Article
Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) Ecotypes Response to
Accumulation of Heavy Metals during Reforestation on
Chalk Outcrops
Vladimir M. Kosolapov 1 , Vladmir I. Cherniavskih 1 , Elena V. Dumacheva 1 , Luiza D. Sajfutdinova 1 ,
Alexey A. Zavalin 2 , Alexey P. Glinushkin 3 , Valentina G. Kosolapova 4 , Bakhyt B. Kartabaeva 5 ,
Inna V. Zamulina 6 , Valery P. Kalinitchenko 5,7, *, Michail G. Baryshev 5 , Michail A. Sevostyanov 5,8 ,
Larisa L. Sviridova 5 , Victor A. Chaplygin 6 , Leonid V. Perelomov 9 , Saglara S. Mandzhieva 6 ,
Marina V. Burachevskaya 9 and Lenar R. Valiullin 5,10,11
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5
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Citation: Kosolapov, V.M.;
9
Cherniavskih, V.I.; Dumacheva, E.V.;
Sajfutdinova, L.D.; Zavalin, A.A.;
Glinushkin, A.P.; Kosolapova, V.G.;
Kartabaeva, B.B.; Zamulina, I.V.;
10
11
*
Federal Williams Research Center of Forage Production and Agroecology, 1 Nauczny Gorodok,
141055 Lobnya, Russia; kormoproizvodstvo@yandex.ru (V.M.K.); cherniavskih@mail.ru (V.I.C.);
dumacheva63@mail.ru (E.V.D.); louisa_45@mail.ru (L.D.S.)
All-Russian Research Institute for Agrochemistry Named after D.N. Pryanishnikov of the Russian Academy
of Sciences, 31a, Pryanishnikova St., 127434 Moscow, Russia; otdzem@mail.ru
Russian Academy of Sciences, 32-a Gagarinsky, Leninsky Ave., 119991 Moscow, Russia; glinale1@mail.ru
Moscow Timiryazev Agricultural Academy, 49 Timiryazevskaya St., 127422 Moscow, Russia;
v.kosolapova@rgau-msha.ru
All-Russian Research Institute of Phytopathology, 5 Ownership, Institute St., Odintsovo District,
143050 Big Vyazemy, Russia; kartabaeva040893@mail.ru (B.B.K.); baryshev_mg@mail.ru (M.G.B.);
cmakp@mail.ru (M.A.S.); sviridovalarisal@rambler.ru (L.L.S.); valiullin27@mail.ru (L.R.V.)
Academy of Biology and Biotechnology, Southern Federal University, 105/42 Bolshaya Sadovaya St.,
344006 Rostov-on-Don, Russia; inir82@mail.ru (I.V.Z.); otshelnic87.ru@mail.ru (V.A.C.);
msaglara@mail.ru (S.S.M.)
Institute of Fertility of Soils of South Russia, 346493 Persianovka, Russia
Institute of Metallurgy and Materials Science Named after A.A. Baikov, 119334 Moscow, Russia
Laboratory of Soil Chemistry and Ecology, Tula State Lev Tolstoy Pedagogical University, 125 Lenin Ave.,
300026 Tula, Russia; perelomov@rambler.ru (L.V.P.); marina.0911@mail.ru (M.V.B.)
Federal Center for Toxicological, Radiation and Biological Safety, 420075 Kazan, Russia
Faculty of Forestry and Ecology, Kazan State Agrarian University, 420015 Kazan, Russia
Correspondence: kalinitch@mail.ru; Tel.: +7-(918)5333041
Kalinitchenko, V.P.; et al. Scots Pine
(Pinus sylvestris L.) Ecotypes
Response to Accumulation of Heavy
Metals during Reforestation on Chalk
Outcrops. Forests 2023, 14, 1492.
https://doi.org/10.3390/f14071492
Academic Editor: Lei Deng
Received: 11 May 2023
Revised: 13 July 2023
Accepted: 17 July 2023
Published: 21 July 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Abstract: As objects for reforestation, the least studied are carbonate substrates, which have a number
of specific features in terms of mineral composition, the exchange of nutrients, and biological activity.
