Kingfisher

Kingfishers or Alcedinidae are a family of small to medium-

sized, brightly colored birds in the order Coraciiformes. They Kingfisher
have a cosmopolitan distribution, with most species found in the
tropical regions of Africa, Asia, and Oceania but also can be
seen in Europe. They can be found in deep forests near calm
ponds and small rivers. The family contains 114 species and is
divided into three subfamilies and 19 genera. All kingfishers
have large heads, long, sharp, pointed bills, short legs, and
stubby tails. Most species have bright plumage with only small
differences between the sexes. Most species are tropical in
distribution, and a slight majority are found only in forests. They Azure kingfisher (Ceyx azureus)
consume a wide range of prey usually caught by swooping
down from a perch. While kingfishers are usually thought to live Scientific classification
near rivers and eat fish, many species live away from water and Kingdom: Animalia
eat small invertebrates. Like other members of their order, they
nest in cavities, usually tunnels dug into the natural or artificial Phylum: Chordata
banks in the ground. Some kingfishers nest in arboreal termite Class: Aves
nests. A few species, principally insular forms, are threatened
with extinction. In Britain, the word "kingfisher" normally refers Order: Coraciiformes
to the common kingfisher. Suborder: Alcedines
Family: Alcedinidae
Rafinesque, 1815
Contents
Subfamilies
Taxonomy, systematics and evolution
Alcedininae
Description
Halcyoninae
Distribution and habitat
Behaviour and ecology Cerylinae
Diet and feeding
Breeding
Status and conservation
Relationship with humans
References
Sources Global distribution of the kingfishers

External links
Phylogeny of the Alcedinidae
Alcedinidae
 
 
Taxonomy, systematics   Ceyx
Alcedininae
 
and evolution  
  Alcedo

  Halcyoninae      
         
The kingfishers family Alcedinidae Halcyon
is in the order Coraciiformes, which
also includes the motmots, bee-  
eaters, todies, rollers and ground-   Pelargopsis
rollers.[2] The name of the family
was introduced (as Alcedia) by the  
  Lacedo
French polymath Constantine
Samuel Rafinesque in 1815.[3][4] It is
 
divided into three subfamilies, the   Actenoides
tree kingfishers (Halcyoninae), the
river kingfishers (Alcedininae) and    
  Syma
the water kingfishers (Cerylinae).[2]  
 
The name Daceloninae is sometimes  
used for the tree kingfisher subfamily  
  Todiramphus
but it was introduced by Charles
Lucien Bonaparte in 1841 while
 
Halcyoninae introduced by Nicholas   Melidora
Aylward Vigors in 1825 is earlier  
and has priority.[5] A few  
    Clytoceyx
taxonomists elevate the three    
 
subfamilies to family status.[6][7] In  
 
spite of the word "kingfisher" in their     Dacelo
 
English vernacular names, many of
these birds are not specialist fish-  
eaters; none of the species in   Cittura
Halcyoninae are.[8]  
 
 
  Tanysiptera
The centre of kingfisher diversity is
the Australasian realm, but the group
originated in the Indomalayan region  
  Chloroceryle
around 27 million years ago and  
 
invaded the Australasian realm a  
Cerylinae
number of times.[9] Fossil kingfishers     Ceryle
have been described from Lower
Eocene rocks in Wyoming and  
  Megaceryle
Middle Eocene rocks in Germany,
around 30–40  million years ago.
Cladogram based on combined analysis of RAG1 and ND2
More recent fossil kingfishers have sequences. The mitochondrial ND2 sequences used alone
been described in the Miocene rocks suggests an alternate phylogeny with Alcedininae and Cerylinae
of Australia (5–25 million years old). being sister clades separated from the Halcyoninae.[1]
Several fossil birds have been
erroneously ascribed to the kingfishers, including Halcyornis, from the Lower Eocene rocks in Kent, which
has also been considered a gull, but is now thought to have been a member of an extinct family.[10]

Amongst the three subfamilies, the Alcedininae are basal to the other two subfamilies. The few species
found in the Americas, all from the subfamily Cerylinae, suggest that the sparse representation in the
Western Hemisphere resulted from just two original colonising events. The subfamily is a comparatively
recent split from the Halcyoninae, diversifying in the Old World as recently as the Miocene or Pliocene.[1]

