Insect pests of less economic importance in Polish young conifer stands.
Abstract
Weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) are the most important pest insects of forest plantations established on clear-cut areas, and Hylobius abietis is a pest insect of great economic importance in Europe. Pinus sylvestris plantations and thickets established on sandy soils or postfire areas can be severely impacted by Cneorhinus plagiatus and Brachyderes incanus. Young pine forests weakened by biotic and abiotic factors are particularly susceptible to Pissodes castaneus. Buds and shoots of P. sylvestris trees are mainly damaged by Lepidoptera larvae. For many years, chemical treatments have been the main way of protecting forests against insects. At present, to reduce the pollution of forest environments with insecticides, the strategy of integrated pest management (IPM) was put into practice. It involves prophylactic measures to increase plant resistance to insect attacks and to select appropriate control methods based on a multistep decision support system (DSS). Nonchemical control measures aim at collecting pest insects in traps fitted with attractants and biological methods, mainly based on entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) and wood-decomposing fungi. Chemical insecticides are used only in cases of high threats to reforestation stands. This paper presents the state of knowledge concerning pest insect management in forest plantations in Europe, with particular emphasis on insects occurring in Poland.
Keywords
- forest plantations
- Hylobius abietis
- Pissodes castaneus
- Brachyderes incanus
- protection
- IPM
1. Introduction
In Poland, forests cover a total area of around 9.2 million hectares, taking up 29.4% of the land area [1]. Poland is therefore one of the countries with the largest forest areas in central Europe. The main forest type is coniferous forest, accounting for 70%, with Scots pine (
Monolithic species composition, even-aged forest structure, is a result of reforestation of thousands of hectares destroyed during World War II, and unfavorable atmospheric conditions resulting from influences of maritime and continental climates are the causes of the susceptibility of some stands to a variety of harmful biotic and abiotic factors. Among European forests, the Polish forests belong to the ones which are most threatened by biotic factors, mainly insects and pathogenic fungi occurring cyclically in the forms of mass outbreaks or epiphytotics and affecting thousands of hectares. In the years 2011–2013, the areas threatened by pest insects exceeded more than 4.2 million hectares each year, representing more than 23% of the total forest area [1].
Current problems of forest protection concern weakness of forest stands caused by climatic changes, which intensify previously infrequent phenomena such as extreme heat and droughts and violent storms, often accompanied by powerful hail, hurricane winds and whirlwinds, as well as floods. Repeated influence of these forces weakens forest stands, which are subsequently attacked by pests or colonized by fungal pathogens. Long-lasting droughts, which became more common during the last two decades, were one of the major factors which started the process of large dieback of Norway spruce forests in the mountains intensified by the outbreak of European spruce bark beetle
Forests can be susceptible to insect attacks at all stages, and forest plantations newly established on clear-cuts left after harvesting of old stands facilitate the concentration of insects associated with specific stand ages (Photo 1). In Poland, weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) represent the most important group of pest insects of 1–5-year-old forest plantations established on clear-cuts [7–9]. The aim of this paper is to present the most important insect species damaging forest plantations and their management, including methods to estimate and reduce their numbers.
2. Pest insects in forest plantations
2.1. Hylobius abietis
The large pine weevil
During the growing season, two distinct periods of increased occurrence of
The first appearance of beetles on clear-cuts depends on the weather conditions, especially on air temperature. Similar to observations made in Norway [18, 19], in Poland, weevils leave their wintering places when air temperatures exceed 10°C, which is usually at the turn of April and May. The beetles move on foot or fly from adjacent stands, attracted by volatiles emanating from the resin of fresh woody debris left after harvesting [11, 12]. They can fly in May and June [11]. Not much is known about the distance they can cover, but in Poland, marked insects were found at a distance of 2 km from the place of release [20]. In a study in Sweden, the range of weevil flight oscillated between 80 and 100 km [21]. It is assumed that in one day, beetles can fly a distance of 10 km, while they can walk a distance of 50 m. However, questions remain concerning the period of the development cycle in which beetles lose their ability to fly. Nordenhem [22] observed young and mature beetles, which have already copulated, flying. This view is supported by Korczynski [20], who stated that the beetles lose their ability to fly in a certain period of the growing season, possibly due to temporary weakness of the muscle wings.