The use of biological preparations of a consortium of bacteria of the genus Bacillus and mycorrhizal
fungi of the genus Glomus in growing seedlings of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) on carbonate
substrates provides the metabolic products; soluble and microelement salts function as catalysts
for chemical reactions of exudates and soil products; and a greater amount of plant heavy metals
(HM) Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb accumulate in the soil. Among HMs, the random factors most strongly
determined an accumulation of Cd (the influence rate of random factors h2 x = 34.6%) and Pb (the
influence rate of random factors h2 x = 21.7%) in the plants. A trend of all studied HMs higher uptake
by the Cretaceous pine (Pinus sylvestris var. cretacea (Kalen.) Kom.) in comparison with the P. sylvestris
ecotype is revealed. Against the biological preparation background of Biogor KM and MycoCrop® , a
greater value of the HM’s biological absorption in comparison with the option without biological
preparations is noted. This process occurs against a background of a significant increase in the
nitrification capacity in the chalk fine-grained substrate (soil aggregates < 1 mm in size), which is
an indirect indicator of an increased intensity of microbiological processes. Spearman’s correlation
was noted between the coefficient of accumulation of Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb in the dry matter of Scots
pine (P. sylvestris) seedlings and the nitrification capacity of substrate (rs = 0.610–0.744, p < 0.05),
as well as the relationship between the nitrification capacity index of substrate and the coefficient
of biological absorption of copper, zinc, and cadmium (rs = 0.543–0.765, p < 0.05). No relationship
was found between the coefficient of biological absorption of lead and other soil chemical property
Forests 2023, 14, 1492. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14071492
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/forests
Forests 2023, 14, 1492
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indicators. HM absorption by plants was random. No correlations have been established between an
accumulation of HMs and a content of total nitrogen, an absolute value of nitrate nitrogen, a humus
content, or a pH. The significance of the work is the possibility of providing reliable reforestation
with Scots pine (P. sylvestris) and Cretaceous pine (P. sylvestris var. cretacea) on the chalk outcrops
using the biological preparations Biogor KM, MycoCrop® , and BGT* methodology and ensuring soil
phytoremediation from HMs.
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris L.; Pinus sylvestris var. cretacea (Kalen.) Kom.; degraded soil on chalk
outcrops; heavy metals; biological product Biogor KM; Biogeosystem Technique
1. Introduction
The basis of economic, environmental, and political activity in various regions of the
world is low-productive lands unsuitable for intensive agriculture and forestry development [1–5]. The need for both forest reclamation measures and projects for reforestation
and reintroduction of forest plantations in areas of growth in the past is being actively
discussed [6–9]. The natural mechanisms of absorption, biotransformation, and bioaccumulation of pollutants in plants are to be accounted for.
The creation of forest plantations on degraded lands is considered a reserve for sustainable development and an effective mechanism for increasing biodiversity, stabilizing soil
fertility, sequestering CO2 , and reducing the harmful chemicals and heavy metals (HMs)
rate of transfer in ecosystems [10–14].
For a comprehensive assessment of the degraded soils of the world and the development of reforestation techniques, research is needed in regions with the most severe
forest growth conditions. A soil substrate is of great importance as the basis of reforestation
measures. In this regard, providing forest plants with minerals in conditions of soil fertility
deficiency is of particular importance.
With insufficient nutrition, characteristic of soils with low fertility, some elements,
even at a minimal amount, can have a toxic effect. It is important to study the processes
of absorption of HMs on specific substrates: saline soils, various kinds of outcrops of
soil-forming rocks, and dumps of industrial developments with low agrochemical and
biological activity. Of particular interest are the questions of the interaction of the woody
plants with the soil microflora under these conditions.
