Ethnobotany of Conifers in the Philippines

3.1 Family Araucariaceae Henkel & W. Hochstetter

Family Araucariaceae has two genera, namely, Agathis and Araucaria.

Genus Agathis Salisb.

Agathis is Greek word meaning ‘a ball of thread’, an allusion of its globose female cone. The word ‘kauri’ is of Maori origin, applied by that people to Agathis australis, a common species and generalized in term to all species of Agathis [3]. Throughout its distribution, Agathis is one of the highly sought after sources of straight-grained, easily worked timber [4]. Nowadays, it is relativity scarce but still of premium value, it has been largely logged out. Its current production is usually derived from plantations. Genus Agathis has two species, namely Agathis dammara and A. philippinensis.

Agathis dammara (Lamb.) Rich. & A.Rich. ex A.Rich. a native species is distributed in Palawan and Samar as well as in the Moluccas and Sulawesi. Locally known as almaciga or almasigia. This plant is possibly also in other parts of Southern Philippines. It is forest emergent and locally common, up to 1200 masl. Its conservation status is currently vulnerable [5]. Leaves are oval and acute, on vigorous shoots need to be narrower (Figure 1). It is known as a source of resin [6]. The resin was burned in the Cordillera Region of Northern Luzon that emit smoke that was inhaled to relieve bronchial asthma [7, 8]. The resins are sold in the Internet and known in its trading names of gold or black copal.

Agathis philippinensis Warb. is found in Babuyan Islands, Cebu, some parts of Luzon, and Mindanao, particularly in Bukidnon, Davao del Sur, and occurs mainly in montane forests to 2200 masl. A. philippinensis is a native species with a vulnerable conservation status [5]. Locally known as almaciga, it can be a source of resin, or Manila copal has been a valuable income source for indigenous peoples [9]. Various products can be made from wood, such as veneer and plywood, pulp and paper, and sources of construction materials [6].

Genus Araucaria Juss.

The genus is named after one of the provinces in Chile, Arauco [10].

Many species of Araucaria have been important sources of timber due to their massive size. Araucaria has two species not native to the Philippines, Araucaria bidwillii and A. heterophylla, which is more common.

Araucaria bidwillii Hook. is naturally distributed in Australia. Its large seeds are nutritious and was an important food source for aboriginal peoples and remain a popular delicacy.

Araucaria heterophylla (Salisb.) Franco. originated from Norfolk Island, an island territory of Australia cultivated, not naturalized, and not native in the Philippines. A. heterophylla, also called Norfolk Island pine, is used as a Christmas tree and whose leaves are used in Advent wreath.

3.2 Family Cycadaceae

Genus Cycas L.

The genus name was derived from the Greek koikas, which was used by Theophratus to describe a type of palm. Later, it was transliterated to kykas and thence became Cycas. Cycas is the most primitive cycad genus.

All plant parts are poisonous, but people learned how to avoid this and its seeds are used as a food source. Such use is documented throughout the range of Cycas and its relatives in some parts of the world. In the natives of Africa, Australia and other countries, stem starch or sago has been used as a food source. Poisons derived from its parts have used to capture fish in Southeast Asia. Leaves are used as a substitute for palm fronds. Most species are popular ornamentals.

In Palawan, various Cycas spp. are found, like Cycas aenigma K.D.Hill & A. Lindstr., a native, endemic species known only in cultivation in Puerto Princesa. Its conservation status is critically endangered [5].

Another endemic species, Cycas curranii (J.Schust.) K.D.Hill. is confined to lowland ultramafic rocks, occurring in the understory of mixed closed forest, common on steep slopes, and occasionally on alluvial outwash from ultramafic hills in Palawan. Native and its current conservation status is critically endangered [5].

A critically endangered [5] known only from St. Paul’s mountain massif, in crevices of vertical limestone cliffs with no soil, Cycas saxatilis K.D.Hill & A. Lindstr. is a significant outcrop to the Southeast, pendulous on limestone cliff face. In Culion Island,

Cycas wadei Merr. is found growing with seasonally dry Imperata grassland periodically subjected to fire. It is endangered [5].

Cycas nitida K.D.Hill & A. Lindstr. is an endangered species in the littoral forests of Rapu-rapu and Polillo Islands of Quezon Province and some parts of Luzon.

Endemic to Zambales, Luzon island is Cycas zambalensis Madulid & Agoo which grows in seasonally dry hilly grassland over chromite-rich ultramafics, scattered throughout but critically endangered [5].