In Poland, the large pine weevil population reaches its maximum of abundance in the second half of May [23]. In addition to young beetles, the population also consists of older individuals that have wintered two to three times. Generally, beetles that have wintered in warmer positions appear first, followed by those which have wintered in colder areas [24, 25]. The beetles avoid reforestation areas with high humidity [26]. Analysis of changes in the spatial distribution of the seedling damage caused by the large pine weevil showed that initially, beetles accumulate on the edge, making their way into the central zone of the forest [27].
According to Korczynski [27], feeding activity peaks in the evening hours, while Christiansen and Bakke [19] observed highest feeding activities at night, when air temperatures oscillated between 19 and 28°C. These results were partially supported by Fedderwitz et al. [28], who observed that most of the beetles under laboratory conditions were feeding in the second half of the dark phase and in the first hours of the subsequent light phase. They also showed that weevils spend only 6% of their time feeding. Temperatures above 30°C cause the disappearance of the activity of the insect [29].
The seedlings of all conifer and some deciduous (e.g.,
After supplementary feeding, the beetles copulate, and at the turn of May and June, the females start to lay eggs on the roots of stumps or on course woody debris such as soil branches and piles of bark remaining after tree debarking. According to Bylund et al. [33],
Fresh stumps of coniferous trees and their roots are the most important breeding bases for
The length of larval development depends mainly on the temperature. In Poland, the large pine weevil develops one generation yearly. Dominik [42] stated that in shaded places under the canopy, the development can be extended, leading to a 2-year generation. At the same time, this author demonstrated that the sunlight, influencing soil temperature, is the main factor impacting
2.2. Pissodes castaneus
The banded pine weevil
In central and southern Europe,
2.3. Cneorhinus plagiatus
Very young (1–2-year-old) Scots pine plantations and thickets established on previous fire areas, especially on poor, sandy soils, can be heavily affected by weevils of the species
2.4. Brachyderes incanus
The weevil
The insects feed on needles of the two highest whorls of branches. Although they can damage up to 95% of these needles, the infested trees have not died because one-time feeding is not detrimental to growing trees. However, repeated feeding can lead to growth inhibition and significant weakening, resulting in death in some cases.
The insect produces one generation per year. The beetles overwinter in the forest litter and start to feed in April–May; at the beginning of June, the females oviposit eggs into the soil. Depending on air temperature, after 2–6 weeks, the larvae feed on roots of shrubs, trees, and grass growing in reforested areas. Larvae pupate in August and the new generation of beetles appears toward the end of August, in September, or at the beginning of October.
2.5. Other species of low economic importance
Table 1 lists other species of pest insects occasionally occurring in Poland on small areas of forest plantations and thickets. Buds and shoots of Scots pine trees younger than 15 years are mainly damaged by Lepidoptera larvae. At present, the European pine shoot moth
Insect species | Damaged species | Damaged parts of tree | Insect instar causing damage |
---|---|---|---|
Buds, shoots | Caterpillar | ||
Stem | Larva, imago | ||
Needles, shoots | Larva | ||
Needles | Larva | ||
Buds, needles | Imago | ||
Needles | Caterpillar | ||
Needles, shoots | Larva | ||
Needles | Imago | ||
Needles | Larva | ||
Needles | Larva | ||
Needles | Larva | ||
Stem | Imago | ||
Shoots | Larva, imago |
Pine needles and buds are also infested by
3. Integrated management of weevils in reforested areas
3.1. Background
In Poland, contemporary forest protection against insect pests is based on the strategy of integrated pest management (IPM) (Figure 1). The plant is the main objective of all treatments, and its genetic specificity, response to the colonizing organisms, and the relationship with the environment are taken into account. Prevention based on prophylactic measures is a very important element of this strategy and followed by protection methods in which priority is given to biological and biotechnical methods covering the use of biological insecticides and also substances that affect insect behavior. Chemical treatments, as the last option, are used when other methods are not effective and in cases of high threats to crop sustainability.
In practice, prophylactic measures are aimed at strengthening stand resistance to attacks by pest insects and take into account the recommendations of forest silviculture, utilization, and protection. The most suitable protection method is selected on the basis of a multi-step decision support system (DSS), which includes identification of the pest and determination of the amount of tree damage, estimating potential losses. It is also important to define potential interactions, e.g., coexistence with other species of pest insects. The final stage of DSS includes a review of available protection methods and selects the most appropriate method for the given situation.