Description
The smallest species of kingfisher is the African dwarf kingfisher
(Ispidina lecontei), which averages 10  cm (3.9  in) in length and
between 9 and 12 g (0.32 and 0.42  oz) in weight.[11] The largest
kingfisher in Africa is the giant kingfisher (Megaceryle maxima),
which is 42 to 46 cm (17 to 18 in) in length and 255–426 g (9.0–
15.0 oz) in weight.[12] The familiar Australian kingfisher known as
the laughing kookaburra (Dacelo novaeguineae) is the heaviest
species with females reaching nearly 500 grams (18  oz) in
weight.[13]

The plumage of most kingfishers is bright, with green and blue

being the most common colours. The brightness of the colours is
neither the product of iridescence (except in the American
kingfishers) or pigments, but is instead caused by the structure of
the feathers, which causes scattering of blue light (the Tyndall
effect).[14] In most species, no overt differences between the sexes
exist; when differences occur, they are quite small (less than The paradise kingfishers of New
10%).[10] Guinea have unusually long tails for
the group.
The kingfishers have long, dagger-like bills. The bill is usually
longer and more compressed in species that hunt fish, and shorter
and more broad in species that hunt prey off the ground. The
largest and most atypical bill is that of the shovel-billed kookaburra,
which is used to dig through the forest floor in search of prey. They
generally have short legs, although species that feed on the ground
have longer tarsi. Most species have four toes, three of which are
forward-pointing.

The irises of most species are dark brown. The kingfishers have
excellent vision; they are capable of binocular vision and are
The kookaburra has a birdcall which
thought in particular to have good colour vision. They have
sounds like laughter.
restricted movement of their eyes within the eye sockets, instead
using head movements to track prey. In addition, they are capable
of compensating for the refraction of water and reflection when
hunting prey underwater, and are able to judge depth under water
accurately. They also have nictitating membranes that cover the
eyes to protect them when they hit the water; the pied kingfisher
has a bony plate which slides across the eye when it hits the
water.[10]

Distribution and habitat

Like many forest-living kingfishers,
The kingfishers have a cosmopolitan distribution, occurring
the yellow-billed kingfisher often
throughout the world's tropical and temperate regions. They are
nests in arboreal termite nests.
absent from the polar regions and some of the world's driest deserts.
A number of species have reached islands groups, particularly
those in the south and east Pacific Ocean. The Old World tropics and Australasia are the core areas for this
group. Europe and North America north of Mexico are very poorly represented, with only one common
kingfisher (common kingfisher and belted kingfisher, respectively), and a couple of uncommon or very
local species each: (ringed kingfisher and green kingfisher in the southwestern United States, pied
kingfisher and white-throated kingfisher in southeastern Europe). The six species occurring in the Americas
are four closely related green kingfishers in the genus Chloroceryle
and two large crested kingfishers in the genus Megaceryle. Even
tropical South America has only five species plus the wintering
belted kingfisher. In comparison, the African country of the
Gambia has eight resident species in its 120-by-20-mile (193 by
32 km) area.[10]

Individual species may have massive ranges, like the common

kingfisher, which ranges from Ireland across Europe, North Africa,
and Asia as far as the Solomon Islands in Australasia, or the pied The Oriental dwarf kingfisher is
kingfisher, which has a widespread distribution across Africa and considered a bad omen by warriors
Asia. Other species have much smaller ranges, particularly insular of the Dusun tribe of Borneo.
species which are endemic to single small islands. The Kofiau
paradise kingfisher is restricted to the island of Kofiau off New
Guinea.[10]

Kingfishers occupy a wide range of habitats. While they are often

associated with rivers and lakes, over half the world's species are
found in forests and forested streams. They also occupy a wide
range of other habitats. The red-backed kingfisher of Australia lives
in the driest deserts, although kingfishers are absent from other dry
deserts like the Sahara. Other species live high in mountains, or in
open woodland, and a number of species live on tropical coral
atolls. Numerous species have adapted to human-modified habitats,
particularly those adapted to woodlands, and may be found in
cultivated and agricultural areas, as well as parks and gardens in
towns and cities.[10]

Behaviour and ecology

Diet and feeding Forest kingfisher in Kakadu National

Park
Kingfishers feed on a wide variety of prey. They are most famous
for hunting and eating fish, and some species do specialise in
catching fish, but other species take crustaceans, frogs and other amphibians, annelid worms, molluscs,
insects, spiders, centipedes, reptiles (including snakes), and even birds and mammals. Individual species
may specialise in a few items or take a wide variety of prey, and for species with large global distributions,
different populations may have different diets. Woodland and forest kingfishers take mainly insects,
particularly grasshoppers, whereas the water kingfishers are more specialised in taking fish. The red-backed
kingfisher has been observed hammering into the mud nests of fairy martins to feed on their nestlings.[15]
Kingfishers usually hunt from an exposed perch; when a prey item is observed, the kingfisher swoops
down to snatch it, then returns to the perch. Kingfishers of all three families beat larger prey on a perch to
kill the prey and to dislodge or break protective spines and bones. Having beaten the prey, it is manipulated
and then swallowed.[10] Sometimes, a pellet of bones, scales and other indigestible debris is coughed
up.[16] The shovel-billed kookaburra uses its massive, wide bill as a shovel to dig for worms in soft mud.


