standard for nutritional
quality. AeroFarms says it has cut energy use by focusing on specific types of light.
They have shown that the red and blue light is actually how plants see light. And
so they believe they have more effective photosynthesis growing indoors than one
would have with the natural sun. The company says they’re also growing the most
cost-effective plants, only microgreens, no tomatoes or cucumbers here.
The $30-million project has attracted big-name investors like Goldman Sachs,
and even interest from the Canadian Produce Marketing Association. AeroFarms
is currently building the world’s biggest vertical farm nearby, with stacks set to be
twice as high as what they have now. It’s also winning over skeptics. Marion Nestle
is a professor of nutrition at NYU and has written numerous books on food and
public health. She was recently invited on a tour of the AeroFarms’ facility. “Why
are we doing this when you can grow vegetables really beautifully in soil? What’s the
problem here?” She became a convert after tasting the product that goes out to local
grocery stores, schools, and farmers’ markets. Marion Nestle, Professor of Nutrition,
Food Studies and Public Health said, “They taste as good. They really do. In fact,
they taste a lot better than the microgreens we get here in New York that sometimes
have been on the road for a week.”
In 2018, a Dell computer publication had an article entitled “Harnessing IoT to
Combat Food Insecurity, Waste and Spoilage” (Aerofarms blog, 2018). Dell is work-
ing with 2 of its customers, AeroFarms and IMS Evolve, addressing these problems
by using innovative IoT (Internet of Things) technologies to transform food produc-
tion and delivery. AeroFarms collects millions of data points from farms stacked
vertically. Using modern imaging, big data, and machine learning, they’re turning
everything about a plant into data. According to the article, AeroFarms has devel-
oped an indoor vertical farming system that grows food with far fewer resources and
less waste than conventional methods. In fact, AeroFarms has achieved 390 times
greater productivity than field farming while using 95% less water.
At 70,000 square feet, AeroFarms’ flagship facility in Newark, N.J., is one of the
world’s largest vertical farms, with vegetable plants stacked from floor to ceiling
inside a former steel mill. Each plant at the farm is equipped with an IoT-enabled
sensor that tracks its vital statistics, including water consumption, nutrient density,
and readiness for harvest. Dell Edge Gateways aggregate and analyze the data, and
the system uses machine learning to optimize the growing environment. That means
the vegetables’ temperature, water, and light are adjusted automatically, and the
team knows exactly when to pick them for maximum flavor, nutrition, and freshness,
avoiding spoilage and waste.
Green Biz published an article in 2018 entitled, “Why Data is an Essential Nutrient
for AeroFarms Crops” (Clang, 2018). Urban agriculture pioneer AeroFarms eschews
pesticides and herbicides. It gets away with using considerably less water than tra-
ditional growers of the leafy greens in which it specializes—it squeezes out almost
95% of what’s traditionally used. But there’s one ingredient it can’t go without: data.
That imperative drove the well-backed startup’s partnership with information tech-
nology giant Dell. Two big projects are underway there, within the 70,000-square-
foot facility that houses Aerofarms’ ninth indoor farming operation in Newark,
New Jersey.
The first initiative uses sensors to track information at virtually every step of
the growing process—from seeding to germination to growing to harvesting and
packaging—and send it wirelessly to servers where it is closely analyzed. Aerofarms
uses that information to improve taste, texture, color, yield, and nutrition metrics for
its crops, according to a case study published by the two companies.
The second project employs special cameras to track the spectral conditions of
the grow trays, and of the lighting technologies crucial for nurturing arugula, kale,
and mustard greens—products that AeroFarms sells to local supermarkets under
the Dream Greens brand (It nurtures 400 plant varieties.) If something unusual is
detected, an alert is sent to a ruggedized tablet computer. The images are also col-
lected and analyzed.
“We have this fully connected farm that is ever becoming even more con-
nected,” AeroFarms co-founder CEO David Rosenberg told me Tuesday during the
Techonomy conference in New York. “That enables us to both manage the farm
as well as take information from the farm and send it to the right people to make
the most of that data.” AeroFarms relies heavily on real-time information for food
safety and operational processes. It can produce a crop in just 15 days: It shrank that
1 day using its information metrics, but the data is also used to influence taste and
texture.
“How we organize and manage that data, it’s incredibly important,” he said.
“When you have that as your lens, in looking at a business, you see problems in
different ways and solutions come and get prioritized in different ways. That’s OK.”
That information will be critical for automating vertical farming processes to
the point where they can be commercialized more “meaningfully.” One reason
AeroFarms dismantled its new facility’s predecessor was that it didn’t have the scale
to be automated effectively, Rosenberg said.
AeroFarms in-house horticulture expert, Dr. April Agee Carroll, a pioneer and
leader in the field of plant phenomics, uses phenomics to transform agriculture
(Aerofarms Blog, 2018).
Phenomics is the study of all observable characteristics of a living organism.
These observable characteristics are called phenotypes, and are anything measur-
able within the plant, such as the chemistry, color, genetic code, size, and so on. I like
to call it measurement science, because we are constantly gathering all kinds of data
and from there, determining what is significant to the problem at hand. Dr. Carroll
utilizes advanced imaging technologies, molecular analysis, and data science to
model plant growth and development to understand how plants respond to their envi-
ronments. Plant phenomics is particularly interesting to me because of the amazing
adaptability of plants. Plants are sessile organisms, meaning they can’t pick up and
move. Unlike animals who can burrow or run away from danger, plants must stay in
a fixed location when facing threat. Because of this challenge, plants have adapted to
their environments extremely well. Understanding this adaptability and the behavior
of plants is an interesting challenge.
Corn and soybeans, for example, have long growth cycles, in months. At
AeroFarms leafy greens only have 12–16 days from seed to harvest so it requires
working quickly and decisively to determine the appropriate hypothesis and mea-
surement procedure.
Although the short cycle is a challenge, it does have the benefit of rapid learnings.
If you think about a traditional field farmer, they may only have 1–3 harvests per year
to learn from. AeroFarm is harvesting 22–30 times a year. That’s 30 chances to learn
from our greens and further refine our growing algorithms.
Another exciting challenge is how to manage the tremendous amounts of data
gathered from each harvest! These rich data sets are the key to continued learning.
Nestle believes that the future is bright for AeroFarms and the controlled agricul-
ture space and agriculture overall. AeroFarms is combining top practices of horti-
culture, engineering, and data science like never before. They are working with the
Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research to optimize the plants for nutrition
and taste.
FIGURE 6.6 AeroSpring gardens.
Aero spring gArdens (www.AerospringgArdens.Com)

Growers Vertical Systems Indoors or Greenhouses—Singapore (Young, 2018)
Aerospring Gardens is home-grown in Singapore—the dream of Thorben and
Nadine Linneberg, who were keen to grow fresh produce in small spaces with no
pesticides, and who found a way to turn their dream into a successful consumer
product (Figure 6.6).
The Aerospring is an easy-to-assemble vertical aeroponic gardening system for
indoors or outdoors that can be put together in around 15 minutes. The 75-L bucket
has 9 or 12 hexagonal planter sections made from high quality, UV-stabilized, food-
safe plastic; these all fit together in around 15 minutes. Each Aerospring can grow
between 27 and 36 plants. These gardens can grow basil, mint, chillies, tomatoes,
cucumber, sage, lavender, lettuce, eggplant, and kale!
Aessensegrows (www.Aessensegrows.Com)
Manufacturer of Vertical Stacked Systems Indoors/Cannabis—California (AEssense
website)
AEssenseGrows (pronounced “eh-sence”) was founded on solving three 21st cen-
tury issues: the need for high growth yields for a growing population, food safety,
and conservation of resources.
To attain these goals, it had to re-invent the entire process of agriculture down
to its purest “essence.” They created the AEtrium series, accelerated plant growth
platforms and software delivering pure, zero pesticide, year round, enriched growth.
This is the safest, cleanest, and most sustainable food & medicinal production avail-
able. While technology in farming has advanced considerably in the last century,
they believe a new growing technology is the next revolutionary jump in agriculture.
With decreasing available resources and a human population fast approaching 9 bil-
lion, that same leap is what the world desperately needs. Their products for growing
fresh vegetables and leafy greens include:
• AEtrium-SmartFarm 4-Layer Vertical Stacked Aeroponic Grow

Environment
• AEtrium-4 Tall Plant Aeroponic SmartFarm
• AEssense Lighting
• Guardian Grow Manager Automation Software
• AEtrium-2.1 SmartFarm For Cloning
• AEtrium-4 High Yield Blooming System
AEssenseGrows has been working in the cannabis growing segment. Here are
some current press releases concerning their company which are on their website
(Figure 6.7).
Rocky Mountain Marijuana Inc. Selects AEssenseGrows Aeroponic System as

the Cultivation Technology for its Cannabis Business (Jan. 8, 2019)
AEssenseGrows Introduces ‘the Perfect Grow Light’ for Cannabis (Nov. 13,
2018)
AEssenseGrows Receives UL Listings for Complete Indoor Grow System
(Nov. 13, 2018)
AEssenseGrows to Showcase Precision Aeroponics System at NCIA’s Annual
Cannabis Business Summit & Expo (July 10, 2018)
AEssenseGrows is located in Sunnyvale, CA and Shanghai, China.
In 2018, AEssenseGrows co-sponsored an International Indoor Farming Symposium

in Shanghai on commercial indoor agriculture with the Shanghai Academy of
Agricultural Sciences (SAAS) that attracted 160 attendees (Gibson, 2018). “Indoor
farming is the solution to sustainable food production and water limitations for the
world’s increasing mega-cities,” Christine Zimmermann-Loessl, chairwoman of the
FIGURE 6.7 Aessence vertical aeroponics SmartFarm.

Association for Vertical Farming, told attendees on the opening day of the sympo-
sium. “Vertical farming can address the food shortages while instituting controls
that improve food safety. Existing horticulture methods are not sustainable and will
not meet the needs.” During her presentation, “The transforming power of vertical
farming—global trends and local impacts,” Zimmermann-Loessl said and that verti-
cal farming is “attracting young people to this industry.”
The symposium brought together some of the world’s leading experts in com-
mercial indoor cultivation for an exchange of ideas and information about the latest
innovations, technologies, and research in the field.
Prof. Erik Runkle, Michigan State University, and Dr. Ep Heuvelink, Wageningen
University, Netherlands, led the chorus of speakers as they talked about the break-
throughs in both energy efficiency, yield improvements, and precision, coming
through indoor LED lighting.
Dr. Dickson Despommier, emeritus professor at Columbia University, predicted
indoor farming will play a large role in the city of the future. “In 20 years, 80 percent
of people will live in cities,” Despommier said. “Cities and buildings will integrate
natural resources: plants, water capture, energy management. A key first step is roof-
top greenhouses on the way to vertical farms throughout the city.”
Professor Toyoki Kozai, president of the Japan Plant Factory Association, dis-
cussed the role advanced technology will play in vertical farming. “Plant factories
need artificial intelligence to double plant factory productivity over the next five
years because there are so many complex topics to integrate,” Kozai said.
“This is exactly the type of event needed to help ensure the indoor farming indus-
try will meet the needs of society while presenting opportunities to the business
community,” said Robert Chen, president and CEO of AEssenseGrows. “The con-
versations and presentations I’m hearing so far give me great confidence that our
burgeoning industry will do both.”
The concept is a long way from displacing conventional agriculture, but it has
inspired research, start-ups, and pilot projects in the United States, Europe, and Asia,
along with imaginative artists’ renderings. “It’s an idea that’s talked about a lot. It’s
still very much an emerging field where there are not that many commercial opera-
tions, especially on a larger scale,” says Neil Mattson, associate professor at Cornell
University in the Horticulture Section of the School of Integrative Plant Science.
With growing consumer demand for locally grown produce, vertical farming
draws on specialists in the natural sciences, but also engineers and computer and
data scientists. “We need engineers and plant scientists who are excited about this,”
enthuses Murat Kacira, professor in the Department of Agricultural and Biosystems
Engineering at the University of Arizona. “For certain high-value crops and locali-
ties and climates, this technology might be economical now. But there is room for
improving these vertical farming systems, especially the engineering, because the
costs are still really high to operate these systems.”
“This attracts the young generation, especially the millennials. They are inter-
ested in agriculture now because of the high-technology applications and potentials.”
While Despommier envisioned 30–40-story establishments, current-design ver-
tical farms typically occupy one or more stories of a building with up to 12 layers
of short-statured plants stacked in trays on each floor. The plants are grown using
hydroponics, aquaponics, and aeroponics. Hydroponics involves submerging the

roots of the plant in water, while aeroponics is suspending them in air and bath-
ing them with mist. Aquaponics gets into aquaculture, where you raise fish such as
tilapia in the water, and nutrients, oxygen, and carbon dioxide are exchanged in a
symbiotic relationship. Most vertical farms use some form of scissors lifts, ladders,
or stairs, rolled around manually, to access the plants to maintain and harvest them.
Most of the crops grown are leafy greens such as lettuce, spinach, kale, and basil.
Penny McBride, vice chair of the Association of Vertical Farming based in Munich,
Germany, says “a lot of criticism has been that people are mostly growing lettuce.
That’s largely because the amount of time it takes to grow lettuce is shorter. So they
can grow it quickly and get it out the door.” But McBride says you could grow carrots
and vining crops like peppers, beans, and cucumbers, along with tomatoes, straw-
berries, and medical herbs. In theory, corn and wheat could be grown as well as bio-
fuel crops and plants used to make drugs. Transplanted seedlings are also developed,
and the industry is interested in cannabis, mushrooms, and edible flowers.
Vertical farming offers many advantages over conventional farming, McBride
contends: “It is appropriate closer to large population centers. You get more produc-
tion on a smaller footprint.” Indoor farming can increase crop yields 10–100 times
over a similar footprint outdoors. Likewise, transportation of warehouse-grown
crops is negligible since they are mostly consumed near where they are grown.
Growth takes place at twice the rate of outdoor farming, and at least 70% less water
is used than with conventional agriculture.
The speakers and presentation titles at conference included the following
(Plant factory, 2018):
The Present & Future of the Plant Factory with Artificial Lighting
Dr. Toyoki Kozai—President of Japan Plant Factory Association
Tomorrow’s City Will Be Self-sustaining
Dr. Dickson Despommier—Emeritus Professor, Columbia University
The Transforming Power of Vertical Farming—Global Trends & Local
Impacts
Christine Zimmermann-Loessl—Chairwoman of the Association for Vertical
Farming, Germany
Cuello’s Law & Designing Vertical Farms into the Food-Water-Energy Nexus
Prof. Joel Cuello—University of Arizona
Research Needs in In-door Vertical Plant Production
Prof. Heiner Lieth—University of California-Davis
A Total Solution and Innovation for Smart Plant Factories with Artificial
Lighting
Dr. Huafang Zhou—Vice President, AEssense Corporation
A New Generation of City-Industry Integration: Sunqiao Agriculture Park
Urban Design Project
Julian Wei, AIA—Director, Shanghai Sasaki Associates, Inc.
Latest Developments in Dutch Greenhouse Cultivation & Vertical Farming
Dr. Ep Heuvelink—Wageningen University
Study of Optical Technology & Plant Physiology.
Prof. Jingquan Yu—Zhejiang University

Light Effects on Flowering and Morphogenesis of different Plants
Prof. Byoung Ryong Jeong—Gyeongsang National University
Shanghai Edible Fungi Factory Product Development
Prof. Jiachun Huang—Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences
Lighting in Vertical Farms to Produce Crops with High-Quality Attributes
Prof. Erik Runkle—Michigan State University
Power Solutions for Plant Factories
Prof. Zhigang Xu—Nanjing Agricultural University
Demands For Plant Crops & Recommended Varieties For Plant Factories
Mr. Minkyu Lee—General Manager, Vilmorin-Mikado
The Industrialization, Exploration, and Business Model of Plant Factories
Prof. Wei Fang—Taiwan University
Plant Growth in Space & Mini Space Greenhouse
Prof. Huiqiong Zheng—Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences
Prof. Shirong Guo—Professor, Nanjing Agricultural University”
Study & Analysis of Artificial Lighting System in Greenhouse & Plant Factory
Dr. Jinglong Du—Chairman, Megaphoton
Indoor Plant Factory Development Strategies
Dr. Qichang Yang—President, China Plant Factory Association
Advanced Semiconductor Light Source Solutions of OSRAM Plant Lighting
Dr. Jiaping Shao—OS Sales Head, OSRAM GL Greater China
AgriCool (www.AgriCool.Com)
Growers Vertical Stacked Indoor Containers—Paris, France (Dillet, 2018)
Gonzague and Guillaume formed a French startup company in Paris to grow pro-
duce aeroponically, locally, without pesticides, and economically. They started grow-
ing strawberries in their home and then moved to a storage container, 33 m2. They
proved that they could produce tasty produce in what they called a Cooltainer. They
raised about €4 million, and moved into a 1,500 m2 factory in the Parisian suburb of
La Courneuve, and hired a talented team of 30. After 2 years of R&D, they are now
able to be 120 times more productive, without pesticides or GMOs, while using 90%
less water and nutrients, and consuming only renewable energy. Most importantly,
it’s a method that brings taste back to our food, produced 100% locally (Figure 6.8).
In 2018, French startup Agricool is raising another $28 million round of funding
(€25 million). Bpifrance, Danone Manifesto Ventures, Marbeuf Capital, Solomon
Hykes and other business angels participated. Some existing investors also partici-
pated, such as daphni, XAnge, Henri Seydoux, and Kima Ventures. Their container
can control the temperature, humidity, and color spectrum using LED lights to
replace the sun. They can grow strawberries all year round, save water as a container
is limited when it comes to space, and save on transportation having locally-pro-
duced, GMO-free, pesticide-free strawberries. Agricool plans to launch a hundred
containers by 2021 in Paris and in Dubai. That’s why the company is going to hire
around 200 people by 2021 to support this growth rate. Eventually, Agricool also
plans to expand to other fruits and vegetables.
FIGURE 6.8 Agricool aeroponic container system.
Agrihouse (www.Agrihouse.Com)
Manufacturer of Aeroponic growing equipment, Colorado USA (Agrihouse website)
AgriHouse is a leading-edge agri-biotechnology company offering registered,
safe broad-spectrum biopesticides and advanced tech products that conserve valuable
resources. AgriHouse was originally founded by Mr. Richard Stoner, CEO, inventor and
aeroponic expert, and Dr. Ken Knutson, plant pathologist, Colorado State University.
They are now AgriHouse Brands Ltd, a limited liability company, led by Lyric Turner,
GM. AgriHouse’s technology has been thoroughly tested and proven effective by the
USDA, NASA, NSF, US Forest Service, leading universities, agricultural extension ser-
vices, and worldwide corporations, farmers, and growers (Figure 6.9).
FIGURE 6.9 Agrihouse aeroponic walls.

The company offers patented & patent-pending products to deliver cost-effective

ecologically beneficial solutions to boost food production and harvest yields. Our
homeopathic bioactive products will help sustain the environment, conserve water
and natural resources, and reduce the reliance on toxic pesticides. Agrihouse was
Aeroponics International in the 1990s and EnvironGen before that. They collabo-
rated with NASA in the 1990s. They currently offer a series of products including an
aeroponic system, biocontrols, and leaf sensors.
Amplified Ag (www.AmplifiedAginC.Com)
Manufacturers, Growers, and Sensor Designers – Vertical Stack Systems—South
Carolina (Amplified Ag website).
Amplified Ag is a family of companies located in Charleston, SC with a mission
to create a global shift in the production, distribution, and consumption of leafy
greens. They are accomplishing this by innovating a more powerful and efficient
way of farming through state-of-the-art technologies. In doing this, they are engag-
ing a new generation of farmers and providing them with sustainable jobs. Amplified
Ag consists of three companies—Tiger Corner Farms, Boxcar, and Vertical Roots.
Tiger Corner Farms is an indoor aeroponic container farm manufacturer dedicated
to building high quality, efficient indoor container farms in order to create oppor-
tunities for farmers. Boxcar is a technology company that provides the controls and
the software needed to integrate, automate, and monitor all aspects of an enterprise
farming environment, from seed to sale. Vertical Roots is a farming operation that
currently services over 50 restaurants, 4 grocery store chains, and 25 local public
schools using their technology. The founder and CEO is Don Taylor, a software
industry veteran of more than 25 years. Don is passionate about technology and soft-
ware innovation. His experience in managing large, complex technological environ-
ments across multiple industries now drives his mission to help develop a sustainable
farming ecosystem while creating successful business opportunities for farmers
(Figure 6.10).
CloudponiCs (www.CloudponiCs.Com)
Manufacturers of Controllers—US (Cloudponics website)
The Cloudponics GroControl is a controller that allows one to remotely monitor
and automate ones indoor grow with nutrient dosing and pH sensors. The GroControl
pumps up to three nutrients and pH up & down buffers into ones reservoir to keep
the electrical conductivity (EC) and pH level within the optimal range at all times.
Cloudponics sells a Hydro-Aeroponic home use system called Aero Force One.
The Aero Force One Hydro-Aeroponic system is custom designed to work with the
GroControl. It includes a patent-pending dual chamber reservoir that refills the nutri-
ent mix with fresh water whenever needed.
The system is powered by a 400 gpm water pump that keeps the roots in an
oxygen-rich environment, maximizing nutrient uptake, and encouraging roots to
grow with vigor. The 15 gallons fresh water reservoir is kept oxygenated with an air
pump. It uses an iPhone & Android app to control the system (Figure 6.11).
FIGURE 6.10 Amplified Ag/vertical roots container farm.