Protective measures are mostly taken to reduce the abundance of
3.2. Prophylactic measures
Clear-cutting is the method most frequently employed in Polish forests. Postcutting regeneration leads to the formation of evenly aged stands of poor species composition, mainly Scots pine and Norway spruce. This facilitates the concentration of pest insects associated with defined developmental phases of stands. The most important preventive measures include agronomic and silvicultural methods that improve seedling growth, making them more resistance to insect damage.
The establishment of forest plantations composed of a variety of trees species or the promotion of natural regeneration on sites with favorable regeneration conditions can increase resistance of the biocoenosis to pest insects. Results of Scandinavian studies showed that naturally regenerated plants were less susceptible to weevil attacks than planted ones. Water stress and some other physiological effects related to transplantation may be some of the reasons why planted trees are more susceptible to insect attacks.
According to Moore et al. [53], the within-season felling date is one of the most important factors affecting the development of
Delaying replanting for two to four years after clear-cutting can be another method to reduce
From the start, the planted seedlings require optimal growing conditions. Proper site preparation by soil scarification and weeding, then careful handling, and planting are very important for the further development of trees and make them more resistant to weevil attacks [62, 64]. Örlander and Nordlander [65] found that fresh scarification significantly reduced
The size of the reforested area also has a significant effect on the number of weevils and the extent of the damage [64, 67]. Previous studies have found that larger areas are more threatened by pest insects than smaller ones. Korczynski [68] observed the correlation between the increase of damage to seedlings and the increase of distance from the plantation edge. In Poland, clear-cuttings usually do not exceed an area of 4 ha, and 1–2-year-old
Swedish studies showed reduced seedling damage on plantations with shelter trees. This may result from an extra supply of food, such as bark of branches and ground vegetation under the shelter trees [70–72].
3.3. Estimation of population numbers and risk assessment
A number of studies have predicted and assessed
An important part of these studies is the relationship between pest abundance and the extent of the damage. Some authors suggest that even in periods of high weevil abundance, seedling damage can be relatively small, while serious impacts can be recorded when pest abundance is low [7]. Results of Swedish and Polish studies showed that the numbers of beetles and impacted seedlings were only positively correlated in 1–2-year-old plantations. In Poland, the 1980s, a method of estimating the damage caused by
At present, assessment of weevil threats to plantations is based on the number of beetles captured in different kinds of traps baited with kairomones to attract weevils. Experiments with mass trapping systems were conducted in Sweden in the 1980s, where pitfall traps baited with resin derivative α-pinen and ethyl alcohol that act synergistically were evaluated [74]. Swedish traps with different modifications have been applied in several European countries in
In Poland, to assess the risks for forest plantations, it is recommended to observe changes in pest abundance from April to September, based on the numbers of beetles captured in traps made from freshly cut
Insect species | Type of traps and their use |
---|---|
Placing the traps from April to September Recommended trap density:
Checking the traps: 1–3 times/week depending on the pest numbers Dry traps exchanged for new ones | |
| |
Recommended trap density, >30 traps/ha Traps are hanging out before butterflies swarming—in the second half of June |
Natural Scots pine traps are also used to evaluate threats by other weevils, such as
Evaluation of the number of
Susceptibility of
weak: five beetles/tree, damage to needles <30%
medium: 6–30 beetles/tree, damage to needles 31–60%
strong: >30 beetles/tree, damage to needles >60%
In the case of
Assessment of the occurrence of
3.4. Physical methods and baited traps
Different mechanical methods are integrated to effectively reduce damage caused by weevils. In Sweden, plastic collars and coated barriers of paper or plastic fibers were designed to surround and protect seedlings from damage caused by
In Poland, at the turn of March and April, it is recommended to dig grooves with vertical walls (width and depth of 25–30 cm) along the border to older stands, where beetle invasion is expected (Photo 6). The grooves surrounding the plantations are commonly used to collect
Damage caused by
3.5. Biological methods
3.5.1. Pathogens
Wegensteiner et al. [87] reported for the first time the occurrence of the eugregarine
Some species of entomopathogenic fungi may be important in regulating numbers of the large pine weevil.