Common kingfisher Giant kingfisher breaking spine of tilapia fish

hovering

Pied kingfisher killing Pellet of a

a fish common
kingfisher

Breeding

Kingfishers are territorial, some species defending their territories vigorously. They are generally
monogamous, although cooperative breeding has been observed in some species and is quite common in
others,[10] for example the laughing kookaburra, where helpers aid the dominant breeding pair in raising
the young.[17]

Like all Coraciiformes, the kingfishers are cavity nesters as well as tree nesters, with most species nesting in
holes dug in the ground. These holes are usually in earth banks on the sides of rivers, lakes or man-made
ditches. Some species may nest in holes in trees, the earth clinging to the roots of an uprooted tree, or
arboreal nests of termites (termitarium). These termite nests are common in forest species. The nests take the
form of a small chamber at the end of a tunnel. Nest-digging duties are shared between the genders
.
During the initial excavations, the bird may fly at the chosen site with considerable force, and birds have
injured themselves fatally while doing this. The length of the tunnels varies by species and location; nests in
termitariums are necessarily much shorter than those dug into the earth, and nests in harder substrates are
shorter than those in soft soil or sand. The longest tunnels recorded are those of the giant kingfisher, which
have been found to be 8.5 m (28 ft) long.[10]

The eggs of kingfishers are invariably white. The typical clutch size varies by species; some of the very
large and very small species lay as few as two eggs per clutch, whereas others may lay 10 eggs, the typical
is around three to six eggs. Both sexes incubate the eggs. The offspring of the kingfisher usually stay with
the parents for 3–4 months.[10]

Status and conservation

A number of species are considered threatened by human activities
and are in danger of extinction. The majority of these are forest
species with limited distribution, particularly insular species. They
are threatened by habitat loss caused by forest clearance or
degradation and in some cases by introduced species. The
Marquesan kingfisher of French Polynesia is listed as critically
endangered due to a combination of habitat loss and degradation
caused by introduced cattle, and possibly due to predation by
introduced species.[18] The rufous-collared kingfisher is
categorised as near-threatened due
to the rapid loss of its rainforest
Relationship with humans habitat.

Kingfishers are generally shy birds, but in spite of this, they feature
heavily in human culture, generally due to the large head supporting its powerful mouth, their bright
plumage, or some species' interesting behavior.

For the Dusun people of Borneo, the Oriental dwarf kingfisher is considered a bad omen, and warriors who
see one on the way to battle should return home. Another Bornean tribe considers the banded kingfisher an
omen bird, albeit generally a good omen.[10]

The sacred kingfisher, along with other Pacific kingfishers, was venerated by the Polynesians, who
believed it had control over the seas and waves.

Modern taxonomy also refers to the winds and sea in naming kingfishers after a classical Greek myth. The
first pair of the mythical-bird Halcyon (kingfishers) were created from a marriage of Alcyone and Ceyx. As
gods, they lived the sacrilege of referring to themselves as Zeus and Hera. They died for this, but the other
gods, in an act of compassion, made them into birds, thus restoring them to their original seaside habitat. In
addition, special "halcyon days" were granted. These are the seven days on either side of the winter solstice
when storms shall never again occur for them. The Halcyon birds' "days" were for caring for the winter-
hatched clutch (or brood), but the phrase "Halcyon days" also refers specifically to an idyllic time in the
past, or in general to a peaceful time.

Various kinds of kingfishers and human cultural artifacts are named after the couple, in reference to this
metamorphosis myth:

The genus Ceyx (within the river kingfishers family) is named after him.
The kingfisher subfamily Halcyoninae (tree kingfishers) is named after his wife, as is the
genus Halcyon.
The belted kingfisher's specific name (Megaceryle alcyon) also references her name.