Other endemic species, namely Cycas riuminiana Porte ex Regel. found in the understory of lowland rain forests, forested areas on ridges and mountains, in closed mixed evergreen forests usually on steep slopes, and disturbed areas, often on limestone, 0–1030 masl.

Cycas vespertilio A.Lindstr. & K.D.Hill grows in hill forests seasonally deciduous forests; both are vulnerable in conservation status and are distributed in some provinces in Luzon and Visayas islands.

In Mindanao, Cycas flabellata Agoo, Madulid & J.R. Callado is an endemic species of Bukidnon.

Cycas lacrimans A.Lindstr. & K.D.Hill., is found in forests over ultramafic rocks on serpentine soil in Davao Oriental. It is now endangered [5].

Another native, Cycas mindanaensis Agoo, Madulid & J.R. Callado, an endemic also found in Davao Oriental.

A cycad endemic to Mindanao, Cycas sancti-lasallei Agoo & Madulid found in Misamis Oriental, Cagayan de Oro, Cugman River Watershed found in disturbed lowland forests is critically endangered [5]. Interestingly, C. sancti-lasallei is named by its discoverers after the Saint John Baptist de La Salle.

Cycas edentata de Laub. is distributed in Luzon and Mindanao Islands, Philippines, but is also found in Andaman Islands, Borneo, Java, Lesser Sunda Islands, Malay Peninsula, Sulawesi, Sumatra, Thailand. This vulnerable species [5] thrives in coastal vegetation and lowland rainforests immediately behind it and rarely ventures far from the coast.

The most common but not naturalized, though cultivated in the country, is Cycas revoluta Thunb, used in traditional landscaping and popular during Palm Sunday every Lenten season.

3.3 Family Gnetaceae

Genus Gnetum L.

Gnetum is an insect-pollinated plant. A dioecious, both male and female strobili are aromatic that vary from with species. The strobili opens in the morning, while some species in the evening. The female strobilus produces a droplet of sticky sugary fluid that in time retracts into the strobilus, carrying any captured pollen to the nucellus. This extraordinary mechanism thrives best in high humidity conditions and has been seen as one of the reasons why Gnetum is restricted to rainforests.

Recent ethnopharmacological studies have found C-glycosyl-flavones, while a group of complex stilbenes and stilbene-substituted benzofurans are present.

Gnetum arboreum Foxw. is endemic to the Philippines and is distributed in Camarines Sur, Nueva Ecija, Quezon, and Zambales in Luzon.

The most common species is Gnetum gnemon L., which is found in Bataan, Batangas, Bulacan, Cagayan, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Isabela, Kalinga, Laguna, Quezon, Rizal, Sorsogon in Luzon Island and Agusan del Norte, Davao, Davao Oriental, Davao del Sur, Lanao, Misamis Occidental, South Cotabato, Surigao, Surigao del Norte, Zamboanga, and Zamboanga Sibugay in Mindanao in the Philippines. Female flowers are shortly tipped as compared to axillary male flowers (Figure 2). In other countries, its inner bark was used for fiber while some parts are edible, where it is cultivated as a fruit tree.

One variety, G. gnemon var. gnemon, is found in Fiji and Solomon Islands to Malesia, from Sumba and Sulawesi through the Philippines to New Guinea, the Malay Peninsula, and possibly elsewhere, often planted and frequently naturalized in secondary forests, even in the western part of Malesia.

The specific epithet gnemon is from the word genemo, the species’ vernacular name in the Moluccas [11].

Gnetum gnemonoides Brongn. is a native species distributed in the Bismarck Archipelago, Borneo, Java Sea, Malay Peninsula, Moluccas, New Guinea, and Sulawesi. In the Philippines, it is found in Quezon, Zambales, and Agusan del Norte in Mindanao.

Gnetum latifolium Blume is found in many provinces in north of Luzon, some parts of Visayas, and areas in Mindanao. This native species has four recognized varieties: var. latifolium., forma latifolium, and var. longipes (Markgr.) T. H. Nguyên, forma longipes Markgr., var. laxifrutescens (Elmer) Markgr. and var. minus (Foxw.) Markgr. It was documented that the bark fiber of G. latifolium var. minus is used in making ropes and nets [6].

3.4 Family Pinaceae

Genus Pinus L.