(Continued )
FIGURE 6.10 (CONTINUED) Amplified Ag/vertical roots container farm.
FIGURE 6.11 Cloudponic aeroponic systems and devices.
In 2018, Cloudponics, maker of the GroBox, the intelligent, fully-automated IoT

aeroponic plant grow system for the home, announced that its two products, the
GroBox and GroControl, are available for European customers. The GroBox and
GroControl is available for sale in the following countries: Austria, Belgium, Czech
Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United
Kingdom.
The GroBox intelligently monitors and manages multiple variables such as air
temperature, nutrients, humidity, water flow, airflow, light schedule, and pH balance
in order to create and sustain the optimal conditions for consistent, predictable, and
repeatable yields. The GroBox can be paired with the Cloudponics app for 24/7/365
oversight and can run for up to three weeks before a water refill. The Cloudponics
technology can be used to grow a variety of plants and produce, however, the
GroBox has been designed specifically for the unique needs of cannabis growers,
with special features designed to ensure the security and discretion of your plants,
such as an odor filter, app controlled door lock, and lights specifically designed for
growing cannabis.
80 ACres fArms (80ACresfArm.Com)

Growers Vertical Stacked Systems Indoors—Ohio (80acresfarm website)
80 Acres Farms, an Ohio-based vertical farming startup, has raised private
equity funding from Virgo Investment Group, a private equity firm from San
Francisco, for the construction of what it says will be the first fully automated
indoor farm (Burwood-Taylor, 2019). AgFudnerNews indicated that the deal was
worth more than $40 million in equity capital.
The funding will go towards the completion of 80 Acres’ Hamilton, Ohio
facility, which was announced in 2018 and is set to be partially operational in 2019.
It will be automated from seeding to growing to harvesting featuring handling
robotics, artificial intelligence, data analytics, and around-the-clock monitoring
sensors and control systems to optimize every aspect of growing produce indoors
(Figure 6.12).
The company also has facilities—that are more manually operated—in Arkansas,
North Carolina and Alabama from which it serves local major national grocers, local
retailers, restaurants, and food service companies with leafy greens, tomatoes, micro
greens, and herbs. It expects to add grapes and strawberries in the near future.
The design and technology of the new Hamilton facility takes into account years
of research by 80 Acres across its facilities, including comparing produce grown in
greenhouses and outdoors for quality, taste, and nutrition.
While there are a growing number of vertical farms in the US and globally, few
have reached scale across multiple geographies as they’ve struggled with the high
costs associated with operating and powering their controlled environments, par-
ticularly when it comes to staffing and LED lighting. This has meant the unit eco-
nomics of producing food have not always made sense. There has also been a wave
of undisclosed food safety mishaps including pest outbreaks that caught some less-
experienced operators by surprise.
FIGURE 6.12 80 Acres farm.

The experience of the 80 Acres team, which has worked at several large food
businesses in the US including Del Monte, and its focus on food safety was a big
draw for Virgo. Virgo researched several other indoor farming groups before making
this investment.
“The 80 Acres’ team was the only team that’s run large-scale food manufacturing
facilities in the past,” said Eli Aheto, a partner at Virgo. “And you can see it in
the design of the facility. Every element that’s in contact with the plant has been
thought through with a safety perspective, such as how the water comes in, is used
and filtered, and all the air handling equipment too. This is all very controlled and
unique compared to other folks with big open facilities.”
Those big facilities have no way of preventing pests or disease from spreading
throughout, while 80 Acres have designed a sectioned facility to address this, added
Aheto saying he had heard about outbreaks at other facilities.
Unit economics and 80 Acres’ robotic technology efforts were another key dif-
ferentiator for 80 Acres encouraging Virgo to make the investment. “Vertical farms
need to be able to operate facilities in a cost-effective manner and our goal is to pro-
duce a product that’s affordable and available to all consumer segments, so the key is
to automate as much as possible. Some other facility designs don’t lend themselves to
effective automation; it’s one thing to design automation in a vacuum and it’s another
to understand automation in a food facility and reflect that in a farm design, knowing
what can go wrong in a facility. 80 Acres has designed a system that can effectively
automate production in a way that’s still safe.”
80 Acres did not decide to build all of its technology in-house as many indoor
farming groups have and instead partnered with various groups on developing the
technology it uses, including Priva, the well-established Dutch horticultural grow
equipment group.
“When it comes to unit economics, it’s about labor costs, with energy costs a close
second,” 80 Acres president Tisha Livingston told AgFunderNews. “Most indoor
farms are very manual and labor intensive so being able to make that leap from
manual to automated is really important to get the unit economics right.”
80 Acres Farms CEO Mike Zelkind said that the secrecy surrounding the stack
technology used in vertical farming is starting to mature. “Because this is such a
capital-intensive industry there has been a lot of secrecy because farms have been
constantly fundraising, which is not conducive to a friendly industry,” he told
AgFunderNews. “But that’s changing and we’re sharing more with our friends in dif-
ferent geographies as we all realize there’s a lot to gain in working closely together to
ensure this industry grows.” “Particularly we think that food safety practices should
be shared to protect the industry overall. There are a lot of entrepreneurs coming into
this space with great background but they haven’t been through a bunch of recalls and
you really can’t just read about those to understand the severity of them,” he added.
fArmedhere
Growers Vertical Farms (Hardei, 2017)
In 2017, FarmedHere, one of the nation’s largest vertical farms shut down. It was
also the first to be certified organic by USDA. Rosemont, the FarmedHere founder,
indicated that this isn’t the first of the capital-intensive vertical farms to close. Mirai,
Panasonic, and Google have all abandoned vertical farming projects. Does that mean
that the money just isn’t there to do these things commercially at a large scale?
Basically, what the owners of FarmedHere said is that they weren’t making enough
money and could leverage their investments better in other sectors. At the same time
there have been small-scale vertical farms with tons of success. So, is the answer that
without government or other outside assistance (like Sky Greens in Singapore, which
is still expanding), it’s up to smaller farmers with better sales channels to develop
the technology before vertical farming really becomes scalable? There are still big
vertical farms that look to be doing well. It’s just a matter of adapting and continuing
to learn—and this can happen at the same time with both highly funded ventures
and smaller models.
green hYgeniCs holdings (www.greenhYgieniCsholdings.Com)

Manufacturer Hybrid Aeroponic Systems/Cannabis (Green Hygienics Holding
website)
Green Hygienics Holdings Inc. a full-scope premium cannabis cultivation
US-based company targeting the high-end medical and adult-use recreational mar-
ket. With more than 25 years of experience in agricultural science and innovation,
Green Hygienics is establishing itself as a leader in the advancement of science-
driven cannabis cultivation systems. Green Hygienics employs scientific methodol-
ogy to create a sterile growing environment by utilizing hybrid-aeroponics for a
soil-less approach. This advanced hybrid aeroponic method, along with other propri-
etary techniques, produces the highest yielding, lowest cost product currently avail-
able within the global cannabis marketplace. Green Hygienics Holdings, Inc., has
extensive expertise in indoor horticulture and vertical farming. Requiring no natural
sunlight or soil, their hybrid-aeroponic systems can be in operation and producing
anywhere in the world, 365 days per year. Green Hygienics’ vertical farming using
aeroponic technology uses 90%–95% less water, less energy, and improves yield per
square foot significantly. The system mists water and nutrients directly onto the roots
in a controlled environment, dramatically reducing spoilage while keeping the farm
bug free and 100% organic.
grow AnYwhere
Grower—Colorado (Higgins, 2008)
Grow Anywhere started in 2005 in Colorado when Larry Forrest, optometrist,
decided to try something new. Richard Stoner, president of AgriHouse Inc. in
Berthoud, told Forrest about aeroponic plant crop systems and persuaded Forrest
to start one. Forrest grows more than 12 types of crops at a time. These 2-inch
tall plants are grown aeroponically—without dirt—to sell as garnishes to local
restaurants.
Grow Anywhere produces the greens of beets, broccoli, basil, cilantro, arugula,
celery, carrots, wheatgrass, peas, dill, fennel, and onions. “It is a pretty unusual busi-
ness,” Forrest said.
Grow Anywhere grows the indoor plants suspended in air on soft meshing. The
growing area is 1,800 square feet inside a 3,000-square-foot industrial warehouse.
The plants are kept watered every 20 min with a nutrient filled sprinkler system, and
they grow in 70° temperatures under full-spectrum lights.
“It takes up to two weeks from the time the seed is planted until the plant is har-
vested,” Forrest said. Scissors are used to cut the small plants during harvest.
“This is a very expensive product to start,” Forrest said. “Rick was the brains
behind this.” Stoner sold Forrest the equipment and license to use AgriHouse
products.
“We sold him the products, but he implemented the technology,” Stoner said.
Grow Anywhere’s first year of business was a learning process.
“It was a trial and error to see what would work,” said Gail Stout, Forrest’s sister
and one of Grow Anywhere’s four employees.
“I was changing our process every week before we got it down.”
Mark Haberer, a former chef, is the operations manager of Grow Anywhere.
“To keep crops tasting fresh, Grow Anywhere uses no pesticides or preserva-
tives,” Forrest said.
“Our crops are only sold locally.”
To appeal to specialty restaurants, Grow Anywhere also sells micro-mixes of its
plant crops to create specific flavors for dishes. The base for these mixes contains
mustard greens, lettuce, bianca rica endive, onions, celery radish, and carrot cuttings.
To create a Mediterranean mix, the base is added to beet for color and basil
and fennel for flavor. The Atlantic mix adds dill and broccoli. The Asian mix,
which adds shiso and shungiku, goes well with fish dishes, Forrest said. Other
specialty mixes include a basil mix, a Latin mix, a color and spice mix, and a
spring onion mix.
Boulder and Denver restaurants are the biggest buyers of these garnishments.
Restaurants purchasing the plants include Bloom, Jax Fish House, Sushi Tora,
Bacaro, and the Blue Sky Grill at Coors Field.
The colorful garnishes not only make a dinner plate more aesthetically pleasing,
but also taste good, Forrest said.
The micro plants range from sweet to spicy in flavor.
“I don’t ever garnish my plate; I eat it,” said Stout, who harvests the plants. “I think
they are missing the boat when they don’t eat them.”
“Garnishments are used to enhance color, texture and taste to any dish,” Forrest
said. “A restaurant may put a few onion sprouts on top of a soup to add some flavor.”
Grow Anywhere ships more than 100 2-ounce clamshell containers of garnish-
ments twice a week to local restaurants.
In an interview with Food Engineering magazine, Forrest gave the following
answers to their questions.
FE: The misting process is called hydro atomization. Please describe.

Forrest: The water and nutrients build up to 100 psi, then pressure is released as
they go through the hydro-atomizing jet. There is a little plate at the
front of the misting orifice that fractionates each water droplet to a size
of 5–50 µm.
FE: Are there maintenance issues with the nutrients clogging the jets?
Forrest: In the 1980s, we relied on a brass jet with a steel impingement arm that
came over the orifice. Because you had two dissimilar metals, and
because a current runs through the water, there was calcification and min-
eral buildup. With the help of one of our NASA grants, we were able to
design a nylon nozzle that resolves the issue.
FE: How are plants supported?
Forrest: The original system was modified in partnership with Bio Serve Space
Technologies with the second NASA grant. It looks like an inverted vol-
cano, with very smooth surfaces on the inside. Separating the top of the
plant from the roots is a microfilm with very low mass. The roots grow
through the proprietary film, which essentially supports the plant.
FE: What types of produce are you growing?
Forrest: Cilantro, arugula, onions, beets, corn, and pea sprouts—it’s truly garnish
for restaurants. Everything is sold in a 2-ounce box for about $8, and each
box might complement 20 plates. Restaurants that charge $16 or more
per serving usually rely on Mexican suppliers who are three days away
from them for these ingredients. Our microgreens are hours old when
they arrive at Colorado restaurants, and they’re healthier and tastier.
FE: How does aeroponics compare with hydroponics?
Forrest: The water and nutrients required are significantly less with aeroponics. In
the low-gravity tests on the space station, aeroponics required 65% less
water and 45% less nutrient inputs than hydroponics, while increasing
the amount of biomass by 80%. Instead of immersing the plant’s roots in
water, they are exposed to the oxygen they need all of the time, except for
the three seconds of misting that occurs every 30–40 min.
Hydroponics is used extensively for tomatoes, but it hasn’t been par-
ticularly successful for other crops, partly because it is energy- and water-
intensive. Aeroponics is radically different because it uses a fraction of
the water and energy. Our plants are hanging in the air, not sitting in
water. We only use a few gallons of water and solution a day. It’s some-
thing like the misting systems in supermarkets’ produce sections. The
biggest expense is artificial lighting.
FE: How large a yield do you get?
Forrest: We generate 250–300 2-ounce containers a week in a growing area that’s
1,800 square feet. We use scissors to harvest the crop, which sounds labor
intensive but probably is less so than in conventional operations, where
microgreens have to be washed and dried before shipping. These are deli-
cate crops, and gentle handling is critical. With aeroponics, a couple of
people can harvest 100 boxes in about three hours.
FE: What challenges have you faced with the greenhouse?
Forrest: We killed a lot of plants the first year due to interruptions in the misting. If
the lights are on and the water isn’t flowing, you can cook the plants in a
couple of hours.
An unexpected problem early on was the alkalinity of the water. Plants
were turning yellow, and we had no idea that water pH was even an issue.
It turned out that pH had to be in the 6.4–6.8 range. Now we balance the
acidity in large containers after going through a reverse-osmosis process.
Nutrients are then added. Early on, we were adjusting the pH twice a day,
but now adjustments are only made occasionally.
FE: What have you done to optimize production?
Forrest: There are 15 water jets servicing each of the 60 frames supporting the
plants, and additional jets for the germination racks that extend 10 by
50 feet. Four connections have to be made for each jet, or about 4,000 in
total. We can reduce that to a total of 40 jets in a moving system that goes
back and forth over the farm, sort of like an automatic garage door.
A microchip was used to control the delivery of the atomized nutrient spray in his
design 25 years ago. The current system’s controller is the size of your
hand, and now everything is solid state, no mechanical relays. But the
same logarithms developed in the ’80s are wired into today’s system to
ensure proper delivery.
FE: Would the economics improve with more intense cultivation?
Forrest: Yes. To be economically feasible, it probably should be two or three times
bigger than the system we have in place. This could be accomplished in
our building by piggybacking two plants. We only go up about 8 feet in
a building with a 20-feet ceiling. And there are plans to build a plant the
size of a football field in Dubai.
Our goal has been to put together a system that can be duplicated in
another location and work as advertised. We’re just about there; now
it’s a matter of expanding distribution through our national produce-
distribution partners.
gro-pod (www.gro-pod.Co.uk)
Manufacturer and Training Aeroponics—UK (www.gro-pod.co.uk)
As soil-less growing systems like hydro- and aeroponics become more common,
Dan Hewitt thinks it will be necessary for agricultural education to evolve too.
Alongside the commercial applications of its pods, the business has a vision to
become a training center focused on aeroponic growing, supported by specialist
courses at the region’s colleges. “We are quite hooked on getting this to a place
where Gropod is a training center to get the farmers of the future ready to go out
on to the farm with pods,” Mr Hewitt said. “A traditional farm manager is used to
managing soil, which is very different. We think there will have to be investment in
people as well as the technology.” Mr Hewitt said Simon Coward, director of Hethel
Engineering Center in the UK, which supports Scottow Enterprise Park, is also keen
to make Gropod a “center of excellence” for training in aeroponics.
With pressure mounting on finite land supplies, a Norfolk firm is changing
the game for potato production—speeding growth by giving growers complete
environmental control inside aeroponic “pods.” Enhancing the flavor of vegetables,
speeding growth and optimizing water and nutrient use are some of the possible
benefits from a “pioneering” technique being practiced by a Norfolk start-up.
Gropod, a designer and manufacturer of aeroponic growing pods based at Scottow
FIGURE 6.13 Gro-pod growing sweet potatoes.
Enterprise Park, is involved in a trial with a major regional food producer to see if its
technology can be used to grow tropical crops in East Anglia (Figure 6.13).
With this successful project, the company is already thinking of national applica-
tions for its products to help alleviate the pressures on arable land—and scientists
involved in the project think it could open exciting opportunities in crop biology.
The company was founded in 2016 by agricultural sales veteran Dan Hewitt,
who most recently worked as managing director of a potato supply group in north
Norfolk, who calls the firm a “pioneer in aeroponic root production.”
The key to its methods are insulated pods over which farmers can have total envi-
ronmental control. The aeroponic growing process, which sees the roots exposed to
the air, uses a high-pressure device which mists the plants with water and nutrients
at regular intervals.
The water is captured and reused—Gropod estimates its growing process uses
70%–90% less water than soil growing—and is also analyzed to assess any nutrient
deficiencies in the plants.
The company is currently using the technology to grow sweet potatoes in a trial
for Kettle Foods, which challenged the John Innes Centre (JIC) to explore the pos-
sibility of growing such tropical crops for its products locally.
Gropod was put forward by JIC, and received an Eastern Agritech grant and a
cash injection from Kettle to develop its pods.
They were, and continue to be, supported by Dr Jonathan Clarke, head of business
development at JIC, who had met a UK-based sweet potato grower working in Essex
and Kent had some ideas of the potential problems which Gropod’s technology could
try to address.
After working for a year to design the 21 m2 pods, which were planted with 320
sweet potato plants each, Gropod made its first harvest in December 2018.
Another project, growing blue and red potatoes, has already finished and been
deemed successful—in the pod’s “optimal” conditions, the plants were producing
tubers within 5 weeks and were harvested in eight.
Mr Hewitt said: “We can grow tubers to harvesting in six weeks—that’s eight or
nine crops a year. Take the environmental factors away, give the plant the food it needs
24 hours a day, and you have optimal conditions which will produce perfect crops.”
Mr Hewitt is keen to reduce the pods’ environmental footprint further by using
solar power to run the pods’ lights—currently high-pressure sodium bulbs, but LEDs
are being trialed.
Through their process Mr Hewitt and Mr Wright also made the “surprise”
discovery about the air temperature needed for aeroponic growing. “When you plant
a potato in a field you want soil temperature of 9°C. When you don’t have soil the air
temperature around the roots is critical, and it is a lot higher than I thought it would
be,” Mr Hewitt said.
Dr Clarke said improvements were evident in the second generation of pod
infrastructure, which was more efficient, and was helping the plants to grow more
vigorously and produce better tubers more quickly.
The technology would start to “re-educate” people about crop growth, he said.
“You tend to leave it to Mother Nature, but with this you have a strict regime
you can control. Suddenly the plant is growing differently and you realize you can
influence it.”
“Gropod has heralded a change in vegetable production strategies and I think it is
going to offer producers and growers something exciting.”
JIC researchers will analyze the crops produced to see how the level of control
enabled by aeroponic growing environments could be taken advantage of, for
example to adjust the nutritional value or flavor of the tubers or bring back heritage
or heirloom varieties which do not manage well in traditional soil growing.
With land for food crops likely to become a rare commodity in the future, investors
and producers are responding to the idea of pod growing. Last month potato giant
McCain announced an investment in an “urban farming” company in Canada, using
similar techniques to Gropod, proving demand for less resource-hungry growing
solutions.
“Commercially it works, and there are a lot of people out there who want to see it
succeed,” said Hewitt. A major goal for Gropod is the development of “sustainable
supply chains,” which can reduce the air and road miles on fresh produce. Hewitt
added: “Rather than importing sweet potatoes from all over the world, can we get our
potato growers to put in pod infrastructure for them to carry on growing ingredient
crops all through the year?”
“Using clever technology, water and solar and making use of redundant spaces—
which there are thousands of—the importing of food becomes less critical.”
As soil-less growing systems like hydroponics and aeroponics become more
common, Dan Hewitt thinks it will be necessary for agricultural education to evolve
too.
Alongside the commercial applications of its pods, the business has a vision to
become a training center focused on aeroponic growing, supported by specialist
courses at the region’s colleges.
“We are quite hooked on getting this to a place where Gropod is a training center to
get the farmers of the future ready to go out on to the farm with pods,” Mr Hewitt said.
“A traditional farm manager is used to managing soil, which is very different.
We think there will have to be investment in people as well as the technology.”
GroPod® is a Science, Engineering, and Technology company that develops crop
production systems for the agriculture, horticulture, and food processing sectors.
GroPod®, designs, fabricates, and demonstrates contained production systems
to meet the specific requirements of its clients. It establishes crop production on
a demonstration scale, defines the economics of production, secures production
contracts within the agri-food supply chain, and then links production to growers
and producers.
GroPod® provides services to three principal clients: food processors (fresh
ingredients), retailers (fresh produce) and grower/producers. GroPod®’s systems
provide its clients with climate independent, low-input crop production systems
capable of delivering resilient, year-round, on demand production of both UK
adapted and non-UK adapted crops.
The company was formed to design and build modular “pods,” for vertical growing.
The pods are designed for a range of applications for growing food ingredient crops
for local supply chains.
The business was awarded funding through the Eastern Agri-Tech Growth
Initiative to support a research and development project to prove the concept of ‘Pod’
production on a pilot commercial scale.
The next stage is to upscale the pilot in order to meet the needs of a local client.
Primarily the research is to enable the growing of sweet potatoes for the snack
food industry. The crop is currently freighted from the USA, South America and
Egypt, so enabling sweet potatoes to be grown locally, would reduce food miles, and
the associated carbon footprint and overall operating costs.
growx (www.growx.Co)
Grower Horizontal Indoor Systems—Netherlands (Growx website)
Growx is a Dutch startup aeroponic company in Amsterdam with a motto “farming,
straight up” using horizontal indoor growing systems. On its website it states that
“urbanization, it’s the trend that doesn’t seem to be going anywhere anytime soon.
Just look at the Netherlands, which currently requires an area three times bigger
than its land mass just to meet the food demands of its citizens. While traditional
farming can sustain rural communities, city-dwellers of the future need a fresh food
infrastructure they can rely on—without exceeding their urban footprint. And that’s
precisely the kind of green revolution we’re starting with GROWx.”
GROWx claims to be the first vertical farm in the world to run off renewable
energy combined with circular packaging, with minimum waste and emissions. Plus,
it reduces the city’s dependence on expensive imports with large carbon footprints.
The farm’s smart LED light system ensures every day is a Summer’s day without
a cloud in the sky. Working with expert chefs they guarantee rapid growing and
predictable nutrient content—meaning the same high quality every single time
(Figure 6.14).
FIGURE 6.14 GrowX home growing system.
GROWx advocates for clean food, i.e., their craft greens are always free
from pesticides and its wholesome taste has even earned them a spot on some of
Amsterdam’s finest restaurant plates. On their website they highlight broccoli, fen-
nel, mustard mizuna red streaks, and radish rioja. They claim that their skyscraper
farms use minimal surface area so we can make the most of every square meter; they
use 95% less water than the average field farm, and they completely off renewable
energy.
helioponiCs (www.heliponix.Com)
Innovative Aeroponic Manufacturer—Indiana (Helioponics website)
Scott Massey met Ivan Ball while working together on a NASA funded research
project at Purdue University as undergraduate students under Dr. Cary Mitchell.
What started as an introduction to the innovating technology of hydroponics, left
them both wondering why there was not a standard, aeroponic device for consumers
to grow their own produce (Helioponic website). At that moment, Heliponix™ (for-
merly Hydro Grow) was founded. What started as a dream for these young engineers
who wanted to make a difference in the world became a literal kitchen startup in an
apartment on campus at Purdue University as Ivan and Scott built their initial proto-
types which were funded by working night shifts as full-time students.
“We chose the name “Heliponix” by combining the word “helix” with “hydro-
ponics.” Our goal is to find the most efficient form of agriculture, and that means
farming with the least amount of space, energy, and water without compromising
our commitment to growing the highest quality food. For inspiration we looked to
nature, and were influenced by the helix found in DNA segments. Through survival
of the fittest, nature has already determined this to be the most efficient shape, and
this has been a powerful influence on our work.”
Scott Massey, CEO, while pursuing his B.S. at Purdue University in Mechanical
Engineering Technology and Certificate of Entrepreneurship and Innovation
exited a career as an engineer in the oil and natural gas industry and part time
patent drafting for a local patent attorney to become a research engineer at the
Purdue University Horticulture College under Dr. Cary Mitchell. This inspired
him to found HELIPONIX© in his senior year. He is responsible for overseeing
next generation products, manufacturing operations, and the strategic plan of the
entire business. The company employs several engineers and is expanding their
network of GroPods deployed in the market which has been named the “Indiana’s
Best New Tech Product for 2018” by TechPoint through the Mira Award. Scott
continues to advise the Department of State through the Mandela Washington
Fellowship on several aquaponic farms across Africa to fight food insecurity in
the developing world.
Ivan Ball, CTO, obtained his B.S. in Electrical and Computer Engineering
Technology with a minor in Organizational Leadership and Supervision at Purdue
University. Throughout his undergraduate Co-op, Ivan advanced his knowledge
with focus towards automation controls in a large-scale food processing facility.
The NASA research project sparked his fascination with the idea that anyone could
continually grow their own produce without having to do manual labor in outdoor
garden. Ivan is responsible for the electrical hardware design, software/web develop-
ment, and cloud network architecture.
In 2018, Scott Massey gave a TED talk and Wabash College entitled Revolutionizing
Agriculture with Household Appliances. In this talk he gave a future view of agri-
culture using aeroponic growing systems. He compared the shift from traditional
agricultural practices to aeroponics like the transition from cutting ice chunks out of
frozen lakes to use in ice boxes to the invention of the refrigerator. He highlighted all
the advances of this new technology (Massey, 2018).
indoor fArms of AmeriCA (www.indoorfArmsAmeriCA.Com)