Not all the kingfishers are named in this way. The etymology of kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) is obscure; the
term comes from "king's fisher", but why that name was applied is not known.[19]

References
1. Moyle, Robert G (2006). "A molecular phylogeny of kingfishers (Alcedinidae) with insights
into early biogeographic history" (https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/bitstream/1808/16596/1/Moy
leR_Auk_123%282%29487.pdf) (PDF). Auk. 123 (2): 487–499. doi:10.1642/0004-
8038(2006)123[487:AMPOKA]2.0.CO;2 (https://doi.org/10.1642%2F0004-8038%282006%2
9123%5B487%3AAMPOKA%5D2.0.CO%3B2). hdl:1808/16596 (https://hdl.handle.net/180
8%2F16596).
 2. Gill, Frank; Donsker, David, eds. (2017). "Rollers, ground rollers & kingfishers" (http://www.w
orldbirdnames.org/bow/rollers/). World Bird List Version 7.2. International Ornithologists'
Union. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
3. Rafinesque, Constantine Samuel (1815). Analyse de la nature ou, Tableau de l'univers et
des corps organisés (https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48310144) (in French).
Palermo: Self-published. p. 66.
4. Bock 1994, pp. 145, 252.
5. Bock 1994, p. 118.
6. Sibley, Charles G.; Monroe, Burt L. Jr (1990). Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the
World. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04969-5.
7. Christidis, Les; Boles, Walter (2008). Systematics and taxonomy of Australian birds.
Collingwood, VIC, Australia: CSIRO. pp. 168–171. ISBN 978-0-643-09602-8.
8. Fry, Fry & Harris 1992, p. 8.
9. Andersen, M.J.; McCullough, J.M.; Mauck III, W.M.; Smith, B.T.; Moyle, R.G. (2017). "A
phylogeny of kingfishers reveals an Indomalayan origin and elevated rates of diversification
on oceanic islands" (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjbi.13139). Journal of Biogeography. 45 (2):
1–13. doi:10.1111/jbi.13139 (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjbi.13139).
10. Woodall, Peter (2001). "Family Alcedinidae (Kingfishers)". In del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott,
Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World (https://archive.org/detail
s/handbookofbirdso0001unse/page/103). Vol. 6, Mousebirds to Hornbills. Barcelona: Lynx
Edicions. pp. 103–187 (https://archive.org/details/handbookofbirdso0001unse/page/103).
ISBN 978-84-87334-30-6.
11. Fry, Fry & Harris 1992, pp. 195–196.
12. Fry, Fry & Harris 1992, pp. 231–232.
13. Fry, Fry & Harris 1992, pp. 133–136.
14. Bancroft, Wilder; Chamot, Emile M.; Merritt, Ernest; Mason, Clyde W. (1923). "Blue feathers"
(http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v040n02/p0275-p0300.pdf) (PDF). The
Auk. 40 (2): 275–300. doi:10.2307/4073818 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4073818).
JSTOR 4073818 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4073818).
15. Schulz, M (1998). "Bats and other fauna in disused Fairy Martin Hirundo ariel nests". Emu.
98 (3): 184–191. doi:10.1071/MU98026 (https://doi.org/10.1071%2FMU98026).
16. Fry, C. Hilary; Fry, Kathie; Harris, Alan (1999). Kingfishers, Bee-eaters and Rollers. London:
Christopher Helm. pp. 219–221. ISBN 978-0-7136-5206-2.
17. Legge, S.; Cockburn, A. (2000). "Social and mating system of cooperatively breeding
laughing kookaburras (Dacelo novaeguineae)". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 47
(4): 220–229. doi:10.1007/s002650050659 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs002650050659).
S2CID 26382479 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26382479).
18. BirdLife International (2019). "Todiramphus godeffroyi" (https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/2
2683487/149519891). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019:
e.T22683487A149519891. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22683487A149519891.en
(https://doi.org/10.2305%2FIUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22683487A149519891.en). Retrieved
12 November 2021.
19. Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary" (http://www.etymonline.com/index.ph
p?search=king&searchmode=term). Retrieved 14 July 2007.

Sources
Bock, Walter J. (1994). History and Nomenclature of Avian Family-Group Names (http://digit
allibrary.amnh.org/handle/2246/830). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History.
 Vol. Number 222. New York: American Museum of Natural History. hdl:2246/830 (https://hdl.
handle.net/2246%2F830).
Fry, C. Hilary; Fry, Kathie; Harris, Alan (1992). Kingfishers, Bee-eaters, and Rollers. London:
Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-0-7136-8028-7.

External links
ARKive – images and movies of the kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0060527025558/http://www.arkive.org/species/ARK/birds/Alcedo_atthis/)
Kingfisher videos (http://ibc.lynxeds.com/family/kingfishers-alcedinidae) on the Internet Bird
Collection

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