The generic name Pinus was the Roman name for pine. Pinus is one of the oldest extant conifer genera and are economically important as timber, pulp, tar, and turpentine. For many years, it is a principal source of timber for many purposes, including firewood, construction, woodworking and others. Leaves in bundles of three needles (rarely two) differs Pinus kesiya (Figure 2) from Pinus merkusii with leaves in bundles of two needles (Figure 3).

Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon is found in Albay, Aurora, Benguet, Ifugao, Ilocos Norte, Mountain Province, Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya, Pangasinan, Zambales Mindoro and Negros Island. One variety, var. langbianensis (A. Chev.) Gaussen ex Bui is distributed in Albay, Benguet, Ifugao, Mountain Province, Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya, Pangasinan, Zambales that often occurs in pure stands, often on steep slopes, (300-)700–2700 masl. This native is forming a natural hybrid in Zambales. Female cones are dried and used as Christmas accent décor. Timber is used in various materials in construction. Oleoresin is an important component of insect-repellent products [6]. Pine needles were gathered on top of graves by locals of Sagada, Mountain Province remembering the dead during November 1. An annual tradition called Panag-apoy, which in Kankana-ey (South-Central Cordilleran language) means ‘to light a fire’.

Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de Vriese can be seen in the provinces of Bulacan, Rizal, Zambales, and Mindoro. This vulnerable [5] and native pine has one recognized subspecies, ssp. merkusii is found in China, Indochina, Myanmar, Sumatra, and Thailand. They thrive in strongly seasonal areas from 100 to 2000 masl. In the Philippines, turpentine was once extracted from this species. However, the extraction rate was lesser than that of P. kesiya [12, 13]. It is a source of oleoresin. Wood is used in construction and pulp for paper manufacture [6]. The resin is generally higher in α- than β-pinene, which makes it contribute to production being used primarily for internal consumption for solvents rather than for export to the expanding aroma industry (Figure 4) [9].

3.5 Family Podocarpaceae

Genus Dacrycarpus (Endl.) de Laub.

The genus name came from the Greek words meaning ‘tears’ and ‘fruit’, describing the shape of its seed cones. Dacrycarpus spp. are dioecious shrubs or trees.

Both native species, Dacrycarpus cumingii (Parl.) de Laub. and Dacrycarpus imbricatus (Blume) de Laub. are found in some provinces in Luzon and Mindanao as well as in neighboring countries of the Philippines. D. imbricatus is another threatened species [5]. and has two varieties, namely, var. imbricatus. is common in montane cloud forests, 1300–2500 masl, and var. robustus de Laub. Wood is used to manufacture many products and can be a potential source of pulp for paper [6].

Genus Dacrydium Sol. ex G.Forst.

Dacrydium is derived from the Greek word which means ‘tear’, which refers to resinous exudations from the wood, [14, 15] but seemingly to the weeping habit of the trees [16].

Wood is yellowish to reddish in color, very resinous and known for its durability. It is used for building purposes, furniture making and woodworking [14].

This genus has four species found in certain provinces of Luzon and Mindanao, namely, Dacrydium beccarii Parl. in DC. Dacrydium elatum (Roxb.) Wall. ex Hook; one identified as other threatened species [5]. Dacrydium pectinatum de Laub., and Dacrydium xanthandrum Pilg. which is known from one collection from Mindanao also thrives in neighboring country islands of the Philippines.

Genus Falcatifolium de Laub.

Species are dioecious shrubs to large trees with thin smooth brownish bark with scattered lenticels, reddish and somewhat fibrous within. They are loosely and irregularly branched trees. No ethnobotanical information was documented.

Falcatifolium gruezoi de Laub. is a native species found in exposed sites along ridges or on borders of open areas, 1600–2200 masl. is distributed in Moluccas and Sulawesi and some parts of Luzon, Panay Island, and Mindanao.

Genus Nageia Gaertn.

The genus name is a Latinized form of ナギ (nagi). Some species are exploited for its high oil content of their seeds aside from its valuable wood.

One native species is Nageia wallichiana (C. Presl) Kuntze found in Borneo, China, India, Indochina, Java, Lesser Sunda Isls, Malay Peninsula, Moluccas, Myanmar, New Guinea, Philippines, Sulawesi, Sumatra and Thailand. In Luzon, they are distributed in the provinces of Apayao, Bataan, Benguet, Cagayan, Laguna, and Nueva Ecija, while in Mindanao in Misamis Occidental and Surigao del Sur. This other threatened species [5] is also found in Mindoro, Panay, Samar, and Sibuyan islands.

Genus Podocarpus L’Hér. ex Pers.