Manufacturer Indoor Systems—Nevada (Martin, 2017)
Dave Martin, CEO of Indoor Farms of America, was convinced that vertical aero-
ponic equipment is clearly the wave of the future that IOFA is the market leader in
terms of plant growing capacity and yields in any given space. According to Martin,
“A recent visitor from Japan, considering a distributorship for that region, simply
could not stop talking about how amazed he was at the amount of produce we are
growing in such a small space. He went on to tell us he believes our container farm,
with the substantially higher yield per square foot than anything else, can transform
the market in Japan, and that is pretty nice to hear.”
Indoor Farms of America spent nearly 2 years in R&D developing what now
has multiple US patents awarded—truly affordable, economically viable high
yield vertical aeroponic crop growing equipment. IOFA initially was focused
on growing 30 different leafy green products but now other crops such as cherry
tomatoes, strawberries, many smaller pepper varieties, and beans are being added to
the capacity. The company has also tested growing larger plants, such as heirloom
tomatoes, squash, and cucumbers.
In 2016, GrowTrucks, LLC container farm division of Indoor Farms of America—

maker of unique vertical aeroponic indoor farm equipment, announced the delivery
and operation of the first sold Container Farm using the latest patented technology
in indoor agriculture, with a growing capacity that eclipses any other product in the
marketplace.
“By combining our superior aeroponic vertical growing platform, with the
latest components to operate the farm, we have delivered on our mission to bring
to agriculture a truly economically viable solution, wrapped in a container,” states
Martin. The GrowTrucks’ unique, reliable, and patented vertical aeroponic plat-
form can grow up to 8,450 healthy plants with excellent flavor due to the pat-
ented system for mineral uptake in the plants, all in a 320 square foot container,
and is designed to operate in any climate in the world, all year long, month after
month, with no season to stop the farmer from producing. In 2017, Indoor Farms of
America introduced the world’s first solar powered vertical aeroponic farm. “This
farm represents a major milestone for indoor farming. Everyone in the industry
knows that the additional investment of solar energy generation to power an indoor
farm can turn a solid return on that investment into a long term money loser, due
to the length of time to recapture those extra investment dollars,” states David
Martin, CEO of Indoor Farms of America. “Using solar technology to power up
our vertical aeroponics, which grows fresh crops that are simply beyond organic,
is really a great story, if the economics work,” says Martin. “Our equipment was
specifically designed to create that tangible R.O.I., which is the only yardstick
that frankly matters in an indoor space, and furthers how we transcend anything
else in the industry.” IFOA has sold containerized farm for an extreme weather
area of the world, in Northern Canada, where they delivered a unit to the town of
Yellowknife,” says Martin. “This farm will experience temps of minus 40 Celsius,
and we have spent the past year in continual R&D to ensure our turn-key farms can
operate anywhere on the planet.”
The area of West Africa, known as the Ivory Coast, is receiving its first world
class indoor farm. “Here again, we were chosen over all competitors due to the fact
our containerized farm models grow over double the yield of anything else in the
world,” according to Martin.
The U.A.E. is receiving its first vertical aeroponic farm from IFOA, located in
Dubai, which is set to open for business in January, 2018. “Dubai will now have
unprecedented access to daily fresh premiums herbs, and fresh strawberries,”
states Martin. Indoor Farms of America has a showroom with demonstration
farms operating in Las Vegas, Nevada, and in multiple locations in Canada, and in
South Africa.
Indoor Farms of America announced in 2017 that the company was launch-
ing a version of its Container Farms that will be energy-independent and water-
independent, allowing deployment of the farms anywhere in the world. “We have
been working on this for quite some time, and these enhancements to our farm prod-
ucts will be available in production form by the end of Q1 this year,” according to
David Martin, CEO of Indoor Farms of America.
“From the beginning of our company’s existence, we have been, and remain on a
path of improvement of what we know to be the best indoor agricultural equipment
in existence, and to bring it to every corner of the world in a cost effective manner.
We are achieving milestones each month in that regard.” states Martin.
The company has container farms in operation across the US and are shipping
multiple container farms to countries around the globe. “We are continually humbled
by the visits we receive to our facility in Las Vegas from the brightest people in
agriculture. It is what drives us to keep making it better, to fulfill our purpose as a
company,” commented Ron Evans, President of IFOA.
Sales and delivery of larger vertical indoor farm formats produced by IFOA, such
as those in warehouse facilities, has increased rapidly, and the company is working
with some of the largest companies in the world that produce or process food due
to the extremely attractive financial metrics the equipment represents, according
to Martin. He added: “We recently installed a warehouse farm in Salamanca,
New York, when outside temps were 4°F, and the owners are amazed at what their
new farm represents. They have compared our equipment to every other form of
indoor growing, and chose us hands down. They are particularly focused on operat-
ing a very green farm, and use geothermal for heating of their facility, which means
superior fresh greens of any kind, and strawberries, which they are starting to grow
all year long, no matter what the weather is like outside.”
The company has patented vertical aeroponic equipment, which provides growing
capacities in excess of 40 plants per square foot of floor space in an operating height
of just 8 feet.
It was announced on November 26, 2018 that Indoor Farms of America had gone
out of business (igrow, 2019).
indoor hArvest CorporAtion (www.indoorhArvestCorp.Com)

Manufacturer of Aeroponic Systems—Texas (Sykes, 2014)
In 2015, Indoor Harvest Corporation (brand name Indoor Harvest) is a designer,
builder, contractor, developer, marketer, and direct-seller of commercial-grade
aeroponic and hydroponic fixtures and supporting systems for use in urban Controlled
Environment Agriculture and Building Integrated Agriculture. It is in the process
of developing their products and services. Consequently, they had not generated
revenues in 2015. They have an accumulated deficit and have incurred operating
losses since inception and expect losses to continue during 2015. The 1Q15 and
1Q14 IHC had a net loss of $283,657 and $144,146, respectively. The increase in our
operating expenses is due to increases in costs related to research and development,
increased payroll costs, depreciation expense, listing expenses to have our common
stock traded on the OTCQB and professional expenses related to being a SEC
reporting Company. The increase in research and development expenses was due to
increased costs developing our vertical farm framing system and improvements to
our existing aeroponic designs.
On March 30, 2015, the Company signed a LOI with the City of Pasadena, Texas,
regarding the development of a vertical farming complex, to include a for-profit
commercial operation and a non-profit educational facility. The for-profit portion
would include a state-of-the-art indoor vertical farm serving local customers with
gourmet leafy greens, herbs, and micro-greens. The non-profit side would integrate
an academic program that would use the vertical farm as a lab for practical studies
and some component (to be negotiated) of low-cost or at-cost produce made available
to community organizations to be balanced by tax offsets through non-profit status.
The Company was preparing to begin sales of its vertical farm framing system.
Chad Sykes, Chief Executive Officer of the Company, stated, “We’re taking the final
steps needed to bring some of our products and services to market and based on cur-
rent inquiries, we are very optimistic that we will begin sales before 2016. Current
pricing of our LED vertical farm frame sets are expected to come in at a price that
will compete well with most popular LED fixtures. By incorporating LEDs into the
actual frame design itself, instead of using a separate light fixture and framing sys-
tem, we will be able to offer a complete vertical farm racking solution for a price that
is only slightly more than a standard LED fixture of equivalent wattage.”
In addition to our LED framing design, we have begun the process of re-designing
our aeroponic system to take advantage of cheaper manufacturing processes. We
anticipate initially offering our aeroponic system as a large-scale cloning platform
for propagation. We have redesigned the system to work with our existing LED frame
set, thereby providing a modular vertical platform for large-scale clone production.
We anticipate each unit being capable of producing some 600 clones per unit.
“Almost all current cloning systems on the market today utilize a low pressure
design. By using our proven high pressure design, we expect to be the first Company
to offer a true aeroponic system for commercial cloning at a price that will compete
directly with less effective, low pressure systems currently on the market. With high
pressure aeroponics, we are able to atomize the nutrient solution to a 30–50 µm size,
thereby accelerating the rooting of cuttings several days faster than a low pressure
design. We anticipate bringing this product to market in the next 2–3 months (2015)
thus opening up another potential revenue stream from our existing portfolio of
designs,” further stated Chad Sykes, CEO.
In 2015, Tweed Marijuana Inc. announced the installation of a state-of-the-art
aeroponic system developed by Texas-based Indoor Harvest Corp. (Indoor Harvest)
has commenced in Smiths Falls, Ontario. The system is the basis of a Cannabis
Production Pilot Agreement between the two companies. Cannabis-specific
modifications will be implemented, tested, and recorded. The companies will jointly
own any resulting intellectual property, with Tweed obtaining exclusive licensing
rights within Canada and all jurisdictions excluding the United States.
“The Tweed R&D team reviewed a number of potential aeroponic partners from
around the globe and chose Indoor Harvest for their high pressure, large-scale
aeroponic specialization, and their leading edge involvement in this emerging
sector,” said Bruce Linton, CEO and Co-founder of Tweed. “Pushing boundaries is
a part of Tweed’s culture so the fit is ideal.”
In 2018, Indoor Harvest has been focused on becoming a precision agriculture
technology company for delivering pharmaceutical grade cannabis for researchers,
and the development of next generation personalized medicines.
The CEO, Dan Weadock, wrote in 2018 that it was his great pleasure to assume
leadership of Indoor Harvest Corp and to prepare the company for short- and
long-term success in the rapidly evolving legal cannabis industry. The potential
“legalization” of cannabis (which includes a substantial number of political, social,
and scientific developments) has created what they believe are unprecedented
opportunities. Indoor Harvest is seeking to take advantage of the latest technological
and scientific developments.
Indoor Harvest was founded as a precision agriculture technology platform,
focused on high pressure aeroponics, targeting the nascent vertical farming/con-
trolled environment agriculture space. The original mission of the company was to
revolutionize farming by eliminating harmful chemicals, reducing water and other
overall inputs, while simultaneously increasing nutrient uptake, biomass, and quality
to feed the ever expanding population in a sustainable way.
In 2014, in recognition of the burgeoning cannabis industry and the value it
potentially represented to the company, it pivoted and turned their focus away from
traditional leafy greens, toward the production of pharmaceutical-grade cannabis for
the research and development community, and the exploration of new, personalized
medicines. Now aeroponic platform technology is an integral element in the future
of indoor farming.
They believe further that cannabis is presently the most attractive and interesting
application of Indoor Harvest’s technology, not only because they believe that it is a
high value crop in a fast growing industry, but also because of its disruptive potential
and role as next generation medicine.
Within this unprecedented market, it is anticipated that Indoor Harvest’s
innovative intellectual property can shine, as they refine our focus of seeking to
deliver true pharmaceutical-grade product.
A new strategic partner is Leslie Bocskor with Electrum Partners, a multifaceted
cannabis consultancy. Leslie agreed to work with Indoor Harvest personally and
directly, to assist with strategic guidance and develop additional complementary
partnerships to integrate Indoor Harvest’s intellectual property into some of what
we believe to be the industry’s most important and valuable enterprises, seeking to
ensure long-term profitability and value for the company and its shareholders.
Chad Sykes, founder and original CEO, served as Chief of Cultivation, Principal
Financial Officer, and Principal Accounting Officer. It is expected that he will continue
working with Indoor Harvest and will focus his short-term efforts on the development
of our planned Integrated & Controlled High-Pressure Aeroponic platform showcase.
JAmes e. wAgner (www.JwC.CA)

Manufacturer—Canada (JWC website)
James E Wagner (JWC) is a company that is revolutionizing the cannabis industry
with its aeroponic cultivation technology. JWC’s innovative GrowthStorm™ system,
based on NASA-developed technology, allows for high yield and efficient production
of clean and consistent cannabis crops. In an increasingly crowded Canadian canna-
bis market, the proprietary system sets JWC apart from its competitors and provides
unique value to the company.
The GrowthStorm™ platform is a four-part aeroponics growing system that
allows the roots of the cannabis plants to be suspended in the air in a closed-loop
growth chamber. The roots are misted with nutrient-rich water at prescribed inter-
vals, and because the roots are dangling in nothing but air, they are better able to
absorb the nutrients and oxygen, which, in turn, has several benefits, including larger
yields, a short growth cycle, and overall improved plant health. GrowthStorm™ uses
less water and much less space to grow the same number of plants as a soil-based
grow system. GrowthStorm™ also limits crop disease by eliminating the need for
soil or other growing media, which are often the vehicles for disease transmission.
Additionally, if a plant does become infected it can be easily removed without dis-
turbance to the surrounding plants (Figure 6.15).
Typically grown cannabis plants have a higher cannabinoid count in the buds
near the top of the plant and a lower cannabinoid count on the lower branches.
The GrowthStorm™ system allows for more standardized cannabinoids over the
entire plant resulting in a more consistent dose and a higher quality product for the
company’s patients.
FIGURE 6.15 JWC cannabis farm.

(Continued )
FIGURE 6.15 (CONTINUED) JWC cannabis farm.
Additionally, the facility utilizes a series of grow rooms to enable perpetual

harvesting. This allows for significantly greater yields and more accuracy in the
prediction of harvest volume and timelines to meet patient demand for its products.
JWC has partnered with Price Industries to create a system that results in the perfect
humidity and temperature control to create an ideal growing environment, resulting
in a product without any need for irradiation or cold pasteurization.
It is important to note that JWC is a family business, built on the legacy of the
family patriarch James E Wagner. James was a farmer who spent most of his life
out in the fields, growing everything imaginable on the family farm. Throughout his
long farming career, he passed his knowledge and passion for growing quality crops
on to his children and grandchildren. He grew cannabis too, and it was Grandpa Jim
who offered support and advice when the first members of their group proposed the
addition of medical cannabis to their business model. James E. Wagner passed away
peacefully at the age of 89, in November 2017, but his legacy lives on in the family
business.
JWC is looking to the future with the construction of a second site facility at its
Kitchener, Ontario operation. This expansion will increase its current 15,000 square
feet facility to 345,000 square feet, and it is anticipated that targeted production will
increase from around 1,500 kg/year to more than 28,500 kg/year. The new facility
also brings an increase in staff as well—from the nearly 50 currently, to over 400
employees. JWC anticipates that when completed, the new facility will be the largest
aeroponic grow operation for any crop in the world.
In 2018 JWC announced a consulting agreement with the leading investor relations
firm, First Canadian Capital Corp. (“FCC”), pursuant to which FCC will provide
JWC with consulting, investor relations, and strategic corporate communications
services.
JWC has a partnership with Canopy Rivers Corporation, the strategic investment
arm of Canopy Growth Corporation, and boasts of a proprietary growing
methodology—GrowthStorm™. Having a process that is difficult to replicate is a
game changer to this lucrative industry where many of the methods used do not
sustain superior plant health, consistent high quality, and high potency.
Nathan Woodworth, Chief Executive Officer and President of JWC, commented;
“With the initiation of an ongoing relationship in investor relations with First
Canadian Capital, JWC is pleased to anticipate an increase in our visibility. This is
a key moment in cannabis history, and we are proud to be a part of it. We are happy
to be working with First Canadian Capital, who we believe are the best candidate
to help spread our message of the important and cutting edge work we are doing in
this industry.”
The Company finished 2018 with just over 190 kg of dried cannabis in its stor-
age vault. JWC received its sales license for dried flower during 2018 and began
to sell directly to patients during Q3. The first shipment to the Canopy Growth
Corporation’s CraftGrow store took place during Q4 and was made available to
patients in early Q1 2019. The JWC customer care team focused on building rela-
tionships with several clinics and continued adding patients to the JWC roster.
Over the first 2 months of fiscal 2019, the Company has seen its patient roster grow
significantly, now with over 218 registered patients. The Company has also contin-
ued to ship dried cannabis to the Canopy Growth Corporation’s CraftGrow store
and will provide its first shipment of resins before the end of 2018, for processing
into oils. The Company also expects to receive its sales license for oils in early
2019, and will make available several oil extract products for direct selling to its
registered patients.
Just green
Growers Aeroponic Systems—New York (aerofarms website)
Just Greens, LLC, is doing business as AeroFarms LLC, growing leafy greens,
herb varieties, and micro greens by using aeroponic technology and LED light-
ing. It also grows edible flowers, warm season greens, and grasses. The company
serves schools and food banks. Just Greens, LLC was formerly known as Aero
Farm Systems, LLC. The company was founded in 2004 and is based in Ithaca,
New York.
Just Greens LLC has submitted a patent application for aeroponic system and
method. This invention was developed by Edward Harwood and David Rosenberg.
Just Greens LLC has sought a patent for improvement of an aeroponic system and
method. This invention was developed by Edward Harwood.
lettuCe Abound fArms (www.lettuCeAbound.Com)

Grower Vertical Walls—Minnesota (lettuceabound website)
In 2018, Lettuce Abound Farms in New London, MN was started by Ortenblad
and Dengler, along with their wives Julie Ortenblad and Melody Dengler, to build
the region’s first commercial-scale aeroponics lettuce farm.
Lettuce Abound is the first franchise operation of the Faribault-based Living
Greens Farm, which developed this type of aeroponics system. Ortenblad and Dengler
modified the system and, despite some challenges that delayed the start-up, they
said the system is working flawlessly and plants are growing faster than expected.
The facility is housed in a farm machine shed they turned into an immaculate indoor
farm that meets federal vegetable production and packaging standards.
After suiting up in a white jacket and hairnet, washing one’s hands and stepping
in a shallow shoe wash before entering the indoor farm, visitors see vertical walls
of lush green lettuce. When the facility is eventually in full year-round production,
the 102- by 50-foot building will produce the equivalent of a 180-acre farm. After
the seeds germinate and plants are a couple inches high, the chunks of rock wool
are placed into panels with cup-like plastic containers and attached to 12 stainless
steel A-frame units that are 8 feet high and 32 feet long. Each unit holds 1,536 lettuce
plants.
The roots of the plants dangle in the air underneath the frame and are spritzed
every 12 minutes with a mist of reverse osmosis water and fertilizer delivered
through mechanical sprayers run by a complex computer program. Banks of intense
lights—which are so strong that sunglasses are needed to work among the plants—
help fuel the plants’ rapid growth. The carbon dioxide level is carefully measured,
the temperature is kept at 70–72, the humidity is at 55%–65% and a fan blows air to
mimic the wind and makes the indoor farm “smell amazing,” Dengler said.
During peak capacity, they will harvest three units, or about 4,600 heads of
lettuce, every week, Ortenblad said. They are gradually increasing the number of
varieties of lettuce and will grow specific types of greens requested by large-scale
customers, Dengler said.
While they’re growing just lettuce now, they have already laid the groundwork
for a potential expansion in a couple years for a new building to grow aeroponics
strawberries and small cherry tomatoes.
What had been a large, empty pole barn on a farm in rural New London is now
becoming a climate-controlled maze of computer-operated, high-powered lights,
and a water misting system housed on a dozen massive stainless steel frames.
The building will be filled with lush, fresh lettuce, and other leafy greens.
It will be the region’s first large-scale, commercial indoor aeroponics growing
system that will produce fresh greens year-round.
They intend to market the high-end produce to restaurants and other outlets, like
food co-ops.
“This is not farming. This is science,” Ortenblad said. “This is science and
computer automation is what this is.”
living greens (www.thelivinggreens.Com)