As objects for reforestation, the least studied are carbonate substrates, which have a
number of specific features in terms of mineral composition, the exchange of nutrients, and
biological activity [15,16].
The south of the Central Russian Upland has a number of features associated with a
wide distribution of ravine-gully complexes formed on the carbonate soil-forming rocks.
The landscape has a low level of projective cover. It is distinguished by a high level of
vertical and lateral mobility of substrates associated with a cryogenic process, a constant
exposure to water runoff, and an intense process of geological weathering. The features are
significant annual and average daily temperature fluctuations and a high albedo of the soil
surface [15–18].
Of particular importance is the rockiness of chalk substrates with a high proportion of “skeletal” part (soil particles > 1 mm) compared to “fine grained aggregates”
(soil particles < 1 mm). In this regard, previous studies have shown that local soil formation
occurs on these substrates. A biological process does not occur in the entire volume of the
substrate but in cracks between large soil units in which small particles < 1 mm in size
are located. In these cracks, the accumulation and decomposition of plant residues, the
accumulation of various forms of nitrogen, and humidification run [19–22].
Figure 1 shows the profile of soddy-calcareous soil on the eluvium-chalk parent rock
in the ravine-gully complex.
Forests 2023, 14, 1492
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Figure 1. Soddy-calcareous soil profile on the eluvium chalk parent rock. Example of a soil profile
for ravine-gully complexes with chalk outcrops (Vatutino village, Valuysky district, Belgorod region.
Photo by V.I. Chernyavskih).
The specificity of the substrate determines the endemism and specificity of plants
capable of growing under poor development conditions [23–25]. In this regard, the forest
reclamation measures require a special approach in the choice of forest crops, cultivation
ff
technologies, and approaches to the study of factors affecting the growth and development
of forest crops, especially in the early stages of development.
Pine is an obligate mycotroph capable of entering into symbiosis with 200–300 species
of ectomycorrhizal fungi. A host plant, providing fungi with photosynthesis products,
is able to assimilate water and mineral nutrients due to ectomycorrhiza, and mycorrhiza
increases plant resistance to adverse environmental factors.
The most valuable forest culture is P. sylvestris—Scots pine, which has the widest
ecological amplitude and a large number of ecotypes [26–28]. Scots pine is of great importance for degraded landscapes due to a number of features and properties, such as
high polymorphism and high ecological amplitude. P. sylvestris is successfully growing in
various conditions. The pine culture is unique.
Of particular interest is the Cretaceous pine culture (P. sylvestris var. cretacea), an
ecotype formed on Cretaceous outcrops, which is a tertiary relic of the south of the Central Russian Upland,
preserved in the non-glacial zone during the last glaciation [29–33].
ff
Previously, the effectiveness of pine cultures in the creation of forest plantations on chalk
outcrops was shown [34–36]. However, the issue of the seed reproduction of Scots pine
(P. sylvestris)
ecotypes in culture and during
ffi
tt self-recovery on chalk outcrops has not been
sufficiently studied [37–39]. Particular attention should be paid to the regulation of tree
growth and development processes at the initial stages of ontogenesis, starting from seed
germination in connection with the nitrogen regime and humus state, closely related to the
aggregation and microelement composition of the substrate.
The accumulation of toxic HMs in ecosystems and in the soil and their transport
by watercourses are considered serious environmental problems that can have severe
negative consequences for plants, animals, and humans. A number of microelements,
Forests 2023, 14, 1492
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known as HMs, can have an extremely negative impact on plants and associated consortia
of microorganisms, contributing to the deterioration of a soil’s nutrient regime [40–42].
HMs can carry an environmental hazard [43,44]. HMs transformation, absorption by
plants of various ecotypes, species, and families, and the influence of nitrification inhibitors,
mineral fertilizers, soil microorganisms, ectomycorrhizal fungi, etc. are studied on various
soil types [45–49].