Podocarpus is derived from two Greek words poús, ‘foot’ and karpós, ‘fruit’ referring to its fleshy fruit stems. Podocarpus species are evergreen shrubs or trees with very limited distribution, often found at high elevation, and the majority of taxa have no recorded human use. However, human use is usually confined to relatively large individuals that thrives in proximity to populated areas.

Ethnopharmacological uses of leaf and bark extracts that treat a variety of ailments are reported for many species. Wood is strong, straight-grained and can use for construction, boat-building, furniture and household tools.

Endemic to the Philippines are Podocarpus lophatus de Laub., a vulnerable species [5] and sometimes shared in cloud forests, 2000–2100 masl.

Podocarpus macrocarpus de Laub. is distributed in Benguet, Ilocos Norte, Mountain Province, Quezon, Zambales, and Davao Oriental. Wood from P. macrocarpus can be used in airplane construction and manufacture of sounding boards, pencil slats and tennis racket handles [6].

Podocarpus palawanensis de Laub. & Silba found only in Palawan is critically endangered [5].

Podocarpus costalis C. Presl. is an endangered species [5] found in coastal bluffs near sea level to at least 300 m in Babuyan Islands, Batanes, Ilocos Norte, Isabela, and Polillo Islands.

Other native species include Podocarpus glaucus Foxw., Podocarpus neriifolius D. Don in Lamb., Podocarpus pilgeri Foxw., Podocarpus polystachyus R. Br. ex Endl. and Podocarpus rumphii Blume were declared vulnerable [5]. The wood of P. rumphii has economic potential for its local community [6].

Podocarpus ramosii R. R. Mill., found in Camarines Sur, Laguna, and Quezon, thrives in stunted mossy forests up to 2200 masl. is endangered [5].

Genus Sundacarpus (J.Buchholz & N.E.Gray) C.N.Page.

Sundacarpus amarus (Blume) C. N. Page is a native species in Australia, Borneo, Java, Lesser Sunda Islands, Moluccas, New Guinea, Sulawesi and Sumatra. It is distributed in Benguet, Ifugao, Ilocos Sur, Mountain Province in Luzon, and Davao del Sur in Mindanao. It is locally important for lumber [6].

Leaves are reported as bitter, to which also the Sundanese name ‘pait’ refers, bittersweet ‘dulcamara’, or sweet tasting. Thus, the specific epithet is from the Latin amarus, ‘bitter’, referring to its leaves.

3.6 Family Phyllocladaceae

Genus Phyllocladus Rich. ex Mirb.

Phyllocladus is differentiated from podocarps (formerly under one family) with a structure resembling an aril and possessing an epimatium, aside of having a different number of chromosomes and distinct pollination mechanism. It was documented that almost all species have been exploited for their timber although no conservation status is reported.

Phyllocladus hypophyllus Hook. f. is a native species that grows in the mossy forest on the higher mountains, 1200–2400 masl. in Borneo, Moluccas, New Guinea and, Sulawesi. In Luzon, it is distributed in Abra, Benguet, Ifugao, Ilocos Sur, Isabela, Mountain Province, Nueva Vizcaya, Mindoro, Palawan, and Sibuyan Island. In Mindanao, it thrives in Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Cotabato, Davao, Davao del Sur, Lanao, Misamis Occidental, and Zamboanga del Sur. Leaves spaced along branches, spiral and simple (Figure 5).

3.7 Family Taxaceae

Genus Taxus L.

This genus is named from the Greek toxus, reflective of tóxon, ‘bow’ and toxikon, ‘poison’. As its extract was used as an arrow poison [17].

Commonly known as yew, Taxus spp. had many interesting uses in both traditional and modern culture, and its most noteworthy use is being a tree of profound spiritual significance. Nowadays, yew is known for being able to cure cancer [18]. Specifically, paclitaxel, a compound found in its vegetative parts, provides a very effective treatment for breast and ovarian cancer, and even reported in treating certain other cancers. Its discovery in the 1990s led quickly to its worldwide overexploitation to extract paclitaxel from its bark and foliage, making a number of species toward endangered status.

The only Taxus sp. found in the Philippines is Taxus wallichiana Zucc. It is located in moist subtropical forests, tropical highland ridges, and mossy forests in the canopy and is locally dominant; 1400–2300 masl in Benguet, Laguna, Mountain Province, Quezon, and Davao. Leaves are linear to linear-lanceolate (Figure 6). It is vulnerable (described as Taxus sumatrana (Miq.) de Laub. [5]).