Grower Indoors—Minnesota (thelivinggreens website)
In 2018, the founder of a growing aeroponic farm near Faribault, MN, CEO Dana
Anderson was ready to prove his Living Greens low-input, no-dirt operation will have
a big effect on the emerging world of year-round indoor vegetable growing. Anderson
started tinkering with aeroponics in his Prior Lake garage in 2010. In 2017, Living
Greens, staked by $8 million over several years contributed by founding sharehold-
ers, started slowly by testing and eventually producing increasingly larger crops of
lettuce with a high-tech, rapid-growth system rooted in nutrient-rich misting and
LED lighting. In 2019 following completion of the last stage of construction, Living
Greens should amount to 60,000 square feet of stacked, mechanized growing space
capable of producing up to 3 million heads of high-quality lettuce. The business
plan and initial production proved impressive enough to recently draw $12 million in
an inaugural round of institutional funding from Boston-based private-equity funds
NXT and Wave Equity Partners.
“We’re exiting the research-and-development stage and going to market,”
Anderson said.
The $6 million Faribault factory-farm will prove Living Greens’ technology
innovation and its year-round, premium-lettuce model and spur construction of a
second plant within a year outside of Minnesota, backers said.
“We think we have an opportunity to be a market leader in leafy greens,” Anderson
said. “There are projections nationally that up to 50 percent of leafy greens could
be grown indoors within 10 years from almost nothing today.” “Our goal is to be
the largest indoor [farm operation]; corporate-owned and through licensing of the
technology,” Anderson said. “We’re looking at joint ventures with food-service
companies around the world.”
Living Greens said that its Faribault farm—a floor footprint of about 20,000
square feet that rises to about 16 feet, thus providing its 60,000 square feet of grow-
ing space—It will be the second-largest aeroponics operation behind that of industry
leader AeroFarms of Newark, N.J. It operates a 70,000-square-foot indoor farm in
addition to smaller installations.
Living Greens already supplies a growing list of Minnesota and Wisconsin
grocers with several types of leaf lettuce, arugula, and mixed greens through
Robinson Fresh, a division of C.H. Robinson.
In 2019, it will have installed the technology to produce around 3 million bagged
packages of salad greens for retail distributions.
Typical salad bags, depending on whether they include dressing and other
ingredients as part of planned “salad kits,” will retail for $2.99–$3.99.
“We’re producing about 500,000 units a year now, and it will be a sixfold
expansion by spring,” Anderson projected.
The 20-employee Living Greens operation includes chief technology officer
Dave Augustine, a University of Minnesota-trained electrical engineer and veteran
industrialist who joined the board several years ago.
Living Greens has been awarded four patents on its growing process, according
to Anderson.
The firm plans to produce as much lettuce indoors as would be produced by
100 times the farmland, using 95% less water, no pesticides, herbicides, or other
chemicals.
“The risks of foodborne illness are extremely muted compared to the traditional
food chain. We use a ‘reverse-osmosis’ process to remove all the particulates from
the water.”
Living Greens plans to deliver a premium product locally, at lower cost, because it
won’t have the long-haul transportation expense and up to two weeks’ time to deliver
from Mexico or the California-Texas Sun Belt where most fall-winter vegetables are
grown.
To be sure, Living Greens has dreams of being a big company in a fragmented but
fast-developing indoor agriculture market.
The sector is driven by the premise that farmland is limited, and industrial-scale
farming can be very expensive and uses what can be unsustainable amounts of water,
chemicals, and land.
The challenge for the small, indoor innovators such as Living Greens is to entice
buyers with tasty produce at a competitive but profitable price that customers also
will patronize for their regional and environmental pitches
plentY (www.plentY.Ag)
Grower—California (plenty website)
Plenty was founded in 2013 with the mission to bring local produce to people
and communities everywhere by growing the freshest, best-tasting fruits and
vegetables, while using 1% of the water, less than 1% of the land, and none of
the pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, or GMOs of conventional agriculture. They
use indoor vertical farms and combine the best in American agriculture and crop
science with machine learning, IoT, big data, sophisticated environmental controls,
and the exceptional flavor and nutritional profiles of heirloom seed stock. They are
based in San Francisco and have received funding from leading investors including
Eric Schmidt’s Innovation Endeavors, Bezos Expeditions, DCM, Data Collective,
Finistere, and WTI.
In 2017, Plenty acquired Bright Agrotech, the leader in vertical farming produc-
tion system technology. Bright has partnered with small farmers for over 7 years
to start and grow indoor farms, providing high-tech growing systems and controls,
workflow design, education, and software. “We’re excited to join Plenty on their mis-
sion to bring the same exceptional quality local produce to families and communities
around the world,” said Nate Storey, founder of Bright Agrotech. “The need for local
produce and healthy food that fits in everyone’s budget is not one that small farmers
alone can satisfy, and I’m glad that with Plenty, we can all work toward bringing
people everywhere the freshest, pesticide-free food.”
Plenty employs 100 people in three facilities in San Francisco and Wyoming. It
has raised more than $226 million since its start. Mr Barnard, the CEO, said the firm
has already signed up online and bricks-and-mortar distributors for the food, which
will initially be dominated by leafy vegetables and herbs (Figure 6.16).
The firm is planning indoor farms on land of 2–5 acres—roughly the size of
Home Depots or Walmarts. Mr Barnard said the food will be competitively priced,
thanks in part to a shorter supply chain, and within reach of a range of incomes.
Tesla Inc.’s former director of battery technology joined Plenty in 2017 to lead the
vertical farming startup’s plan to build indoor growing rooms around the world. Kurt
Kelty, who joined Tesla in 2006 and was one of the longest-serving executives at the
carmaker led by Elon Musk, is the senior vice president of operations and market
development. Kelty had previously spent more than 14 years at Panasonic Corp.
Plenty wants to build a giant indoor farm next to every major city in the world.
In 2017, it announced plans to build a 100,000 square foot vertical-farming
warehouse in Kent, Washington, just outside of Seattle. That farm was expected
FIGURE 6.16 Plenty aeroponic system.
to be open and deliver produce locally by mid-2018, and was designed to produce
4.5 million pounds of greens annually.
Plenty grows plants on 20-foot vertical towers instead of the stacks of horizontal
shelves used by most other vertical-farming companies. Plants jut horizontally from
the towers, growing out of a substrate made primarily of recycled plastic bottles
(there’s no soil involved). Water and nutrients are fed in from the top of the tower and
dispersed by gravity (rather than pumps, which saves money). All water, including
from condensation, is collected and recycled.
The plants receive no sunlight, just light from hanging LED lamps. There
are thousands of infrared cameras and sensors covering everything, taking fine
measurements of temperature, moisture, and plant growth; the data is used by
agronomists and artificial intelligence nerds to fine-tune the system. The towers are
so close together that the effect is a giant wall of plants.
Currently, Plenty is focusing on leafy greens and herbs—varieties of lettuce, kale,
mustard greens, basil, etc.—but it says it can use the system to grow anything except
root vegetables and tree fruits. Strawberries and cucumbers are coming up next.
There are virtually no pests in a controlled indoor environment, so Plenty doesn’t
have to use any pesticides or herbicides; it gets by with a few ladybugs. The produce
from Plenty’s San Francisco warehouse is certified organic, but leaders in the
industry also like to stress that vertical farming is local, with an entirely transparent
supply chain. Relative to conventional agriculture, Plenty says that it can get as much
as 350 times the produce out of a given acre of land, using 1% as much water. “It is
the most efficient [form of agriculture] in terms of the amount of productive capacity
per dollar spent,” Barnard has said. “Period.”
The next grandest claim in the industry is AeroFarms, a Newark, New Jersey
company with nine indoor farms, which says it can get to 130 times the amount of
produce per acre.
What’s more, Plenty says its products taste better than most of what customers
now have access to. Around 35% of fruits and vegetables eaten in the US today are
imported. Leafy greens travel an average of 2,000 miles to reach your plate. Some
produce has been on ships and trucks for 2 weeks before it reaches the table—having
lost, by some estimates, 45% of its nutritional value along the way. Produce is bred
to survive that long journey with its aesthetics, but not necessarily its flavor, intact.
Plenty plans to build warehouses not inside major cities, but just outside them,
next to distribution centers, to minimize the time its food spends in transit—it wants
produce to go from harvest to table in hours, rather than days. If it can do that, the
company will be able to grow and sell a wide variety of rare and heirloom breeds,
which are more tender and flavorful than what’s available at the supermarket, but
less resilient to long journeys.
In fact, Barnard says he will save more money on trucks and fuel than he spends
on facilities and power.
The company’s goal is to build an indoor farm outside of every city in the
world of more than 1 million residents—around 500 in all. It claims it can build a
farm in 30 days and pay investors back in 3–5 years (versus 20–40 for traditional
farms). With scale, it says, it can get costs down to competitive with traditional
produce (for a presumably more desirable product that could command a price
premium).
“We can pretty much grow everything,” he says. “The problem is cost. Anyone
can buy some shelves, some lights, irrigation. The challenge is to get your produce
down from $40 per pound to $1.”
His strategy for reducing costs (and improving taste) is to add data and machine
learning to the traditional hydroponic mix. Throughout the farm, arrays of infra-
red sensors monitor how the crops are growing and feed that information back into
algorithms that adjust light, heat, and water flow accordingly.
“The best-tasting crops are finicky,” he says. “They need one thing on day one
and something else on day seven.” The result is a closed system that controls itself,
though the crops are, so far, picked by humans. “We couldn’t have done this, say, ten
years ago. But now we are having what I like to call a ‘Google moment’. Just like
Google benefited from the simultaneous combination of improved technology, better
algorithms and masses of data, we are seeing the same.”
“Today, with field-grown produce, 30 to 45 per cent of the final value at shelf is
attributable to trucks and warehouses,” he says. By cutting this journey to almost
zero, Barnard says he can reduce retail prices and increase product shelf-life as pro-
duce goes straight from farm to shop.
Plenty is not alone in the indoor-farming sector. There are dozens of similar
companies, including London-based Growing Underground and Aerofarms in the
US, that use LEDs instead of sunlight and produce fresh greens indoors. And there
have been casualties. Atlanta’s PodPonics, LocalGarden in Vancouver, and Chicago-
based FarmedHere, all of which began with a similar vision to Plenty’s, have closed
down, unable to make the businesses viable. In 2019, it will open its first full-scale
farm on a 9,000 m2 site just south of Seattle and it has plans to move into China
where Barnard sees a big market for produce that is fresh and safe.
“In China, the pesticide load is two times that of the rest of the world,” he says,
“so many consumers don’t have the opportunity to eat fresh produce. They have to
boil their veggies to feel safe eating them.”
“It’s a useful sideline but it’s not going to solve world hunger,” says Tim Lang,
professor of food policy at City University in London. “I can show you books from
the 1950s where people were saying that the future of food is hydroponics but it
hasn’t happened. It’s simply very expensive to run.” Long-time Tesla engineer Nick
Kalayjian is leaving the carmaker after nearly 12 years to help design highly efficient
vertical farms for San Francisco startup Plenty. Nick Kalayjian is a high-ranking
Tesla engineer who joined in the company’s shambolic early days before Elon Musk
was CEO and has worked on all its products from the Roadster through the Model 3,
before joining Plenty in 2018. Kalayjian became San Francisco-based Plenty’s senior
Vice President of Engineering. He’s leaving Tesla not because of dissatisfaction or
friction but out of a desire to tackle another big societal challenge after working to
advance clean vehicles and energy for nearly 12 years.
“The mission of Plenty is potentially bigger than the electrification of transporta-
tion or the grid,” he said. “The energy consumed, the impact on the environment
of farming all over the world, is massive, and it’s a problem that needs a kind of
engineering focus Tesla applies to vehicles. I think there’s a lot of opportunity to
have a big impact.” Kalayjian is a Stanford University-trained engineer. “It’s super
important for us to have a production system to grow food at prices that fit into
everyone’s budget,” he said. “Few people in the world that have led engineering
development and productization processes that move as fast for systems that are as
dense and complex as what Nick and his teams at Tesla have done.” From the outside,
Plenty farms look like warehouses or big box stores, and range in size from 100,000
to 250,000 square feet, or the equivalent of 2.3 to more than 5 acres. Inside, plants
grow sideways on vertical columns between 7 and 20 feet high. With precise use of
water, nutrients, temperature control and light, its farms “can grow anywhere from
a couple hundred acres to 1,000 acres of conventional field production on a volume
basis over the course of a year,” Barnard said. And they do that using 1% of the water
a traditional farm would. Growing close to where the crops are consumed also cuts
shipping costs, fuel use, and carbon exhaust.
podplAnts (www.podplAnts.Com)
Manufacturer Australian (Firestone, 2015)
Chris Wilkins was so passionate about his invention—a novel aeroponic system
to grow plants by suspending them in nutrient-laden mist—that he dropped out of
university to develop it.
Now the Sydney inventor is about to launch the system, PodPlants, as a means
of growing greenwalls, or vertical gardens, in office blocks. But he sees this com-
mercialization phase as only a milestone in the realization of his dream of adapting
the technology to environmentally sustainable agriculture, amid fears about global
food security.
Wilkins has made the finals of the Backyard Innovation category of The
Australian Innovation Challenge awards with PodPlants. The awards are run by
The Australian in association with Shell with the support of the federal Department
of Industry. The Backyard Innovation category is open to the public and carries a
$10,000 prize.
Aeroponics involves growing plants without soil. In contrast to hydroponics, in

which plants are grown with their roots in a nutrient solution, aeroponics plants are
suspended in air with a nutrient solution delivered to their roots in droplets, Wilkins
says.
The PodPlants units are black plastic containers 2.4 m high, about 1 m wide, and
280 mm deep. About 200 plants are suspended at various levels within the modular
units and are supported from their stems by foam collars fixed to the inside walls of
the structures. Their leaves venture out of holes in the units’ walls.
Other aeroponics systems are on the market but the novelty of PodPlants lies
in part in the way the droplets are delivered to roots from a water reservoir at the
bottom of the unit, Wilkins says.
Unlike conventional aeroponic systems which typically use pumps, PodPlants
adapts a medical device to saturate the air with droplets without the use of pumps,
nozzles or filters, he says. He has a provisional patent on PodPlants, which he has
optimized for water and energy efficiency.
“The PodPlants are exceptionally efficient—consuming less than four watts of
power per 100 plants and less than 400 milliliters of water per day,” Wilkins says.
The portable, self-contained units, which weigh less than 10 kg, can each be
installed in less than an hour, he says. The units are positioned side by side to form
a greenwall.
“Traditional greenwall systems typically require plumbing, drainage
and waterproofing to be installed into existing walls, making these systems
impractical for many locations and costly,” he says. “All the water in PodPlants
is contained inside the units and the units can be placed anywhere. As there is no
waste water run-off, refilling and servicing can be done fortnightly or monthly
with a watering can.”
Wilkins’ company will initially lease the units, most of which grow rainfor-
est plants, to businesses for installation in offices. “Eventually, we will sell them
outright to plant rental companies,” he says.
A former plumber, Wilkins initially spent several years working on PodPlants
part-time in his backyard. He invested tens of thousands of dollars in the project
(Firestone, 2015).
He was enrolled in a Bachelor of Liberal Arts and Science at the University of
Sydney but dropped out to found a company and work on the project full-time.
He had participated in the University of Sydney Union’s Incubate start-up
accelerator program and was later invited to join the portfolio of business incubator,
ATP Innovations, when he decided to take the plunge. As part of the program, he
has office space at Australian Technology Park, in Sydney’s inner city, and access to
leading business advisers.
He was awarded a $15,000 grant by the NSW government earlier this year and
tutors at the University of Sydney, and takes on interns from the institution.
Although he sees decorative greenwalls for the corporate sector as the first market
for the PodPlants, he is experimenting with agricultural plants such as spinach.
“I’ve got two units with edibles in them,” he says. “The challenge with edibles is
the varying nutrient requirement.”
He has experimental units in his office and home, and has even colonized his
parents’ and sister’s homes. “Everywhere I go, I’ve got these units,” he says.
Wilkins spends long hours working on the project and is preparing to approach
prospective investors. “It’s all-consuming,” he says “It’s all or nothing because I
believe in it.”
rivierA Creek (www.rivierACreek.Com)

Grower Ohio (riviera creek website)
Riviera Creek Medical Marijuana multimillion dollar facility in Youngstown,
OH was built in 2018 by Kessler Products, Brian and Daniel Kessler. The facility
includes offices, labs, and grow rooms. The aeroponic-grown cannabis plants
are suspended, their stems and leaves virtually touching nothing as nutrients
are applied directly to their free-hanging roots through a mist. The temperature,
humidity, and airflow in the rooms are monitored day and night while cameras
provide a means for the staff to check in on the crop from outside the room. With
their new venture, the Kesslers hope to eventually deliver a medical marijuana
product with the same consistency in application as any common over-the-counter
drug, such as Tylenol. Riviera Creek makes up one portion of the medical marijuana
supply chain made legal under Ohio House Bill 523. Under state law, dispensaries
must be separate from testing labs, which must be separate from cultivators such
as Riviera Creek. The marijuana business in Ohio is still very much in its infancy,
to the point where all that exists currently are buildings. Testing facilities have
yet to begin their work, which means dispensaries are months away from having
any actual product to sell. Riviera has just under a dozen employees between its
administrators, lab staff, and security personnel, though Brian Kessler expects as
demand grows and the business expands, the staff will eventually grow closer to
100 (Figure 6.17).
FIGURE 6.17 Riveira creek cannabis farm.

FIGURE 6.18 Treeco tree-shaping system.
treevo (www.treevo.Co)
Manufacturer Israel (treevo website)
Treevo is an Israeli based company has developed a unique way of growing
trees into different and creative shapes. This new product was developed to assist in
tree-shaping from home. After years of research and tests, Treevo has managed to
grow roots into designable molds using large-scale aeroponics techniques, a form of
arborsculpture.
Treevo flora-scientists seed and sprout the plants in a specially constructed
g reenhouse, then elongate the roots of the tree to give the consumer a kit spe-
cially prepared for home growers. All the user has to do when they receive their
Treevo package is arrange the plant in the mold and hook up the foliage support
after potting it in the soil. They can then maintain the plant as if they would a
normal plant. When the tree reaches fullness, users remove the elastic mold and
continue to water, trim and care for it while keeping its designed shape. “Our ulti-
mate goal is to revolutionize the way cities and countries design their landscape
and urban ecosystem by allowing living trees to be used as infrastructures like
city lamps, bus stops and more,” Said Michael Faber, Head of Design at Treevo
(Figure 6.18).
true gArden (www.truegArden.Com)

Grower Arizona (true garden website)
Phoenix, Arizona-based True Garden is the premier vertical aeroponic food
farm in the Southwest US. This first-of-its-kind facility, operated by solar power,
was designed in partnership with Future Growing LLC (Tower Garden) with a
vision to drastically reduce the region’s agricultural water consumption while mak-
ing local, living produce available year-round in the hot desert regions of Phoenix
and the Southwest US. True Garden is the first high-tech greenhouse in the US
capable of producing most cool season food crops year-round even in the scorching
desert, where temperatures reach 120° during the day and 90° at night during peak
months. The greenhouse uses very little energy in the winter months by operating in
a naturally vented mode. During the hotter summer months, the greenhouse utilizes
a combination of smart and efficient technologies to affordably keep the greenhouse
at optimal temperatures, both during the day and night. Because of the design of
the Tower Garden® system, the crops grow faster than they would in soil, and have
to be harvested on a regular basis. Aeroponic towers are lined up in double rows
for several hundred feet, creating extra-large plant sites of 120,000–250,000 plants
per acre.
As the centerpiece of its state-of-the art greenhouse, True Garden founders Lisa
and Troy Albright selected Future Growing’s® vertical aeroponic Tower Garden®
technology because Future Growing® has a very successful and proven track
record—establishing hundreds of urban farms with its vertical aeroponic technology
across the country—and the vertical tower farm is ideal for small urban settings
like this one. Utilizing Future Growing®’s aeroponic technology which re-circulates
valuable water, True Garden uses 95% less water, 90% less space, and no harmful
chemical, pesticides, or herbicides like Roundup. The technology benefits urban
growers and consumers alike, since the aeroponic plants grown on Tower Gardens®
are more nutrient-dense than traditional produce, they grow extremely fast and the
Tower Gardens® produce living produce with the roots still intact. You cannot buy
produce that is fresher and more hyperlocal than that. True Garden is dedicated to
educating the public and empowering homeowners to grow the same way in their
own backyard. They sell seedlings and provide consulting services and workshops
on aeroponic farming.
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Taylor & Francis
7 Practice of Aeroponics
Don’t only practice your art, but force your way into its secrets; art deserves
that, for it and knowledge can raise man to the Divine.
Ludwig van Beethoven
Aeroponics from a practical standpoint borrows much of its technology, science, and
processes from the pioneering work done in the field of hydroponics. Therefore the
science of how plants grow, the role and function of roots, the essential nutrients,
crop-specific optimization scenarios, the greenhouse, and pest control have all been
documented extensively using the hydroponic approach (Jones, 2005a).
AEROPONICS VS. HYDROPONICS