So far, there is little information on the potential use of entomopathogenic fungi in controlling
A number of studies have evaluated the use of entomopathogenic viruses from the family Baculoviridae to control forest pest insects. In the case of insects occurring in young forests, especially in 5–15-year-old stands, the experiments were set up to evaluate the efficacy of the granulosis virus in the biological control of
3.5.2. Parasitoids
In natural environments, parasitoids from Hymenoptera (Braconidae) belong to the group of natural enemies regulating populations of the large pine weevil. This group includes
Research on the use of natural enemies to limit numbers of
3.5.3. Competitive fungi
In Poland, a biological method to suppress
3.5.4. Botanical antifeedants
Along with more information about the effectiveness of the insecticide azadirachtin, (a natural compound isolated from
In Poland, problems of the influence of extracts from plants of different species on
Intensive research on the use of plant-derived antifeedants has been conducted for many years in Sweden, where extracts from the bark of 38 tree and shrub species were tested for antifeedant activity against
3.5.5. Nematodes
In northern Europe, studies to evaluate the possibility of using nematodes from two families, Steinernematidae (
Treatments to reduce
Similar EPN applications were conducted in Poland; however, treatments were applied at different times. Nematodes were not applied in the summer season, but in early autumn, when mainly overwintering
In summary, despite many attempts to use natural enemies to reduce
3.6. Chemical methods
Until recently, the use of insecticides was the most common method of protecting forest plantations against weevils, especially large pine weevils. However, limitation of pesticide use implemented by EU law and forest certification systems introduced by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) reduced the use of insecticides, particularly in young stands. The dynamics of changes in the numbers of pesticides registered for the protection of forest plantations showed an 86% reduction in insecticides that can be used against weevils (Figure 2). Pyrethroids are a group of insecticides most frequently used against weevils in the youngest forests. They particularly contain derivatives of cypermethrin, deltamethrin, esfenvalerate, lambda-cyhalotrin, and other compounds with
Carbamates were the second group of commonly used preparations to protect especially 1–2-year-old plantations. These preparations contained carbofuran and carbosulfan characterized by contact, stomach, and systemic actions. Granular formulations of carbamates applied to the soil through the roots of seedlings were particularly useful because the gradual release of active ingredients protected the tree up to two years after application [123]. These insecticides were absorbed by tree roots and showed a higher selectivity than pyrethroids. Due to toxic effects on nontarget insects (e.g., soil organisms), the use of carbamates was banned in EU countries.
The frequent use of pyrethroids can eliminate sensitive insects in the treated population. As more resistant insects are not affected, the development of insect resistance may be accelerated. Dobrowolski [124] found that
Chemical protection of plantations against weevils includes preventive treatments consisting of dipping aboveground parts of the seedlings in the insecticides immediately before planting or the application of emergency postplanting sprays. Hereby, dipping seedlings is more effective than spraying them with the same concentration of insecticide [126, 127]. Thus, in Poland, in regions with high abundance of weevils, preplanting treatments are the most common way of plant protection.
As mentioned above, the number of insecticides registered for the protection of forests against weevils was significantly reduced because of:
implementation of EU law (Directives of the European Parliament and of the Council 2009/128/EU and 1107/2009) for agricultural and forest practice aimed at the elimination of chemicals from the environment;
the limited interest of chemical companies based on high costs of pesticide registrations for young forests which cover very small areas of the country compared to agricultural lands;
the forest certification system by FSC.
As a result, in 2016, Polish foresters have the choice between three registered pyrethroids for the protection of plantations against
4. Conclusions
studying the influence of climate warming on changes in biology of pest insects and changes in insect assemblages affecting reforestations;
developing methods of monitoring and forecasting of forest dangers depending on site and stands characteristics;
countering of threats caused by insect pests and pathogens within the large-scale disaster areas resulting from climate change;
strengthening natural resistance of trees to insect pests and fungal pathogens;
the use of natural enemies and agro-technical methods for regulation of population size of dangerous forest pests;
evaluation of effectiveness of new plant protection products including studies intended for registration of pesticides for forestry;
development of decision support systems as a tool facilitating introduction of integrated forest protection principles. Such support systems help to establish optimal terms for implementation of protection activities, which allows to increase their efficiency while limiting chemical pesticides to the absolute minimum.
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