As a geographic region, the south of the Central Russian Upland has a number of
features that require special solutions to environmental problems associated with the
presence of harmful substances and HMs in the ecosystem. A close occurrence of iron ore
seams, agriculture, a spread of linear erosion, and a high dissection of the territory can lead
to the danger of HM accumulation in agricultural landscapes and their transfer through the
hydrographic network to water bodies and further along food chains. In this regard, the
formation of biological barriers is necessary to block the accumulation of HM in vegetation
in degraded areas with ongoing active erosion processes. Despite the fact that the carbonate
substrate is a powerful solid-phase barrier for HM [40], the described local soil evolution
features and a high level of local biochemical processes can somewhat change the known
laws of HM uptake by plants. A well-known mycotrophy of Pinus species significantly
enhances the ability of plants to absorb hard-to-reach elements from substrate [50–52].
In this regard, the use of biological preparations based on fungi and bacteria, as
well as their consortiums and associations with biologically active substances, makes it
possible to create technologies for the effective development of both herbaceous and woody
vegetation on low-productive lands [53–55]. It has been shown that biopreparations based
on a consortium of fungi from the order Glomales can increase the germination rate of seeds
of various Pinus species [56,57], as well as the survival rate of young plants [58–61].
However, an issue of HM uptake by P. sylvestris plants raises concern [62–64]. It has
been shown that HMs have a variety of negative effects on cytogenetic and biochemical
features and seed germination of P. sylvestris [65–67]. Some researchers consider P. sylvestris
a model plant for studying a coniferous plant’s adaptation to the action of HMs [68].
The reforestation of the Scots pine (P. sylvestris) and Cretaceous pine (P. sylvestris var.
cretacea) on the chalk outcrops using the biological preparations Biogor KM and MycoCrop®
is promising for soil phytoremediation from HMs.
The aim of the research was to assess HMs accumulation and biological absorption
in the seedlings of two ecotypes of P. sylvestris depending on the application of biopreparations based on a consortium of fungi from the order Glomales and bacteria of the genus
Bacillus. Biologically active substances, their metabolic products, and microelements were
studied during reforestation on the chalk outcrops. Reforestation with Scots pine and Cretaceous pine on the chalk outcrops can ensure soil phytoremediation from HMs. Prospects
for improvement of soil environment services via the Biogeosystem Technique (BGT*)
methodology have been taken into account [69].
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Research Area
The studies were carried out in the conditions of erosional landscapes in the south
of the Central Russian Upland, in ravine-gully complexes with chalk outcrops. Field
experiments were carried out on the territory of the Belgorod region (Russia). The region
is largely subject to water erosion, the spread of ravines, and gullies, with a territory
dissection coefficient of 1.4–1.7 km km−2 . A feature of the region is the spread of the
iron ore and steel industries, with the extraction of iron ore by open and closed methods,
intensive agricultural production, and transport. The region is characterized by a temperate
continental climate with an average annual air temperature of 5.4 ◦ C to 6.7 ◦ C and an
average annual rainfall of 465–550 mm, including 60–75 mm of precipitation during the
growing season.
Two ecotypes of a Scots pine were taken for the study: Scots pine (P. sylvestris),
the standard ecotype, and Cretaceous pine (Pinus sylvestris var. cretacea), a tertiary relic,
ffi
−
Forests 2023, 14, 1492
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which is considered a separate species and referred to as the ecotype Pinus sylvestris var.
cretacea [29,30,32]. Seeds for the experiment were selected from typical habitats in the
Belgorod region.
2.2. Object Conditions and Experiment Layout
Field studies were carried out on a chalk outcrop (50.452995◦ N; 37.736746◦ E) near
the Verkhniye Lubyanki village in the Volokonovsky district of Belgorod oblast on a
southwestern slope. The experimental plot was chosen on the left bank of the Oskol River
tributary. A soil substrate is an outcrop of eluvium chalk (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Area of experiment carry out (photo by V.I. Chernyavskih).