There are significant differences in the application of aeroponics versus hydroponics.
The key differences are that in aeroponics the plant roots are suspended in air and
not immersed in nutrient solution as is the case for hydroponics. In fact even within
the aeroponic approaches, there are differences in presenting the nutrient solution to
the roots of the plant.
The initial development of aeroponic technology utilized misting or spray nozzles
to coat the roots with an aerosol of nutrient solution. This approach required the use
of high-pressure pumps (additional cost) which were necessary to deliver the nutrient
solution at a constant rate using spray nozzles as well as the concomitant problem of
nozzle clogging. However the work by Tim Blank at Disneyworld and his subsequent
Tower Garden approach attempted to eliminate this clogging problem and the need
for high-pressure pumps by implementing vertical multifaceted columns and simply
pumping the nutrient solution to the top of the column with a tube located inside the
column and distributing this solution from the top down. The nutrient solution would
cascade inside the column and coat the roots with the proper nutrients. This cascade
process could be applied using a time sequence where the pump was on for a fixed
period of time and then off. This allowed the roots to absorb more oxygen from the
air as the roots were exposed directly to the atmosphere.
The other key difference is that aeroponic systems do not use an inorganic sub-
strate to provide support for the roots of plants, except for a plug of rock wool (silica
fibers) that provide a place for seed germination and an anchor point between the
stem, leaves, and fruit above the rock wool and the roots below the rock wool and
inside the column.
In the hydroponics systems, plants have a need for macro and microchemical
elements (Jones, 2005b). Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are required by the plants
for photosynthesis to occur. This is the process that converts carbon dioxide, water,
and oxygen gas into sugars and carbohydrates using the energy of the sunlight.
Also nitrogen is necessary for these chemical processes, and it is obtained by root
221
absorption of nitrate and ammonium ions and carried to the stem and leaves via the
translocation process. It is believed that there are 15 essential elements required
to maintain healthy and vigorous growth by absorption and translocation. These
elements are C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, B, Cl, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, and Zn (Jones,
2005c). Of course all these elements need to be either soluble in the nutrient solution
and make contact with the roots or in the case of carbon dioxide come in contact
with the leaves.
ROLE OF ROOTS AND THE UPTAKE OF WATER AND NUTRIENTS

The role and function of the roots are noted as well (Jones, 2005d). The roots have
two major functions. They physically anchor the plant to the growing medium, and
they are the avenue through which water and ions (soluble elements) enter into the
plant for redistribution to all parts of the plant. Water uptake is essential for the
health of the plant. Also oxygen uptake occurs in the roots. One of the differences
between aeroponic and hydroponic growing is that the aeroponic roots are exposed
directly to oxygen in the atmosphere, which is around 20% oxygen by volume. So
there is plenty of oxygen available to be absorbed by the roots. However, for hydro-
ponics when the roots are submersed in the nutrient solution, the concentration of
oxygen in water is very low. This is true because the solubility of oxygen in water
is only a few mg/L (ppm). This solubility is temperature dependent and is inversely
proportional to temperature. So the higher the temperature, the lower the concentra-
tion. At 0°C the solubility of oxygen in water is 14.6 mg/L (ppm), whereas at 35°C it
is reduced to 6.9 mg/L (ppm) (Jones, 2005e).
The ion uptake by the roots is selective and depends on these factors (Jones, 2005f).
1. passage through the impermeable liquid layer

2. accumulation against the concentration gradient
3. metabolic energy coupled to such transport
4. mechanism of selectivity
5. vectorial transport
There are five process steps that define this concept of ion absorption. These steps are
1. free space and osmotic volume

2. metabolic transport
3. transport proteins
4. charge balance and stoichiometry
5. transport to the shoot
This is a complex process. There are three things that are believed about ion
absorption by roots (Jones, 2005g).
1. the plant is able to take up ions selectively even though the outside
concentration and ratio of elements may be quite different than those in
the plant.
Practice of Aeroponics 223

require essential elements in the root zone, including the macronutrients (needed in
relatively large quantities) of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, calcium, and
magnesium; and the micronutrients (needed in relatively small quantities) of iron,
manganese, zinc, boron, copper, molybdenum, chloride, and nickel. All of these
nutrients must be supplied by the nutrient solution, although chloride and nickel
aren’t included in most recipes, as they’re available in sufficient quantities as impuri-
ties with the fertilizer.
Fortunately, plants have adapted to growing at a wide range of nutrient concentra-
tions. From a practical standpoint, this means that many different nutrient solution
recipes can be used successfully to grow a crop.
They recommend that it is absolutely essential to begin with a laboratory analysis
of water. The three main things to note are the alkalinity, the electrical conductivity
(EC), and the concentration-specific elements. Alkalinity is a measure of water’s
ability to neutralize acid.
Water source alkalinity is a much more important number to look at than its pH.
The pH is simply a one-time snapshot of how acidic or basic your water is; alkalinity
is a measure of its long-lasting pH effect.
EC is a measure of the total dissolved salts, including both essential elements and
unwanted contaminants (such as sodium). Therefore, EC is a rough measure of water
source purity.
The laboratory water analysis will also tell you which specific essential elements
and contaminants are in your water. The concentration of essential elements should
be taken into account when preparing your nutrient solution. Often linked with your
water alkalinity are considerable levels of Ca, Mg, and S in water. It is important to
see whether water contains these important secondary nutrients and at what con-
centration, then one can supply these nutrients through a fertilizer program if not
available in sufficient quantities for your crop’s recipe. Sodium and chloride are
common contaminants in some waters; ideally these should be less than 50 and
70 ppm, respectively.
Once the water source quality is defined, one can begin to plan a fertilizer strategy
specific to the crop of interest. Plant fertilizer concentration needs vary depending
on the crop grown, the crop growth stage and environmental conditions. However,
for a new grower, a good starting point is to simply develop one recipe that works
decently well for a range of crop growth stages and conditions.
An example of nutrient solutions for aeroponic production of leafy greens is
shown in Table 7.1.
Table 7.2 shows the concentrations of these nutrient solutions in the units of ppm
(parts per million).
It should be noted that most hydroponic recipes call for the use of two or three
stock tanks. This is necessary to avoid a nasty precipitate or sludge that will occur
when specific nutrients are mixed in the concentrated form. In particular, calcium
can combine with phosphates and sulfates to form insoluble precipitates. If one is not
mixing these formulas in a concentrated stock solution but rather mixing in a dilute
or “ready-to-use” form, one can mix these prescribed amounts into one reservoir
containing the final water volume. This requires using a stepwise procedure where
TABLE 7.1
Three Aeroponic Nutrient Solution Formulations Shown for a 100 gal Tank
Nutrient Formulations
Jack’s Hydro-FeEd (16-4-17) Single bag commercial nutrient blend that requires 355 g in
100 gal of water
Jack’s Hydroponic (5-12-26) Tank A made up with 284 g of calcium nitrate (15-0-0) and
plus calcium nitrate tank B with 284 g of 5-12-26
Modified Sonneveld solution Tank A
184 g of calcium nitrate trihydrate
14.4 g of ammonium nitrate
167.3 g of potassium nitrate
3.8 g of 10% iron-DPTA
Tank B
51.5 g of potassium dihydrogen phosphate
93.1 g of magnesium sulfate heptahydrate
0.29 g of manganese sulfate monohydrate
0.352 g of boric acid
0.023 g of sodium molybdate dihydrate
0.217 g of zinc sulfate heptahydrate
0.035 g of copper sulfate pentahydrate
Some formulations use two separate solutions (A and B) to avoid precipitation of insoluble salts while
some are suitable for mixing as one solution.
TABLE 7.2
Comparison of the Nutrients (ppm) Supplied by Three Different Recipes for
Lettuce, Herbs, and Leafy Greens
Jack’s Hydro-FeED Jack’s Hydroponic Modified
(16-4-17) (5-12-26) + Calcium Nitrate Sonneveld’s Solution
Nitrogen (N) 150 150 150
Phosphorus (P) 16 39 31
Potassium (K) 132 162 210
Calcium (Ca) 38 139 90
Magnesium (Mg) 14 47 24
Iron (Fe) 2.1 2.3 1.0
Manganese (Mn) 0.47 0.38 0.25
Zinc (Zn) 0.49 0.11 0.13
Boron (B) 0.21 0.38 0.16
Copper (Cu) 0.131 0.113 0.023
Molybdenum (Mo) 0.075 0.075 0.024
each component is added individually and goes into a true solution before one adds
the next nutrient. This is where it’s very important to pick quality nutrients that are
very pure and 100% water soluble.
The made-from-scratch method can be difficult for new or smaller hydroponic
growers to manage. One commonly used alternative is a two-bag approach using
Jack’s Hydroponic (5-12-26) and calcium nitrate (Table 7.1). In this method, Tank
B contains 5-12-26 pre-blended formula mixed at a rate to deliver approximately
50–100 ppm N. Tank A contains calcium nitrate at 100–150 ppm N and can also
be used to add in some useful crop-specific boosters, such as potassium nitrate or
individual micronutrient chelates such as iron-EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic
acid), DPTA (diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid), and EDDHA (ethylenediamine-
N,N’-bis(2-hydroxyphenyl)acetic acid).
A relatively new one-bag alternative is Jack’s Hydro-FeED (16-4-17). This formula
is specifically designed to be used as a one-bag formula to deliver a complete nutrient
solution to hydroponic and aeroponically grown crops. It was developed specifically for
leafy green and herb growers, but has also seen much success as the main grower for-
mula for tomato, cucumber, and pepper crops. What’s unique about this formula is its
potentially neutral effect on solution pH, as well as its buffered micronutrient package
that also includes the essential blend of iron chelates from EDTA, EDDHA, and DPTA.
This formula works well for water types with an alkalinity in the range of 40–200 ppm N.
Understanding nutrient mobility relationships within a plant will greatly enhance
how you interpret and use the data generated by a tissue analysis. Young leaves tend
to show higher levels of the mobile nutrients (nitrogen and potassium) and lower lev-
els of immobile nutrients (calcium, iron, and manganese). Therefore, samples taken
from young leaves can be most useful to diagnose calcium or micronutrient deficien-
cies. If no particular problem is suspected, testing laboratories typically recommend
taking samples from recently matured leaves as a decent representation of what’s
happening to both new and old growth.
One of the earliest hydroponic nutrient solutions developed was named after the
developer, Hoagland. It is the basis for the aeroponic nutrient solutions used today.
The concentrations of this solution are given here in mg/L, ppm (Jones, 2005i). It is
shown in Table 7.3.
Table 7.4 shows the major element and micronutrient ionic forms and normal con-
centration ranges found in most nutrient solutions. These are generally what com-
mercial nutrient suppliers provide in their products (Jones, 2005j).
From a practical standpoint these nutrient solutions are made from blends of various
salts that contain the anions and cations of interest. Four different vendors are listed in
Table 7.5 with the specific formulations in g/100 gal of water as well as the mg/L (ppm)
in the final blend for commercial greenhouse vegetable production (Jones, 2005k).
That completes an overview on the practical preparation of nutrient solutions and
the relationships between weights and water volumes and actual ppm concentrations
in these solutions.
There are several other parameters that need to be fully understood in the operation
of an aeroponic growing system. These parameters are pH, temperature (water and
air), EC, methods of timing the nutrient delivery system, and lighting if conducting
the growing indoors. These topics are covered in the Jones reference (Jones, 2005l).
TABLE 7.3
Hoagland Recipe (ppm)
Nitrogen as nitrate 242
Phosphorus 31
Potassium 232
Calcium 224
Magnesium 49
Sulfur 113
Boron 0.45
Copper 0.02
Manganese 0.50
Molybdenum 0.01
Zinc 0.48
TABLE 7.4
Ranges of Elements in Typical Recipes
mg/L (ppm)
Major Elements
Nitrogen, nitrate + ammonium 100–200
Phosphorus mono and diphosphates 15–30
Potassium 100–200
Calcium 200–300
Magnesium 30–80
Sulfur, sulfate 70–150
Micronutrients
Boron borate 0.30
Copper 0.01–0.10
Iron 2–12
Manganese 0.5–2.0
Molybdenum 0.05
Zinc 0.05–0.50
There is also an extensive chapter on “cropping” that covers growing specific

crops, i.e., tomatoes, cucumber, peppers, lettuce, herbs, microgreens, strawberries,
green beans, sweet corn, okra, melons, and other types of plants (Jones, 2005m). The
author concludes with a brief chapter on pest control that includes insects, integrated
pest management, sanitation, and prevention procedures (Jones, 2005n). The Jones
book is recommended as an essential resource to anyone who is planning on oper-
ating an aeroponics growing system as a reference for the key parameters that are
needed to run a technically robust system.
TABLE 7.5
Four Nutrient Blends Shown (g/100 gal and ppm)
g/100 gal
Johnson Jensen Larson Cooper
Chemical
Potassium nitrate 95 77 67 221
Monopotassium phosphate 54 103 – 99
Potassium magnesium sulfate – – 167 –
Potassium sulfate – – 130 –
Magnesium sulfate 95 187 – 194
Calcium nitrate 173 189 360 380
Phosphoric acid (75%) – – 40 ml –
Chelated iron (FeDTPA) 9 9.6 12 30
Boric acid 0.5 1.0 2.2 0.6
Copper sulfate 0.01 0.5 – –
Copper chloride – 0.05 – –
Manganese sulfate 0.3 0.9 1.5 2.3
Zinc sulfate 0.04 0.15 0.5 0.17
Molybdic acid 0.005 0.02 0.04 –
Ammonium molybdate – – – 0.14
mg/L ppm
Major Elements
Nitrogen 105 106 172 236
Phosphorus 33 62 41 60
Potassium 138 158 300 300
Calcium 85 93 180 185
Magnesium 25 48 48 50
Sulfur 33 64 158 68
Micronutrients
Boron 0.23 0.46 1.0 0.3
Copper 0.01 0.05 0.3 0.1
Iron 2.3 3.8 3.0 12.0
Manganese 0.26 0.81 1.3 2.0
Molybdenum 0.007 0.03 0.07 0.2
Zinc 0.024 0.09 0.3 0.1
KEY FEATURES OF A COMMERCIAL AEROPONIC SYSTEM

For the purpose of this book a vertical aeroponic system will be described, and it
should be noted that the horizontal stacked systems are mainly hydroponic systems
although there are some that use misting and therefore are aeroponic systems. This
vertical column aeroponic system requires seven key components.

Figure 7.1 is a schematic of a trickle-down aeroponic R&D column with 18 plant

ports. The submersed pump pumps the nutrient solution to the top of the column, and
it cascades down past the rockwool containing the seeds and plants and returns to the
reservoir inside the column. Figure 7.2 shows a ten-foot vertical column commercial
aeroponic system that has a pump and a reservoir of nutrient solution that is being
pumped to the top of the columns and then by gravity flows through the columns
and returns to the reservoir for recycling. The plants are located on the sides of the
columns so that the roots receive the nutrients so that the plants can receive the nec-
essary light and carbon dioxide from the air. Finally Figure 7.3 shows a picture of an
actual growing commercial unit with 8 ten-foot vertical columns showing approxi-
mate 600 plants per unit in full growth with lettuce plants.
FIGURE 7.1 Schematic of a trickle-down aeroponic column with 18 ports that is used for
R&D purposes or for home use. (Reprinted with permission from Aero Development Corp.)
FIGURE 7.2 Vertical column aeroponic commercial unit. (Reprinted with permission from
Grow Lode.)
FIGURE 7.3 Photo of commercial aeroponic pod column systems in a greenhouse.

(Reprinted with permission from Aero Development Corp.)
TRANSFER LINES
Typically PVC tubing is used to connect the main tank, pumps, and columns or walls
and to circulate the nutrient solution throughout the system. This kind of tubing is easy
to work with and relatively inexpensive. There have been some concerns raised about
the presence of chlorine in PVC, but any residue chlorine that could migrate to the
nutrient solution would be in trace concentrations and not be deleterious to the plants.
SENSORS
There are a variety of sensors available for continuous monitoring of the nutrient solu-
tion and the air in an aeroponic greenhouse or container. The key sensor used today
is designed to measure the total EC of the nutrient solution in microSiemens. This not
only provides a window on the concentration of nitrates, phosphates, and potassium
(NPK) ions but also includes any other ions present in the solution. Using typical nutri-
ent blends this includes other relatively high concentrations of cations like calcium,
magnesium, ammonium, and hydrogen and anions like nitrates, sulfates and chlorides.
Unfortunately, it is not a definitive measurement, since for a specific EC reading, there
can be millions of combinations of these ions that could be present. As mentioned in
the Innovation section of this book, the ideal sensor system would include sensors that
measure specific concentrations of individual ions, i.e., a nitrate sensor.
The second major sensor is a pH sensor that measures the hydrogen ion con-
centration. pH is defined as the negative log of the molar concentration (moles/
liter) of hydrogen ions. Typically the nutrient solution should be maintained in
the 5.5–6.5 pH range which is slightly acidic. The solubility of the nutrient ions is
dependent on the pH. For example high pH conditions will cause calcium phos-
phate to precipitate, thereby making it unavailable to the roots. The pH is normally
maintained by adding small amounts of acidic or basic solutions to adjust the pH
to the desired range.
Additional sensors are available and can be used to measure a variety of
parameters.
This includes water temperature, air temperature, carbon dioxide concentration
in the air, and humidity.
The future of sensors for aeroponic systems will be in the area of specific ion
measurements. As mentioned earlier the EC sensor is a rough indication of the ion
concentration, but it can be misleading. For example at a specific EC reading the
nutrient could contain 0 ppm nitrate and 200 ppm potassium or 200 ppm of nitrate
and 0 ppm of potassium. So the need is for a robust and affordable sensor for continu-
ous monitoring of the nutrient composition. Probably the first step in the develop-
ment of these sensors will be offline analytical tests that would be performed on a
daily or weekly basis to ensure that the nitrate, phosphate, and potassium or other
major ions are present at the proper level.
Ion-specific sensors have been under development to meet this need for more
precise measurement of nutrient solutions. Optical nitrate sensors are one example.
Optical nitrate sensors operate on the principle that nitrate ions absorb UV light at
wavelengths less than 240 nm. Commercially available, optical nitrate sensors utilize
this property to convert spectral absorption properties measured with the sensor to
a nitrate concentration by using laboratory calibrations and integrated algorithms to
account for interferences from other absorbing ions (such as bromide) and colored
organic matter. This allows for real-time nitrate measurements without the need for
chemical reagents.
Companies currently manufacturing in situ optical nitrate sensors for industrial
and environmental applications include Satlantic (Seabird website), Hach (Hach
website), Trios (Trios website) and s::can (s::can website). All manufacturers use a
UV light source and a spectrometer, but instrument designs have important differ-
ences in terms of lamp type (deuterium vs. xenon), optical pathlength (1–35 mm),
and the process algorithms (two-beam to full UV spectrum) used to calculate nitrate
concentrations. Other differences in instruments among manufacturers include the
size, geometry, accuracy, detection limit, need for proprietary controllers, maximum
sampling rates, and anti-fouling techniques.
A master thesis study focused on ISE (ion selective electrode) development for
nutrient solutions (Zhao, 2014). In this thesis a state-of-the-art hydroponic reservoir
nutrient controllers were employed for measuring the EC of the solution. This value
approximates the reservoir nutrient concentration as a single combined measure-
ment. Studies have shown that plant growth requires over a dozen specific ions for
proper nutrition. When a bulk measurement is utilized, nutrient excesses in one ion
may mask a deficiency in another. This problem is especially prevalent in reservoirs
that utilize nutrient recirculation as part of their reservoir management. To prevent
these nutrient deficiencies from arising, and thereby preventing optimal growth, ion-
specific electrodes (ISE) were utilized to characterize ionic concentrations. In this
new and improved method described in the thesis, the reservoir is polled for con-
centrations of key ions, rather than obtaining a single bulk measurement. Through
real-time monitoring of these data, concentrations of major ions can be determined
independently and held at constant rates by a nutrient injection system. Specific
objectives of the project involve interfacing ion sensors for nitrate, potassium, pH,
and calcium with an embedded controller; these ions are critical for plant growth and
significantly influence yield outcomes. These ions were chosen to provide proof of
principle within a reasonable time frame and represent the three key macronutrients
for plant growth. In addition, concentration data for these ions are used to automati-
cally react and control ionic concentrations.
Reservoir control by a fully automated ion controller may mitigate the effects of
heavy ion depletion from growth, as well as keep reservoir ion concentrations held in
a steady state. Grower setpoints parameters are software-selectable, which the feed-
back control system then uses to monitor reservoir concentration for changes. Should
the reservoir deviate outside of this grower setpoint by a user-defined percentage,
nutrient injection will occur and the program will attempt to rectify any nutrient
deficiencies by the addition of a specific ion.
Another study used ion-specific nutrient management systems to monitor nutrient
solutions (Barnsey et al., 2012). Plants require a wide range of nutrients to support their
growth, development, and reproduction. Each of these specific nutrient ion species
has an ionic activity* window within which growth is optimized. Activity, although
less commonly used by the greenhouse industry, is related to concentration and is
in fact the more important fundamental parameter with respect to plant nutrition.
Additionally, it is ion activity, not concentration which ion-selective sensors typically
measure. The caveat to this is that all the nutrient ion species need to be within their
respective activity windows if plant productivity is to be optimized. Departure from
these optimal levels in any of the nutrient ions will have an influence on all the others
as well. The uptake and utilization of nutrients depend not only on the absolute quanti-
ties but also on the ratios among nutrient species. Deviations above or below these ion
activity regimes can lead to the development of toxicity or deficiency symptoms and
FIGURE 7.4 General principle of plant nutrient acceptable/sufficiency ranges. Dashed verti-
cal lines represent marginal zones between acceptable and deficient or toxic nutrient activity.
ultimately impair productivity. These acceptable nutrient ion activity ranges, which are
often termed sufficiency ranges, can be visualized for a given nutrient ion in Figure 7.4.
Traditionally, the nutritional appropriateness of aeroponic nutrient solutions
used in greenhouse plant production is obtained by monitoring solution pH and EC.
Although this provides some information about the nutrient ions present in the solu-
tion, EC is an indiscriminate measure for the total nutrient composition and does
not differentiate among the nutrient species present. Likewise, any non-nutrient ions
within the solution will also contribute to the solution EC, and thus if present, these
ions can result in non-ideal nutrient management choices. Further, different nutrient
ions contribute disproportionately to the measured EC value, which can skew the
interpretations made based on the EC metric (e.g., although potassium and sodium
ions have the same charge, potassium contributes more strongly, for an equivalent
increase in activity, to solution EC. Moreover, in addition to the indirect effect pH
has on EC by inducing precipitation/dissolution reactions, as H+ and OH− contribute
differently to solution EC, pH changes can influence EC measurements, further com-
plicating the utilization of EC as a tool for assessing nutrient status.
Plant productivity can be influenced by the activity of any one nutrient ion species.
Given this, pH and EC measurements alone do not provide sufficient information to
allow growers to realize optimal plant production from a solution fertility perspec-
tive. Some greenhouse growers do attempt to manage their nutrient solutions based
on individual nutrient species; however, their efforts are often temporally restricted.
Currently growers are limited to relatively infrequent (e.g., 1–3 weeks) offline analysis
in which nutrient solution samples are physically mailed to off-site accredited laborato-
ries. During the shipping, processing, and reporting lag time, the status of the on-farm
nutrient solution will have changed, potentially to a significant degree, limiting the
usefulness of what is often expensive data. Plant tissue/leaf analysis not only serves
as an additional offline analysis technique informing adjustment decisions but also
presents the disadvantage of cost and time lag between sampling and result delivery.
Many growers rely on experience and a keen eye to detect (visually) the symp-
toms of nutrient deficiency and/or toxicity. Although effective, this method is
reactionary in nature. In most cases, visual symptoms are manifested only after
prolonged periods of growth in a non-optimal nutritional environment. In certain
cases, visual symptoms for different deficiencies/toxicities can be similar, resulting
in misdiagnosis and potentially leading to inappropriate solution modifications that

can further exacerbate the problem.
Several companies have off-the-shelf sensors for both ISEs and optical electrodes.
Some of these are very expensive (thousands of dollars) but are robust and accurate.
Other companies have very inexpensive offline tests based on strip technology and
colorimetric tests. The accuracy of these tests is not good, but they may be adequate
for trend analysis and for adjusting the nutrient composition. This is a critical area for
research and development of robust and affordable sensors for measuring NPK and
other major nutrients in real time online.
WATER
The quality of water used for an aeroponic system needs to be understood. The ideal
and least expensive source of water is rainwater or cistern water. This requires a
water collection tank that can capture rain from the roof of the greenhouse. All
aeroponic commercial systems require large quantities of water, so rainwater meets
this requirement.
Other natural sources of water can be used, such as a lake or a pond. But any
water supply needs to be analyzed to ensure that it meets a minimum standard.
Municipal water sources can be used, but they may contain high levels of sodium
and chloride ions.
Recommendations from Jones for the maximum concentrations of water used in
soil-less growing are shown in Table 7.6 (Jones, 2005o).
Jones also suggests desired levels and upper limits for other related parameters
and all the ions, including the micronutrients (Jones, 2005p). Table 7.7 shows these
parameters.
The pH of water can vary over a wide range. This is due to the fact that water can
absorb CO2 from the air, which will affect the pH as well as the ionic composition
of the water. The uptake of ions by the roots is dependent on the pH, and the pH also
affects the solubility of ions. For example, when the pH is too high, phosphates may
precipitate out of solution as calcium phosphate.
TABLE 7.6
Maximum Concentrations of Ions in Water Used in
Soil-less Growing
Element/Ion Maximum Concentration (mg/L [ppm])
Chloride (Cl) 50–100
Sodium (Na) 30–50
Carbonate (CO3) 4.0
Boron (B) 0.7
Iron (Fe) 1.0
Manganese (Mn) 1.0
Zinc (Zn) 1.0
TABLE 7.7
Optimal Parameter Levels for a Hydroponic Growing
System
Parameter Optimum Level Upper Limit
EC 0.2–0.5 mS/cm 1.5 mS/cm
Total dissolved solids 128–320 ppm 480 ppm
pH 5.4–6.8 7.0
Bicarbonates 40-65 ppm 122 ppm
Hardness (CaCO3 equiv.) <100 ppm 150 ppm
Sodium <50 ppm 69 ppm
Chloride <871 ppm 108 ppm
Nitrogen <5 ppm 10 ppm
Nitrate <5 ppm 10 ppm
Ammonium <5 ppm 10 ppm
Phosphorus <1 ppm 5 ppm
Phosphate <1 ppm 5 ppm
Potassium <10 ppm 20 ppm
Calcium <60 ppm 120 ppm
Sulfate <30 ppm 45 ppm
Magnesium <5 ppm 24 ppm
Manganese <1 ppm 2 ppm
Iron <1 ppm 5 ppm
Boron <0.3 ppm 0.5 ppm
Copper <0.1 ppm 0.2 ppm
Zinc <2 ppm 5 ppm
Aluminum <2 ppm 5 ppm
Fluoride <1 ppm 1 ppm
REFERENCES
Barnsey, M. et al., 2012, Ion-specific nutrient management in closed systems: The necessity
for ion-selective sensors in terrestrial and space-based agriculture and water manage-
ment systems. Sensors (Basel) 12(10):13349–13392.
Hach website, accessed 4/17/20, www.hach.com.
Jones, J. B., 2005a, CRC Press, pp. 1-418. In: Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for the Soil-
less Grower.
Jones, J. B., 2005b, Chapter 5. The essential elements. In: Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for
the Soil-less Grower.
Jones, J. B., 2005c, Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for the Soil-less Grower, p. 13.
Jones, J. B., 2005d, Chapter 4. The plant root. In: Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for the
Soil-less Grower.
Jones, J. B., 2005e, Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for the Soil-less Grower, p. 26.
Jones, J. B., 2005f, Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for the Soil-less Grower, p. 21.
Jones, J. B., 2005g, Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for the Soil-less Grower, p. 23.
Jones, J. B., 2005h, Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for the Soil-less Grower, p. 33.
Jones, J. B., 2005i, Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for the Soi-lless Grower, p. 83.
Jones, J. B., 2005j, Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for the Soil-less Grower, p. 94.
Jones, J. B., 2005k, Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for the Soil-less Grower, p. 99.
Jones, J. B., 2005l, Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for the Soil-less Grower, pp. 89–113.
Jones, J. B., 2005m, Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for the Soil-less Grower, pp. 167–272.
Jones, J. B., 2005n, Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for the Soil-less Grower, pp. 331–337.
Jones, J. B., 2005o, Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for the Soil-less Grower, p. 73.
Jones, J. B., 2005p, Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for the Soil-less Grower, p. 76.
Mattson, N. et al., 2014, A Recipe for Hydroponic Success. www.greenhouse.cornell.edu/
crops/factsheets/hydroponic-recipes.pde.
Seabird website, accessed 4/17/20, www.seabird.com.
s::can website, accessed 4/17/20, www.s-can.at.
Trios website, accessed 4/17/20, www.trios.de.
Zhao, M., 2014, Sinking sensors in solution: A novel hydroponic ion control system. Masters
Thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology.
Taylor & Francis
8 Aeroponics Current
Research
One good test is worth a thousand expert opinions.
Wernher Von Braun
There are many areas of aeroponics that need to be better understood and will
require a focused research effort. The key areas are understanding the optimum
nutrient compositions for each crop and how to grow these crops as quickly as pos-
sible without sacrificing nutritional value of the food.
This optimization process will require understanding the optimum ion composi-
tion of the nutrient solution of both the macro and micronutrients. It will also require
an understanding of the optimum wavelengths of light necessary for the photosyn-
thesis process for indoor operations. The aeroponic process needs to be fine-tuned.
The flow sequence of the nutrient solution that comes in contact with the roots needs
to be optimized. A comparison of the misting versus trickle down approach needs
to be understood. Also, simple robust affordable analytical methods will need to be
developed to characterize the nutrients produced by the plant. This would include the
various sugars and starches but also the antioxidants, the vitamins, the polyphenols,
the flavonoids, the chlorophyll, and other medicinal components produced by these
plants. Because the aeroponic process is essentially a closed system experiment, it
can be designed so that all of the critical parameters can be controlled, monitored,
and thoroughly studied. This is much more challenging in soil-grown plants due
to the complexity that soil adds to the equation. The role of microorganisms and
bacteria also needs to be better understood. Because aeroponics can be designed to
have excess amounts of nitrate ions, the necessity for nitrification of nitrogen gas is
eliminated and the loss of nitrogen via the conversion of nitrates to dinitrogen oxides
and other NOx gases is reduced or eliminated. However, microorganisms may play a
unique role in the root uptake on nutrients.
There is research conducted on hydroponic systems but much of that research is
not being published. The Plant Factory, which was mentioned in Chapter 1, is not
an aeroponics concept but is almost exclusively hydroponic in methodology but uses
the horizontal stacked trays as a vertical farming technology. This technology has
been developed in Japan, Taiwan, Korea, and China, and many of the findings of the
research conducted by these groups are applicable to the aeroponic model. In two
books, The Plant Factory (Kozai et al., 2016) and the Smart Plant Factory (Kozai
et al., 2018), Kozai and his colleagues report comprehensive research findings on
many relevant topics:
1. Artificial lighting optimization

2. Current status of research
239

Aeroponics Current Research 241
sensors in the pod—EC, pH, and temperature of water and three additional sensors
in air—temperature of air, humidity, and carbon dioxide levels. These sensors were
monitored and recorded every minute and the data were available on the internet.
The EC and pH were monitored and adjusted every two or three days to ensure that
they were held constant through the growth cycle. The seeds were planted in rock
wool in the column ports and germinated.
Samples of the leaf tissues were collected after 32 and 42 days from planting and
analyzed for the nutrient content. The nutrient solution was also analyzed for nutrient
levels at these two intervals.
The pods were maintained by addition of more nutrient solutions, pH adjustments,
and additional water on a weekly basis to ensure that the proper EC and pH were
achieved. Table 8.1 shows the additions that were made manually to the pod reser-
voirs to ensure that the proper levels were observed. As expected, the initial changes
were minimal when the seedlings sprouted and during their initial growth. As the
plants matured, they began to absorb more nutrients and therefore the EC levels were
reduced (due to the uptake of nutrients ions) and needed to be replenished. Also, the
pH was shifted mainly to a higher pH as more and more hydrogen ions were being
absorbed through the roots of these plants. Table 8.1 shows the date of addition and
liters or milliliters of the solution added. The water used was city water. The AB
dosimeter blends both the A and B together at a ratio of 30 mL of each to 3,785 mL of
water. The A and B in mL is the addition of each individual solution concentrates of
A or B. pH down and up were added to maintain the pH level at the desired pH. The
initial concentrations of NPK in the pods was calculated based on the concentrates of
A (5-12-26) and B (15-0-0). The total concentrations in the concentrates are 26,551,
15,217, and 32,975 ppm (NPK, respectively). When the concentrates are diluted from
30 mL to 3,785 L (1 gal) the final concentrations are 210, 120, and 261 ppm (NPK,
respectively). This diluted solution was then added to the 151 L pod reservoirs to
achieve an EC of 1,200 in pod A and 2,200 in pod B. In Table 8.1, the designation
AB is the final diluted nutrient solution and the designation A and/or B is the concen-
trate described above, i.e., A is 6,340, 15,217, and 32,975 ppm (NPK, respectively)
and B is 20,211 ppm N only.
The nutrient water samples that were taken on the 32nd (5/17/18) and 42nd
(5/24/18) day of the study were analyzed for all the nutrients and these data are
shown in Table 8.2. The key elements NPK show dramatic differences between pod
A and B for both nitrate and potassium. It appears that pod A is almost depleted in
nitrogen and potassium during the ten days between the samples. This includes addi-
tion of more nutrients between those days. The phosphorus appears to be stable and
even shows an increase from day 32 to day 42 due to the addition of fresh nutrients.
Therefore, apparently the plants are not absorbing phosphates to the same extent or
they are unable to absorb them effectively. One would expect that all these nutri-
ents would be reduced during the growing cycle. The potassium ions appear to be
absorbed to a large extent as well. It should be noted that these levels of nutrients
were being maintained using EC as the control parameter. This points out how inad-
equate this measurement is for actually understanding the actual levels of ions. In
this example although the EC was maintained at 1,200 and 2,200 mS/cm, in reality
TABLE 8.1
Water, Nutrient Solution, and pH Adjustment Additions
Pod Water (L) AB (mL) A (mL) B (mL) pH down (mL) pH up (mL)
4/16/18 A 13.2
4/17/18 A 600
B 20 20
4/18/18 B 40
4/20/18 A 150
B 6.3 20 20
4/23/18 A 31.5
B 31.5
4/24/18 A 10.5 250
B 10.5
4/27/18 A 10.5 250
B 21
4/30/18 A 21 1,100
B 10.5 30
5/7/18 A 10.5 21 2,000
B 10.5 21 1,850
5/8/18 A 10.5 1,500
B 10.5 1,600
5/9/18 A 10.5 850
B 10.5 1,000
5/14/18 A 10.5 31.5
B 46.2 110 110 2,250
5/15/18 A 25.2 1,500
5/17/18 A 10.5 10 10 750
B 12.6 130 130 500
5/18/18 A 10.5 500
B 10.5 150 150
5/19/18 A 21
B 16.8 20 20
5/21/18 A 12.6
B 25.2 70 70
5/22/18 A 10.5 10.5 500
B 18.9 100 100 500
5/23/18 A 18.9 30 30 500
B 10.5 16.8 30 30 500
5/24/18 A 37.8 50 50
B 44.1 190 190 1,250
TABLE 8.2
Nutrient Concentration in ppm in the Nutrient Solution at 32 and 42 days
NO3–N P K Ca Mg Na S Cl Fe Mn B Cu Zn Mo Al
Aeroponics Current Research
32 days
POD A 7.67 82.06 4.05 95.79 39.64 99.52 60.41 156.99 1.12 0.03 0.20 0.14 0.08 0.04 0.10
POD B 59.80 80.75 60.26 160.65 92.40 84.29 138.70 125.80 3.00 0.09 0.64 0.23 0.15 0.09 0.09
52.13 −1.31 56.21 64.86 52.76 −15.23 78.29 −31.19 1.88 0.06 0.44 0.09 0.07 0.05 −0.01
42 days
POD A 0.12 98.98 0.19 106.66 51.97 77.72 88.93 108.59 1.54 0.00 0.20 0.21 0.08 0.36 0.02
POD B 42.69 100.83 3.00 222.18 150.30 94.75 250.05 125.35 4.15 0.04 1.03 0.45 0.17 0.28 0.01
Differences
POD A 42–32 −7.55 16.92 −3.86 10.87 12.33 −21.80 28.52 −48.40 0.42 −0.03 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.32 −0.08
POD B 42–32 −17.11 20.08 −57.26 61.53 57.90 10.46 111.35 −0.50 1.15 −0.05 0.39 0.22 0.02 0.19 −0.08
243
the phosphate levels were increasing as more nutrient mix was added to the pods
while the nitrates and potassium were depleted substantially and even eliminated.
Therefore, the operator thinks that the nitrates are adequate for the plants, but in
reality, it is mostly taken up by the plants and only phosphates are present in the
nutrient solution.
The other macronutrients (Ca, Mg, Na, S, and Cl) are absorbed at different rates.
Sodium and chloride are depleted between day 32 and 42 due to uptake by the plants
in pod A. However, pod B shows a slight increase for sodium and no change for
chloride. Calcium, magnesium, and sulfur are increased between day 32 and 42 for
both pods A and B.
The micronutrients (Fe, Mn, B, Cu, Zn, Mo, and Al) show minor changes and they
are present at much lower concentrations, therefore, the magnitude of any change is
difficult to measure accurately. Iron increases in both pod A and B indicating that the
plants are not absorbing these ions readily.
LEAF TISSUE SAMPLES

The leaf tissue samples were taken on the 32nd and 42nd day of the study and ana-
lyzed for nutrient concentration. Each plant was analyzed in duplicate and the results
are compiled in Tables 8.3–8.6.
The Bibb lettuce tissue samples show large differences between the A and B
plants. Pod B shows higher levels (wt%) of N and K and slightly higher levels of P
after 32 days than pod A. However, it decreases in N and K between 32 and 42 days
and shows minor differences for P. The comparison of 32 to 42 days for pod A shows
increased sodium and manganese levels. In pod B, only the iron levels show an
TABLE 8.3
Bibb Leaf Tissue Sample Analysis
Days 32 32 42 42 42-32 42–32 32 42
POD A B A B A B B–A B–A
Conc
N % 3.07 4.75 3.03 4.82 -−0.04 0.07 1.68 1.79
P % 0.52 0.61 0.71 0.82 0.19 0.21 0.09 0.11
K % 5.3 8.67 3.57 6.77 −1.73 −1.9 3.37 3.2
S % 0.22 0.29 0.27 0.33 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.06
Mg % 0.38 0.47 0.49 0.65 0.11 0.18 0.09 0.16
Ca % 1.08 1.18 1.23 1.25 0.15 0.07 0.1 0.02
Na % 0.51 0.31 1.64 0.67 1.13 0.36 −0.2 −1
B ppm 20 22 32 32 12 10 2 0
Zn ppm 20 20 26 29 6 9 0 3
Mn ppm 56 127 107 121 51 −6 71 14
Fe ppm 67 74 85 89 18 15 7 4
Cu ppm 5 5 9 8 4 3 0 −1
Al ppm 63 34 48 33 −15 −1 −29 −15
TABLE 8.4
Igloo Leaf Tissue Sample Analysis
Days 32 32 42 42 42–32 42–32 32 42
Conc
N % 2.9 5 2.4 5.2 −0.5 0.2 2.1 2.8
P % 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
K % 4.5 85 4.3 9.1 −0.2 −75.9 80.5 4.8
S % 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0 0 0.1 0.1
Mg % 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1
Ca % 1 1.1 1.11 1.3 0.11 0.2 0.1 0.19
Na % 0.3 0.2 1.2 0.4 0.9 0.2 −0.1 −0.8
B ppm 21 24 31 34 10 10 3 3
Zn ppm 21 22 24 37 3 15 1 13
Mn ppm 56 141 63 156 7 15 85 93
Fe ppm 46 64 60 85 14 21 18 25
Cu ppm 10 7 6 8 −4 1 −3 2
Al ppm 21 9 19 35 −2 26 −12 16
TABLE 8.5
Scarlet Red Leaf Tissue Sample Analysis
Days 32 32 42 42 42–32 42–32 32 42
Conc
N % 3.1 4.54 3.13 4.59 0.03 0.05 1.44 1.46
P % 0.58 0.65 0.86 0.91 0.28 0.26 0.07 0.05
K % 5.77 8.33 4.33 7.74 −1.44 −0.59 2.56 3.41
S % 0.19 0.25 0.24 0.27 0.05 0.02 0.06 0.03
Mg % 0.31 0.37 0.46 0.46 0.15 0.09 0.06 0
Ca % 0.82 0.9 1 0.84 0.18 −0.06 0.08 0.16
Na % 0.36 0.22 1.15 0.37 0.79 0.15 0.14 0.78
B ppm 20 21 29 30 9 9 1 1
Zn ppm 19 20 29 32 10 12 1 3
Mn ppm 54 145 75 115 21 −30 91 40
Fe ppm 64 69 80 90 16 21 5 10
Cu ppm 6 6 8 10 2 4 0 2
Al ppm 58 26 42 32 −16 6 −32 −10
increase. Comparing B to A for each time interval, at day 32 the potassium and man-
ganese levels show an increase. At day 42, nitrogen and manganese levels increase,
whereas the aluminum level decreases.
For the Igloo plants, the levels of N and K are much higher in the plants in pod
B than pod A and the level of P shows an increase as well. However, N and K levels
TABLE 8.6
Pak Choi Leaf Tissue Sample Analysis
Days 32 32 42 42 42–32 42–32 32 42
Conc
N % 5.43 7.38 5.15 6.96 0.28 0.42 1.95 1.81
P % 0.7 0.68 0.91 0.86 0.21 0.18 0.02 0.05
K % 5.01 5.59 5.38 6.59 0.37 1 0.58 1.21
S % 1.16 1.05 1.22 1.21 0.06 0.16 −0.11 −0.01
Mg % 0.66 0.89 0.85 1.24 0.19 0.35 0.23 0.39
Ca % 3.4 3.62 4.26 5.22 0.86 1.6 0.22 0.96
Na % 0.55 0.26 1.53 0.56 0.98 0.3 −0.29 −0.97
B ppm 97 71 111 81 14 10 −26 −30
Zn ppm 64 33 67 33 3 0 −31 −34
Mn ppm 106 186 122 188 16 2 80 66
Fe ppm 54 67 60 81 6 14 13 21
Cu ppm 8 8 9 8 1 0 0 −1
Al ppm 23 17 41 42 18 25 −6 1
decrease in pod A from 32 to 42 days, whereas they show an increase in pod B from
32 to 42 days. The higher EC nutrient solution causes the tissue to take up more
ions than the lower EC nutrient solution. The comparison of 32 to 42 days for pod A
shows increased boron and iron levels. In pod B, only the iron and aluminum levels
show an increase. Comparing B to A for each time interval, at day 32 the iron and
manganese levels show an increase and the aluminum level shows a decrease. For
day 42, zinc, manganese, iron, and aluminum levels increase.
For the Scarlet Red, the NPK levels increase between pod A and B from 32 to
42 days. But minor differences are observed comparing changes from 32 to 42 days
within each pod.
The comparison of 32 to 42 days for pod A shows increase in manganese and
iron levels and decrease in aluminum levels. In pod B, only the iron levels show an
increase, whereas manganese levels show a decrease. Comparing B to A for each
time interval, at day 32 and day 42 the manganese levels show an increase and alu-
minum level decreases.
The Pak Choi data show increase in all of the macronutrients from day 32 to 42
for both pods A and B. Therefore, the Pak Choi continues to take up those nutrients
during the growing cycle. The comparison of 32 to 42 days for pod A shows increases
in boron, manganese, and aluminum levels. In pod B, boron, manganese, and alu-
minum levels show an increase. Comparing B to A for each time interval, at day 32
and day 42 the manganese and iron levels show an increase and both boron and zinc
show a decrease.
The vertical columns are shown in Figures 8.1 and 8.2 taken at the 32nd day and
the 42nd day.
FIGURE 8.1 Thirty-two day photo of pod.
FIGURE 8.2 Forty-two day photo of a pod.
A follow-up study was conducted using the two pods which involved growing
Scarlet Red lettuce in pod A and Igloo lettuce in pod B. The objective of the study
was to monitor the uptake of the macro and micronutrients during a 45-day study by
analyzing a nutrient solution water sample at regular intervals through the growth
cycle. The EC for the pods was initially targeted for 1,200 mS/cm for the initial
germination and seedling stage, and then, the EC was increased to 2,500 mS/cm on
day 11 and not adjusted for the duration of the study. However, pod A did have one
adjustment on day 25 which raised the levels of the nutrients slightly after that day.
The data obtained from this study are shown in the following plots of groups of
macro and micronutrients.
The NPK levels in the nutrient solution for pod A and B are shown in the figures
below.
Figure 8.3 shows the levels of NPK in the Scarlet Red in pod A. The initial levels
of the 1,200 mS/cm EC nutrient solution are below 50 ppm for all three ions. When
the EC is increased to 2,500 mS/cm, the levels of N, P, and K are increased to 175,
50, and 190, respectively. Then the P slowly decreases to less than 5 ppm as the plant
takes up this ion. The N and K appear to remain fairly constant from day 10 to day 32
which indicates that the young plants are not taking up these ions. Then on day 46, the
levels of these ions drop by over 100 ppm as the plant absorbs these ions. Additional
nutrients were added to this pod at day 25 which affected those levels after that day.
Figure 8.4 shows the levels of NPK in the Igloo in pod B.
This plot shows some similarities and differences between Igloo and Scarlet Red
lettuce nutrient uptake. The P levels appear to be relatively similar. However, the P
levels are consumed much quicker, and by day 25, the ppm levels of P are almost
completely gone. The K levels are also consumed much faster. By day 32, they are
almost completely consumed. The N levels follow the same trend as the Scarlet Red
Pod A Scarlet Red

300.0
NO3-N P
250.0
200.0
150.0
100.0
50.0
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
FIGURE 8.3 Levels of NPK in ppm during the growth cycle of the Scarlet Red lettuce.
Pod B Igloo NPK

250.0
NO3-N P K
200.0
150.0
100.0
50.0
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
FIGURE 8.4 Levels of NPK in ppm during the growth cycle of the Igloo lettuce.
but even they are reduced more quickly than the Scarlet Red. It would be interesting
to measure the levels of chlorophyll in these leaves during the growth cycle to see
whether there is a correlation between uptake of N and chlorophyll concentration.
For the other macronutrient levels, Ca, Mg, S, Na, and Cl, are plotted for Scarlet
Red in Figure 8.5.
The initial concentrations are all less than 100 ppm for the 1,200 mS/cm solution
and then increase when the EC is increased to 2500 mS/cm. The chloride ions are
present at the highest levels and remain fairly constant until after day 32 when they
are reduced from 200 to 135 ppm. The other ions remain fairly constant and increase
slightly which indicates that the Scarlet Red lettuce is not absorbing these nutrients.
Figure 8.6 shows the data for the same micronutrients for pod B—the Igloo
lettuce.
For the Igloo lettuce, similar trends are observed. The chloride ppm levels
seem to increase during the 10–30-day period and then are absorbed in the final
stages of growth. The S levels seem to increase after day 20, more than doubling in
Pod A Scarlet Red CaMgNaSCl

Ca Mg Na S Cl
250.0
200.0
150.0
100.0
50.0
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
FIGURE 8.5 Levels of Ca, Mg, S, Na, and Cl in ppm during the growth cycle of the Scarlet
Red lettuce.
Pod B Igloo CaMgNaSCl

Ca Mg Na S Cl
300.0
250.0
200.0
150.0
100.0
50.0
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
FIGURE 8.6 Levels of CaMgSNaCl in ppm during the growth cycle of the Igloo lettuce.
concentration. Does the root hair chemistry produce more S? The other macronutri-
ents appear fairly constant until the last ten days where they decrease by a factor of
2 indicating absorption by the plants.
Looking at the micronutrients, it should be noted that these ions are present in very
low concentrations and so the data may be skewed due to the accuracy of the data.
Figure 8.7 shows the profile for Fe, Mn, and B.
The Fe levels show a major increase from the initial nutrient solution at 1,200 mS/
cm to the 2,500 mS/cm solution on day 11. The Fe is fairly constant throughout the
growth cycle until the last ten days when the level drops from 2 to 1 ppm. The Mn
and B levels appear to be fairly constant and are not being absorbed by the plant.
Figure 8.8 shows the same data for Igloo lettuce.
For Igloo the Fe data are very similar except the final data point that indicates that
more Fe is absorbed by the Igloo plants than Scarlet Red. The Mn and B levels are
similar in that neither are absorbed to any large extent.
Finally, the CuZnMoAl micronutrients are plotted in Figure 8.9 for Scarlet Red
lettuce.
The aluminum ion concentrations are the most unusual in this group. The ini-
tial concentration in the 1,200 mS/cm solution appears much higher than any of
the other micronutrients. It remains constant at day 11 and then appears to be con-
sumed between day 10 and 25. The pH on day 11, 20, and 25 was 6.2, 6.7, and 6.8.
Therefore, pH does not seem to be the cause. Are Al ions chelating with proteins
Pod A Scarlet Red FeMnB

2.5
Fe Mn B
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
FIGURE 8.7 Levels of Fe, Mn, and B in ppm during the growth cycle of the Scarlet Red
lettuce.
Pod B Igloo FeMnB

Fe Mn B
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
FIGURE 8.8 Levels of Fe, Mn, and B in ppm during the growth cycle of the Igloo lettuce.
Pod A Scarlet Red CuZnMoAl

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Cu Zn Mo Al
FIGURE 8.9 Levels of Cu, Zn, Mo, and Al in ppm during the growth cycle of the Scarlet
Red lettuce.
Pod B Igloo CuZnMoAl

1.6
Cu Zn Mo Al
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
FIGURE 8.10 Levels of Cu, Zn, Mo, and Al in ppm during the growth cycle of the Igloo
lettuce.
at the root hairs and then being released before day 30? The Al chemistry is very
interesting. The other micronutrients in this group remain fairly constant and do not
seem to be consumed by the Scarlet Red lettuce.
Figure 8.10 shows the plot of these micronutrients in the Igloo lettuce pod.
The Igloo pod shows the same strange profile for Al as the Scarlet Red pod. The
pH for this pod at day 11, 20, and 25 was 6.0, 7.1, and 8.0, respectively. This would
suggest that there is a possibility for the Al ions to form the hydroxide and pre-
cipitate. However, the pH on day 32 was 8.2 and Al is present at 0.7 ppm. The other
ions seem to remain fairly constant and even increase from day 20 to day 32 before
decreasing at the end of the growth cycle.
Tables 8.7 and 8.8 show the actual raw data for these studies.
This study shows the value of the aeroponic experiment to track the ions during
the growth cycle of a plant to see which nutrients does this plant absorb and if it does
not absorb a nutrient, is that nutrient necessary for the plant. Using these data, one
could compare the nutrient solution composition to the synthetic output of the plant,
i.e., vitamins, phytochemicals, antioxidants, etc. to optimize the nutrient solution to
produce the most nutritious plant.
TABLE 8.7
Pod A Scarlet Red Dataset
Day pH EC NO3–N P K Ca Mg Na S Cl Fe Mn B Cu Zn Mo Al
1 7.1 0.8 43.7 11.8 47.5 66.4 19.6 46.0 27.8 63.6 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 1.4
11 6.2 2.1 171.4 53.4 191.5 197.0 60.8 54.5 74.8 73.2 2.3 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.1 1.3
20 6.7 2.3 185.5 44.9 228.6 202.2 63.9 84.0 87.2 82.1 1.8 0.0 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0
25 6.8 2.4 200.4 42.2 250.8 214.6 73.7 96.6 108.8 92.6 2.2 0.0 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.0
32 7.0 2.3 189.7 32.8 239.1 199.1 75.7 61.1 94.0 98.9 1.5 0.0 0.6 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.8
46 7.8 1.4 86.5 6.8 86.8 134.9 57.1 70.8 93.7 103.0 0.9 0.0 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0
TABLE 8.8
Pod B Igloo Dataset
Day pH EC NO3–N P K Ca Mg Na S Cl Fe Mn B Cu Zn Mo Al
1 6.7 1.2 79.9 25.0 82.9 107.6 29.6 41.1 35.9 55.6 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 1.4
11 6.0 2.3 203.0 47.0 189.0 232.0 65.0 50.0 78.0 67.0 2.5 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.1 1.3
20 7.1 1.9 155.1 14.8 116.5 195.2 61.5 72.5 85.6 64.0 1.6 0.0 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.0
25 8.0 2.0 153.9 4.1 34.7 250.3 85.8 105.2 132.8 81.5 2.4 0.0 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.0
32 8.2 2.1 131.2 1.4 0.6 285.3 106.4 50.9 166.0 70.3 1.9 0.0 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.7
46 8.4 0.8 1.4 1.3 0.0 148.5 42.9 13.3 138.0 15.8 0.4 0.0 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.0
KALE PHOTOPERIOD STUDY

An aeroponic kale photoperiod study was conducted at Charleston Southern
University (Apr–Aug 2019) to determine the optimum photoperiod sequence for
optimizing the fresh weight of kale using four 32″ 18 port Aero Development Corp
towers. This study was designed to optimize the cycle time for growing kale dwarf
blue curled vates. The study time was set for 28 days from seed planting to harvest.
All the variables were held constant except for the photoperiod sequence.
EXPERIMENTAL
Four different sequences were used. These are shown in Table 8.9.
The four aeroponic towers had four different types of lighting configurations.
Each tower was given a name. The names were Gertrude, Hannah, Sophia, and
Tatiana. The lighting configurations are given in Table 8.10.
The lights were attached to a PVC (polyvinylchloride) tubing and the distance
between the light strips and the tower port was fixed. Gertrude and Tatiana had lights
that were 12″ from the ports and Hannah and Sophia had lights that were 6″ from the
ports. The ports were numbered from the bottom of the tower to the top. There are
three levels of ports (bottom/middle/top). Ports 1–6 are on the bottom, 7–12 in the
middle, and 13–18 on the top. Port 1 was designated as the water fill port and therefore
TABLE 8.9
Aeroponic Photoperiod Sequences
Cycle Hours ON/OFF Hours ON for One Day Date Range
1 10/14 10 4/24–5/22
2 7/1 21 5/22–6/19
3 3.5/0.5 21 6/19–7/17
4 4/4 12 7/17–8/14
TABLE 8.10
Lighting Configurations for the Four Towers
Tower Type of Light Mfgr Watts Wavelength Strip Length Inches
Gertrude T5 LED Monios 10 Full spectrum 24
Hannah T5 LED Monios 10 Full spectrum 24
Sophia LED Litever 45 410–470/600–800 nm 16
Tatiana LED Litever 45 410–470/600–800 nm 16
no kale was planted in that port. The photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) was mea-
sured using an Apogee light meter. The readings were given in micromoles m2/s−1.
These readings were taken on 8/14 and the end of the study and are compiled in
Table 8.11.
These data are represented graphically in Figure 8.11.
The nutrient solution used for ALL the experiments was J R Peters A and B solid
nutrient. Nutrient A contained an NPK ratio of 5-12-26 and nutrient B contained
15-0-0. Each tower nutrient solution was prepared by dissolving 4 g of A and 4 g of
B in 8 L of tap water.
These initial fresh solutions were analyzed by J R Peter Lab to determine the exact
concentrations of each ion present. Table 8.12 shows the elemental composition of the
tap water and the initial nutrient solutions used in ALL the experiments conducted.
The seeds (Johnny Seeds) are planted in 1″ square rockwool cubes and the cubes
are placed in the ports. The pump used in each tower is a submersible EcoPlus with
a flow rate of 8.2 L/min. The pumps were controlled by a timer that used an on/off
sequence of 15 minutes ON and 15 minutes OFF continuously.
The pumps pump the nutrient solution to the top of the tower, and it cascades
by gravity down the inside walls of the tower soaking the rockwool and providing
nutrient solution to the seeds initially and the roots as the kale plants sprout and
grow. These solutions were adjusted to maintain a pH in each week in the range of
5.5–6.5. In each week the volume of the tower was topped off to approximately 8 L
using tap water to replace any water lost by evaporation or transpiration. The pH and
EC measurements were then taken after the top off was completed. At the end of
each 28-day cycle, the nutrient solution was sampled and sent to J R Peters Lab for
elemental analysis. A fresh nutrient solution was then prepared at the beginning of
TABLE 8.11
Photosynthetic Active Radiation (micromoles m2/s−1) at Each of the
18 Tower Ports
Port Number Hannah Gertrude Tatiana Sophia
1 39 20 23 15
2 84 43 42 7
3 88 87 60 7
4 67 57 25 14
5 80 104 40 12
6 18 22 42 12
7 76 194 76 160
8 86 47 73 70
9 90 135 101 146
10 54 100 87 63
11 102 142 68 155
12 52 141 81 88
13 61 20 37 111
14 69 51 52 82
15 74 147 69 146
16 78 69 42 139
17 95 192 47 112
18 58 30 70 107
PAR micromoles/m-2s-1
250
200
150
PAR
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Port number
Hannah Gertrude Tatiana Sophia
FIGURE 8.11 PAR readings for the 18 ports in the four towers.
each cycle. The EC was measured each week as an additional check of the nutrient
concentration. EC is a measure of the conductivity of all the ions present, therefore,
it provides a bulk measurement but does not indicate what specific ions are present
in the solution. The Peters elemental analysis provides that information on day 1 and
day 28 of the experiment.
TABLE 8.12
Concentrations of Ions in ppm (parts-per-million or mg/L)
Ion Tap Water (ppm) Fresh Nutrients (ppm)
K 0.99 88.23
Ca 17.11 90.37
Mg 2.14 26.76
Na 7.57 9.96
P 1.29 34.08
S 6.86 40.27
Cl 14.88 15.07
NH4-N 0.67 5.48
NO3-N 0.25 83.92
Fe 0.03 0.76
Mn 0.01 1.16
B 0 0.15
Cu 0.04 0.26
Zn 0 0.26
Mo 0 0.18
Al 0 0.41
KALE RESULTS
The average fresh weights of the kale are shown in Figure 8.12. It should be noted
that the germination rates were not 100% in each cycle, therefore, the average weight
was calculated based on the total number of weighed mature kale plants.
The PAR for each tower is shown in Figures 8.13–8.16.
The correlation of PAR and fresh weight was compiled for the 7:1 and the 4:4
photoperiod. These data are shown for all four towers in Figures 8.17–8.20 (4:4) and
Figures 8.21–8.24 (7:1). The linear square fit equation and the correlation coefficient,
R2, are shown in each plot.
The nutrient solution data are shown for the four different photoperiod cycles in
Figures 8.25–8.28.
The data clearly show that some photoperiods produce better yields. Especially,
the 7 hour on 1 off sequence shows the yields for Hannah and Gertrude. Hannah was
particularly dramatic.
Comparing the uptake of NPK for this photoperiod for Hannah, it should be noted
that the N and K concentrations declined to near zero which means that as the plants
grew, they required much more N and K. Even the P concentrations were much lower
than the other experiments. This was also true for the Mg, Ca, and S concentrations
which decreased more than in the other experiments as well. This same trend was
observed for NPK and MgCaS in the 3.5-hour sequence but not as dramatic as in the
7.1-hour sequence.
Comparing the 7 hour on 1 hour off to the 3.5 hour on 0.5 hour off sequence, it
should be noted that they both provide 21 hours of light during 24 hours. However,
Yields Fresh Weight

16
14
12
10
grams
8
6
4
2
0
Hannah Gertrude Sophia Tatiana
light 10 on 14 off light 7 on 1 off light 3 1/2: 1/2 off light 4 on 4 off
FIGURE 8.12 Average fresh weight of the kale plants for ALL four cycles and ALL four
towers.
Gertrude PAR 12"

250
200
150
PAR
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Port number
FIGURE 8.13 PAR for Gertrude.
Hannah PAR 6"

250
200
150
PAR
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Port number
FIGURE 8.14 PAR for Hannah.

Sophia PAR 6"

250
200
150
PAR
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Port number
FIGURE 8.15 PAR for Sophia.
Tatiana PAR 12"

250
200
150
PAR
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Port number
FIGURE 8.16 PAR for Tatiana.
Gertrude 4:4
35
30
25
fresh wt g
20
15
10
y = 0.0006x + 0.8764
5 R² = 0.0045
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
PAR
FIGURE 8.17 PAR vs. fresh weight for Gertrude 4:4 photoperiod.
Hannah 4:4
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
fresh wt g
15.00
10.00 y = 0.0421x -1.1938

R² = 0.2811
5.00
0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250
-5.00
PAR
FIGURE 8.18 PAR vs. fresh weight for Hannah 4:4 photoperiod.
Sophia 4:4
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
fresh wt g
15.00
10.00 y = 0.0291x -0.3946
R² = 0.6999
5.00
0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250
-5.00
PAR
FIGURE 8.19 PAR vs. fresh weight for Sophia 4:4 photoperiod.
Tatiana 4:4
35.00
30.00
25.00
fresh wt g
20.00
15.00
10.00
y = 0.041x - 0.7016
R² = 0.3514
5.00
0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250
PAR
FIGURE 8.20 PAR vs. fresh weight for Tatiana 4:4 photoperiod.
Gertrude 7:1
35.00
30.00
25.00
fresh wt g
20.00 y = -0.0043x + 7.8969

15.00 R² = 0.0037
10.00
5.00
0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250
PAR
FIGURE 8.21 PAR vs. fresh weight for Gertrude 7:1 photoperiod.
Hannah 7:1
35.00
30.00
25.00 y = 0.0384x + 10.148
R² = 0.0076
fresh wt g
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250
PAR
FIGURE 8.22 PAR vs. fresh weight for Hannah 7:1 photoperiod.
Sophia 7:1
35.00
30.00
25.00
fresh wt g
20.00
15.00
y = 0.0292x - 0.0521
10.00 R² = 0.6179
5.00
0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250
PAR
FIGURE 8.23 PAR vs. fresh weight for Sophia 7:1 photoperiod.
Tatiana 7:1
35.00
30.00
25.00
fresh wt g
20.00
y = 0.0301x - 0.1137
15.00 R² = 0.1476
10.00
5.00
0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250
PAR
FIGURE 8.24 PAR vs. fresh weight for Tatiana 7:1 photoperiod.
cycle 1 10:14 on:off

120
100
80
ppm
60
40
20
0
NO3-N P K Ca Mg S
fresh Sophia Gertrude Tatiana
FIGURE 8.25 Nutrient solution ppm concentrations (fresh and at 28 days) for NPK and
MgCaS for cycle 1.
the 3.5-hour sequence shows lower yields for Gertrude, Hannah, and even Sophia.
Whereas Tatiana better yields for 3.5 vs. 7. The conclusion is that possibly during
the 7-hour photosynthetic process, there is a higher rate of growth as more time is
allowed. Also, the wavelengths of light missing in the LED strips (470–600 nm) used
for Sophia and Tatiana may impact different types of chemical reactions.
It should also be noted that the PAR meter measures a total radiation from 400
to 800 nm so that measure is a composite of all wavelengths. On that note, the LED
strips were attached to the PVC frame at the beginning of cycle 1 and were not
changed throughout the study. The LED strips for Sophia and Tatiana were mounted
with plastic ties vertically to produce as much light directly to the ports as possible.
cycle 2 7:1 on:off

120
100
80
ppm
60
40
20
0
NO3-N P K Ca Mg S
fresh Sophia Tatiana Hannah Gertrude
MgCaS for cycle 2.
cycle 3 3.5/0.5 on:off

120
100
80
ppm
60
40
20
0
NO3-N P K Ca Mg S
fresh Sophia Tatiana Hannah Gertrude
MgCaS for cycle 3.
The strips for Sophia were 6″ from the ports and for Tatiana they were 12″. It was
anticipated that the closer the strips were to the plants that the higher the yields
would be. That was not always the case. Also, the light meter was used only at the
end of the study, therefore, the intensity may have changed from the beginning to the
end of the study.
To better understand the relationship between the PAR value and yields, plots
were generated for the second and fourth cycles (7:1 and 4:4) to see whether there
was a direct correlation. The plots shown in Figures 8.17–8.24 show that there is
cycle 4 4:4 on:off

120
100
80
ppm
60
40
20
0
NO3-N P K Ca Mg S
fresh Sophia Tatiana Gertrude Hannah
MgCaS for cycle 4.
some minor correlation for Hannah and Gertrude, a fairly weak correlation for
Tatiana, whereas Sophia exhibited an R2 of 0.62 and 0.69 which is moderate at best.
Therefore, it is concluded that the yields are not exclusively based on light energy but
involve other factors, i.e., wavelength distribution, plant chemistry, nutrient pH, and
other unknown variables.
The fresh weight data in Figure 8.12 is an average of all the mature plants weighed
on day 28. Whereas the correlation plots (Figures 8.17–8.24) show individual weights
of each plant. For example, Hannah in cycle 2 (7:1) shows plant weights as high as
30 g but the average is between 14 and 15 g.
CONCLUSIONS
These data indicate that the photoperiod plays an extremely large role in plant yields
and directly impacts the nutrient uptake. That is the main conclusion. Also, the
wavelength distribution of the LED light source appears to be critical to completely
understand the growth process. It should also be noted that the growth of kale as it
matures may be closer to exponential at the mid-point of its life cycle (28 days), and
therefore, time between germination and harvest may skew the results for the early
germinators. There were no data collected on the actual time between planting and
germination. Most plants germinated in the first seven days of planting. In some
cases, plants sprouted after a week or two. The late bloomers were not considered
in the average weight calculations, but since the range of weights was broad, it was
difficult to determine at what weight the lower threshold should be set for excluding
these late bloomers.
FUTURE RESEARCH IDEAS

The research directions for the future cover a wide range of investigations. Each
plant needs to be studied individually to determine what is the optimum aeroponic
conditions to produce high yields of the plant with the highest nutritional value.
Design of experiment matrices needs to be developed to address all the variables that
affect the growth of the plant. One matrix would be the optimum nutrient composi-
tion that produces the plants with the highest levels of vitamins and other specific
nutrients for that plant. Fundamental to these experiments is understanding the root
uptake mechanisms that would allow the roots to absorb the proper inorganic ions.
This could involve using the optimum pH, temperature, microorganisms, oxygen,
and the nutrient blends. The exposure of the roots to the nutrient solution is another
variable that needs to be understood. With the misting and/or the trickle down aero-
ponic systems, there is a sequence of pump on and pump off. Is there an optimum
sequence that allows the roots to take up the nutrients needed by the plant and also
become dry enough to absorb oxygen from air? Or does the oxygen need to be dis-
solved in water to be taken up by the roots? Are simulated drought conditions needed
to “encourage” the plant to produce more vitamins or other nutrients that would not
occur if the roots are always wet. Also, the photosynthetic rates need to be studied to
better understand the optimum conditions for CO2 concentrations, air temperature,
humidity, and the photo energy. This could involve artificial lights in greenhouses
or for use in an indoor system—warehouse or container. The optimum lighting also
would involve the optimum wavelengths of visible and UV light, the intensity of the
light, as well as the photoperiod that the plants are exposed to the light source. The
day/night timing sequence would also be a part of these studies. Does each plant
have an optimum amount of light exposure to produce the best yield but also the
most nutritious plant? Do seedlings require a different light spectrum to germinate
and initially grow strong and healthy? Do mature plants need different wavelength
combinations? Does the light need to sequenced in the same manner as the sun, i.e.,
12 hours on followed by 12 hours off? What if the light was on for 23 hours and off
for 1 hour? Does that improve yields and nutrient value of the plant? What about
a different rhythm for the plant exposure to light? For example, what affect does
2 hours on 2 hours off have on the yields and nutritional value of a plant. There are
hundreds of light sequences that could be studied.
From a practical standpoint, the continuous measure of nutrient uptake (measured
by loss of nutrients in the nutrient solution) with selective sensors for nitrate, phos-
phate, potassium, sulfate, magnesium, and calcium needs to be developed to replace
the EC measurements that have been used traditionally for decades in hydroponics
but clearly do not provide a clear picture of the nutrients needed by the plant. This
would allow for a feedback loop to ensure all nutrients are present at the correct
concentration.
There is obviously much work that could be done to better understand the aero-
ponic process. The field of controlled environment agriculture (CEA) is starting to
pick up momentum. The Association of Vertical Farming in Germany is attempting
to bring together practioners in the field of hydroponics and aeroponics. That will
certainly help to improve the technology. The US Department of Agriculture is also
beginning to fund some basic research in this area. There are a few universities that
have ongoing research programs in CEA. Some of the key ones have been University
of Arizona and Cornell. However, even at the academy, there is very little research
being carried out with aeroponics. Most of the research is related to hydroponics
and other water culture techniques. Several papers have been published and noted
in Chapter 4 from other universities both in the US and around the world. As the
chart in Chapter 4 shows the increase in publications, it appears that this trend will
continue in the future.
REFERENCES
Ayeni, A., Sciarappa W., Both, A. J., Gurley, T., 2018 unpublished data.
Kozai, T. et al., 2016, Plant Factory. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Kozai, T. et al., 2018, Smart Plant. Singapore: Springer.
9 Conclusion
Life is the art of drawing sufficient conclusions from insufficient premises.

Samuel Butler
This book has provided an overview of the state-of-the-art of aeroponic technology
from multiple vantage points. It has provided the context which has enhanced the
reason why aeroponics has emerged as a new agricultural technology. It has defined
what it is and given several examples of aeroponic systems that are functioning today
in a variety of settings. These include home use, academic research, business devel-
opment, innovation, and the practical applications of its principles.
In many ways this technology has benefitted from the work done on the hydro-
ponic front to pave the way for this technology to blossom and become an entity of
its own. Both the work done at Disneyworld and NASA highlighted in earlier chap-
ters has certainly been the precursor for much of the research and innovative efforts
noted in this book. Without those pioneers, the technology would not be where it is
today. The work of the Association of Vertical Farming has been instrumental in
bringing together technologists working in area of hydroponics, aeroponics, and the
associated technical needs. The Plant Factories in Japan, Taiwan, Korea, and China
have also been instrumental in promoting these advances and have contributed to
the overall research effort to better define what is optimum. Of course, the growing
uncertainty of the future of food production to feed the millions and millions of the
next-generation inhabitants of the earth has stimulated interest in exploring this type
of technology.
It is noteworthy to see the breadth and depth of the research papers summarized
in Chapter 4 on Science. This shows that nascent aeroponics has many more direc-
tions that can be pursued but also that it is a technology that has international interest
and potential. The exponential increase in the number of technical papers published
clearly shows that aeroponics has captured the imagination of many researchers
around the world. The scope of plants that can be grown is also highlighted from
leafy greens, to vegetables, to potatoes, to trees, and other fruits and vegetables that
grow above ground normally or underground. The intellectual property trend is also
growing dramatically as new ideas emerge and are documented.
The business success of aeroponics is still in its early phase and it is difficult to
predict what the future of this technology compared to hydroponics will be. There
are a small number of companies that have started well and seem to be progressing
in a positive direction. However, there are also examples of other companies that
have appeared and shown promise but eventually have faded away and some have
gone out of business. This is normal for any new technological development. The
market forces will continue to weed out those technologies that are not competitive
and help refine the process to determine which approaches will ultimately survive
the test of time. This shaking is a normal effect as new technology emerges and
265
investors evaluate it. One of the biggest questions in the arena of business will be
which technology will last and not only produce food at a fair price but also which
designs will be the most successful. The two main competing technologies are the
horizontal stacked hydroponic approach versus the vertical column configurations.
Is it better to do stacking of trays and arrays of LED light or use vertical columns
and greenhouses? The economics of these systems will determine which technology
survives. Although it is possible that with the need for safe, pure, clean food that
human survival will most likely depend on a combination of soil-based agriculture
and controlled environment agriculture—hydroponics, aquaponics, and aeropon-
ics—will play a role in various sections of the market. It most likely will come down
to the type of plant that is being grown. Some will lend themselves better to one
growing method than another. This same process that was experienced with DVD
players (beta max vs. VHS) and telecommunication platforms (Blackberry, iPhones,
and Android), development will be repeated in the food production arena.
Probably the biggest frontier in the future of aeroponics is the research effort that
will need to be exerted to begin to unlock some of the unknowns that were touched
on at the end of Chapter 8 on research. It seems that an aeroponic system is uniquely
positioned to be able to explore questions about plant physiology and the chemistry
of root uptake and light absorption. It can be studied as a completely closed system,
where all the inputs can be controlled in a much more comprehensive way than
was possible in the area of soil-based agricultural studies. All the variables can be
altered and monitored and the desired outcomes can be clearly analyzed and fully
understood.
One of the potential trends of this technology is a renewed interest in young peo-
ple pursuing careers in the agricultural area. Since for years careers in agriculture
have been looked down upon as not sophisticated and not economically profitable.
Therefore, students have chosen to avoid agricultural science majors. But as the need
for a better understanding of the science of aeroponics increases and more and more
growers are seen around the country and the world, more students may be inclined
to consider a career in agriculture and concomitant fields. One area that will be
impacted by this trend is the science of nutrition along with more comprehensive
and accurate methodologies to measure nutrition. The current FDA food-labeling
practices leave much to be desired. Also, the area of controlled environment agri-
culture may usher in the capability of producing food with specific concentrations
of vitamins, polyphenols, and antioxidants. So instead of a consumer taking vitamin
tablets to supplement his deficiencies, he can buy aeroponically grown plants with
known levels of these ingredients.
The conclusion of this book is that aeroponics has a very bright future and has the
potential to grow much of the safe, clean, pure food that we need to survive as a civi-
lization. The environmental benefits of this technology have been touched on several
times throughout this book. The key benefits are the huge savings in water usage; the
improvements in productivity, i.e., reduced harvest cycle times; efficient use of nutri-
ents; the possibility of local growing facilities near large population centers; reduced
need for pesticides; and the reduction in soil erosion. This technology has already
found its way into our homes where growing fresh vegetables and herbs everyday is
Conclusion 267
happening. This trend is most likely to continue and the day may come when much
of a family’s food supply is being grown in the family greenhouse or garage.
In addition to scaling this technology to the individual consumer, the ideas are
proposed by Despommier in his book on Vertical Farming, and we may also see
greenhouses appearing on office buildings, near schools and universities, hospitals,
retirement villages, and other places where large populations of people are working
and living together.
Taylor & Francis
Index
A NPK, 22
nutrient acceptable/sufficiency ranges, 234
Abscisic acid (AB), 44, 70, 122 nutrient blends, 228
Acacia nutrient comparison, 225
France, 33 nutrient formulations, 225
Malaysia, 33 nutrient solution, main tank, 229–230
Singapore/France, 32–33 parameter levels, 236
AeroFarms pod column systems, 231
cameras, 179 ranges of elements, 227
challenge, 180 research topics, 239–240
flagship facility, 179 review, USA, 98–99
growth, 176 sensors, 232–235
indoor vertical farm, 176 social impact, USA, 107
IoT, 179 technical papers, 29–30
LED lights, 178 transfer lines, 231
obstacle, 178 trickle-down aeroponic column, 230
sensors, 179 upsides, 25–26
shelf-like VertiCrop system, 177–178 vertical column, 231
urban vegetable gardens, 177 water quality, 235–236
AERO inline commercial system, 175, 176 AgriHouse technology, 5, 6
AERO kitchen garden, 174 Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), 77
AERO midi mobile garden, 175 Alfalfa
AERO mini mobile garden, 174 Morocco, 34
Aeroponics, 20; see also individual entries USA, 34
advantages, 23 Alpine penny-cress, France, 35
coming of age, 29 Antioxidants, USA, 36
commercial system, features of, 228–229 Aonla, India, 35–36
companies, 173 Aquaponics, 3, 21, 22
conventional agriculture, 22–23 Arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM), 32, 55, 56–59
crops, 9–10, 30–31 Arugula
definition, 1 Colombia, 37
downsides, 26–27 Mexico, 36–37
history Asparagus, Poland, 37
chinampas, 13–14
floating gardens, 13
glass pavilions, 14 B
Hoagland solution, 19 Barley
insoluble artificial soils, 15–16 China, 38
liquid culture, 18 Germany/USA, 38
microchemical methods, 16 Kazakstan, 38–39
micronutrients, 17 Basil, Greece, 39
orangeries, 14 Bean, Israel, 40
principle of vegetation, 14–15 Begonia, Sweden, 40
salts of nitrogen, 16 Biomass
standard solution formulas, 17–18 Iran, 41–42
straw caps, 13 Poland, 41
transparent rock, 13 USA, 41
water culture, 14 BioServe Space technologies, 5
Hoagland recipe, 227 Blackberry, Bulgaria, 42
vs. hydroponics, 21–22, 24–25, 221-222 Broccoli, Singapore, 42–43
importance, 1
269
270 Index
C Grape, Germany, 59–60

Growing Degree Days (GDD), 47
Camphor, Israel, 43
Carbon dioxide, Germany, 43–44
Carpetweed, India, 44 H
Catalase (CAT), 77 Horizontal stacked hydroponic approach vs.
Cellular antioxidant (CAA), 36 vertical column configurations, 266
Chickpea, Germany, 44 Hydroponics, 1, 4
Chinampas, 13–14 vs. aeroponics, 21–22, 24–25
Chinese cabbage, Indonesia, 60 Hoagland solution, 19
Chrysanthemum, Colombia, 44–45
Cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD), 48
Container farms, 10–11 I
Controlled-environment agriculture (CEA), 1, 263 Ion-specific electrodes (ISE), 233
Conventional agricultural systems, 21 Iris, Canada, 60
Corn, Germany, 45
Cowpea, China, 45–46
Cranberry, USA, 46–47 K
Cucumbers, Colombia, 47 Kale photoperiod study, 252, 253
concentrations of ions, 255
D results, 255–262
Despommier, D.
vertical farming, 2 L
vertical urban farming, 2 Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), 77
Disney World, 7–8 Leaf tissue sample analysis
nutrient film technique, 141 Bibb leaf, 244
Igloo leaf, 245, 248, 249–252
E Scarlet red leaf, 245, 248, 249–252
Lettuce
Elm, USA, 47–48 Chile, 63
Eucalyptus, Australia, 48–49 Japan, 65
Evergreen, India, 50 Korea, 64
nutrient study, 240–244
F Singapore, 62, 64–65
Slovenia, 61–62
Fir, Cananda, 50–51 USA, 61, 65
First Canadian Capital Corp. (FCC), 206 Lighting configurations, 253
Flex system, 7 Lotus
Food-labeling practices, 266 Germany, 66
Food security Sweden/Germany, 66–67
China, 52–53
Russia, 54–55
M
UK, 52
USA, 51–52, 53–54, 55 Maize
Fungi Belgium, 67–68
Australia, 56 Canada, 69
Belgium, 57 France, 67, 69
France, 57–58 Germany, 68–70
India, 58 India, 67
Taiwan, 55 Philippines, 70–71
USA, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59 USA, 71
Malate dehydrogenase (MDH), 77
G Malondialdehyde (MDA), 77, 78
Market forces, 265
Genesis system, 6 Medicinal plants
Geoponics, 21, 22 France, 76
Index 271
India, 72–73 vs. fresh weight, Gertrude, 257, 259

Romania, 72 vs. fresh weight, Hannah, 258, 259
UK, 76 vs. fresh weight, Sophia, 258, 259
USA, 72, 73–75 vs. fresh weight, Tatiana, 258, 260
Methyl-jasmonate (MeJA), 114 Gertrude, 256
Modern agriculture systems, 21 Hannah, 256
Muskmelon, China, 76–77 nutrient solution, 260–262
Multiseriate exodermis (MEX), 60 Sophia, 257
Photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD), 40, 81
N Plant factories (PFs), 4, 265
Plant growth regulators (PGRs), 44
NASA, 5–7 Potatoes
AeroGarden, 144 Brazil, 88, 94–95
AeroGrow, 144, 145 Brazil/USA, 86–87
Companies, 146–147 Canada, 89
endophyte populations, 145 China, 92–93, 95
hydroponics, 143–144 Colombia/Peru, 89, 90
innovation, 143 Ecuador/Brazil, 90
Living Greens Farms, 145–146 Ethiopia, 87
long-term missions, 142 India, 87–88, 96, 98
ODC, 142 Indonesia, 85–86, 88, 90–91, 93
patent holders, top, 10, 144 Kenya, 97
US Patents (2001-2018), 143, 148–165 Malawi, 91
Near edge X-ray absorption fine structure South Korea, 93–94, 95–96
spectroscopy (NEXAFS), 99 Spain, 90, 92
Nutrient film technique (NFT), 9, 58, 59, 73, 85, Turkey, 88
94, 98, 141, 167 UK, 86
Nutrients United Arab Emirates, 89
Australia, 79–80 USA, 97–98
Canada, 82 Pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC), 77
China, 78–79, 80
Germany, 78, 80 R
Indonesia, 80–81
Russia, 79 Radish, Israel, 98
Singapore, 81 Relative humidity (RH), 119, 126
USA, 81–82 Rice
China, 99, 100
O Japan, 100–101
Phillipines, 99–100
Olive, Italy, 82–83 Roots
Open Pond (OP), 41 Austria, 103
Organic Disease Control/Organically Derived essential elements, 223–224, 226, 227
Colloidals (ODC), 142 ion absorption, 222–223
ion uptake, 222
P Israel, 101
Italy, 105
Pea, USA, 83–84 South Africa, 101–102
Peanut, Israel, 84 USA, 101, 102–105
Pectin methylesterase (PME), 46, 104 Root-zone temperature (RZT), 42, 62, 64, 89
Pepper
China, 84 S
Kuwait, 85
Peroxidase (POD), 34, 49, 77, 126 Saffron, Poland, 105–106
Petunia, USA, 85 Seeds, USA, 106
Phenomics, 180 Shallot, Indonesia, 106–107
Photobioreactor (PBR) systems, 41 Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences
Photosynthetic active radiation (PAR), 253, 254 (SAAS), 182
272 Index
Soybeans Singapore, 114, 116

China, 108–109 Thailand, 117
France, 107–108 USA, 115, 118–119
USA, 108, 109–110 TED talk, 2
Space applications Tomato, 120
Australia, 110–111 Canada, 122
Japan, 112 China, 120–121
Poland, 110 Israel, 121
USA, 110, 111–112 Spain, 121–122
Spruce, Sweden, 112–113 USA, 121, 122–123
Start-up aeroponic companies Tower Garden
Aero Development Corp, 172–175 Alaska, 168
AeroFarms (see AeroFarms) Arizona, 168–169
AeroSpring Gardens, 181 California, 169
AEssenseGrows Colorado, 169
aquaponics, 184 Florida, 169–170
current-design, 183 Illinois, 170
hydroponics, 184 Indiana, 170–171
SAAS, 182 Louisana, 171
SmartFarm, 182 New York, 171
speakers/presentation titles, 184–185 Oklahoma, 172
vertical farming, 182–183 vertical systems, 168
Agricool, 185, 186 Treeco tree-shaping system, 216
AgriHouse, 186–187 Trees
Amplified Ag, 187, 188, 189 Australia, 124–125
Cloudponics GroControl, 187, 189–190 Israel, 123
80 Acres Farms, 190–191 Portugal, 124
FarmedHere, 191–192 USA, 124
Green Hygienics Holdings, 192 True potato seeds (TPS), 97
Gropod, 195–198
Grow Anywhere, 192–195 U
GROWx, 198–199
Heliponix, 199–200 Ugly food, 8
Indoor Farms of America (IFOA), 200–202 Ultrasonic Nebulizer Plant Factory (UNPF), 120
Indoor Harvest Corporation, 202–204 United State Department of Agriculture
James E Wagner (JWC), 204–207 (USDA), 2
Just Greens, 207
Lettuce Abound Farms, 207–208 V
Living Greens, 208–210
Plenty, 210–213 Value proposition, 21
PodPlants, 213–215 Vegetables
Riviera Creek, 215 Colombia, 125
Treevo, 216 USA, 125–126
True Garden, 216–217 Vertical farming, 2, 5, 8–9
Strawberry, Egypt, 113
Sunflower, Spain, 113–114 W
Superoxide dismutase (SOD), 34, 77
Water-culture technique, 17–18
T Wheat
Hungary, 126
Technology Iran, 126–127
Canada, 114–115 USA, 127
China, 115, 117, 118, 120
India, 117 Y
Indonesia, 115–116
Japan, 120 Yams, Nigeria, 127–128

Aeroponics. Growing Vertical

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Aeroponics

Taylor & Francis

and by CRC Press

© 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ISBN: 978-0-367-40953-1 (hbk)

Chapter 1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 1

Chapter 2 History of Aeroponics ........................................................................ 13

Chapter 3 The Aeroponic Value Proposition ...................................................... 21

Chapter 4 Aeroponic Science .............................................................................. 29

Chapter 5 Aeroponics Innovations .................................................................... 141

Chapter 6 Aeroponic Business .......................................................................... 167

Living Greens (www.thelivinggreens.com) ................................. 208

Chapter 7 Practice of Aeroponics ..................................................................... 221

Chapter 8 Aeroponics Current Research .......................................................... 239

Chapter 9 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 265

Index ...................................................................................................................... 269

1. capture sunlight and disperse it evenly among the crops;

He shows several pictures of futuristic multistory buildings with crops growing on

He cites examples of vertical farms already in place around the world.

Rural Development Agency Suwon, Korea

Plantagon Linkosing, Sweden

OTHER TED TALKS

1. a thermally well-insulated and airtight warehouse-like structure with no

4. nutrient supply units;

Aeroponics, a companion technology to hydroponics, has taken off in Japan and is

VERTICAL FARMING TRENDS

Unlike conventional hydroponic fertilizers, the amazing Aeroponic Power-Gro®

VERTICAL FARMING DEFINITION

described (Phillips, 2019). They are divided into two groups—medium-less

AEROPONIC CONTAINER FARMS

Yesterday is history, tomorrow is a mystery, today is God’s gift, that’s why we

Until recently, the water-culture technique was employed exclusively in small-scale,

of successful cultivation and the Director of the California Agricultural Experimental

• Make up stock solutions and store in separate bottles.

1. Soil is not necessary

Other papers covered several other crops and topics:

This study was conducted using aeroponics as an alternative method to classical

compared to plants grown in liquid or sand media, aeroponically grown saplings

This paper demonstrated experimentally that aeroponic culture was a promising

This paper describes a study of the effects of salinity on some ecophysiological

in control). The said combination of micronutrients was also associated with high-

This paper describes the development of an automatic monitored aeroponic-irrigation

conditions of the aeroponic plant, the reproduction of aphids is considered optimal

The paper was a study of sink-source relationships and allometric ratios in

A novel aeroponic substrate-based cultivation system was studied to determine

An investigation was conducted on the effect of reduced leaf glucokinase activity

cranberry growers. Cranberries only use ammonium nitrogen sources. Ammonium

This team examined whether eucalyptus marginata grown on rehabilitated baux-

This research evaluated an aeroponics technique for vegetative propagation of

This team used novel aeroponics technology to produce fresh vegetables in

This research was conducted on urban agriculture with a focus on aeroponics.

vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Abundant vesicles and arbuscules formed in

This is a review article on information concerning hydroponic systems, including

The study reviewed the development of an industrial activity producing microbial

related legal, ethical, educational, and commercial requirements. At present, com-

Jarstfer, A. G. et al., Soil and Water Science Department,

This study was conducted on applications of high levels of magnesium sulfate in

Bagyaraj, D.J., Department of Agricultural Microbiology,

This is a chapter in a book entitled Methods in Microbiology and is about some of

The study involved developing Natrosol®, a nonionic, water-soluble polymer, used

This is a review of current information concerning hydroponic systems, including

Meyer CJ et al., Department of Biology, University

its distribution in lettuce plants. Three successive experiments were conducted on