Weather conditions during the research period in 2018–2020 were characterized by
ff
different
amounts of precipitation (429–693 mm, 77.5–125.3% of the average annual norm)
С 2.9–4.1 ◦С
and elevated average annual temperatures (9.2–10.4 ◦ C,
C above the average annual
ffi
norm). A value of Selyaninov hydrothermal moisture coefficient
(HTC) K = R × Σ
10/Σt
(where R is the sum of precipitation, mm, for the period with temperatures above +10 ◦ C,
Σ
Σt
is the sum of temperatures above +10 ◦ C) ranged from 0.59 to 1.22 for the same period.
In a two-factor field experiment, we studied the accumulation of HMs in the vegetative
mass of seedlings of two Scots pine ecotypes: P. sylvestris and P. sylvestris var. cretacea,
depending on the seeds treatment with a biological product based on a consortium of
microorganisms and biologically active substances during sowing.
The general scheme of experiment is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Research design (2018–2020).
Pine Ecotype
(Factor A)
A1
A2
Pinus sylvestris L.
Pinus sylvestris var. cretacea (Kalen.) Kom.
Biological Product
(Factor B)
B1
distilled water (c)
B2
Biogor KM
B3
MycoCrop®
B1
distilled water (c)
B2
Biogor KM
B3
MycoCrop®
Forests 2023, 14, 1492
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The experiment was performed in triplicate.
In each replicate plot of the experiment, seeds were sown at a rate of 100 pcs. viable
seeds per 1 m2 . Thus, 200 seeds were sown per registration plot (2 m2 ), and 500 seeds were
sown per total plot (5 m2 ). In the spring of 2019, the number of seedlings, depending on
the options for the experiment, varied from 41.5 to 55.8 pcs per 1 m2 [70].
An accounting plot area of 2 m2 (1 m × 2 m) has been chosen as optimal for laboratory
and field experiments with coniferous crop seedlings based on previous studies [69]. The
total area of the replicate plot was 5 m2 (2.5 m × 2 m). The total area of the gross experiment
was 100 m2 . The total area of the experimental plots was 90 m2 . The total net accounting
area of the plots was 36 m2 .
By the autumn of 2020, depending on the variant of the experiment, the number of
seedlings in each study plot ranged from 11.3 to 27.8 pcs m−2 .
A mixed sample for determining HM content was formed from 20 biennial seedlings
for each repetition of the experiment in triplicate.
The studied biopreparations, Biogor KM (Russia) and MycoCrop® , are available on
the market.
Biogor KM (Russia) is a biological preparation on a liquid carrier based on a consortium
of bacteria of the genus Bacillus and mycorrhizal fungi of the genus Glomus. Metabolic
products, soluble salts, and salts of microelements act as catalysts for chemical reactions
in exudates and products. The composition includes six strains of microorganisms. The
method of application is a finely dispersed spraying of seeds before sowing.
MycoCrop® (Germany) is a preparation based on the fungi Glomus proliferum,
G. intraradice, G. etunicatum, and G. mosseae. A carrier is clay microgranules. The method of
application is an introduction into the soil together with the seeds during sowing.
2.3. Sampling and Research
Soil samples were taken before sowing at a depth of 20 cm with a drill using the
envelope method in five places in each plot, and a mixed sample in each plot was formed
for analysis. After preparing the mixed sample, the soil was brought to an air-dry state. By
sieving with a round cell d = 1 mm, the substrate was mechanically separated to the size
fraction less than 1 mm and to the skeletal part with a size of more than 1 mm, not affected
by the soil-forming process.
For the analysis, only the fine aggregate fraction of less than 1 mm, which accumulates in cracks between large soil units and plays a fundamental role in the growth and
development of plants on carbonate outcrops, was used. A fine aggregate fraction of less
than 1 mm was ground and used for further analysis.
The humus content in the soil was determined according to the Tyurin method in the
modification of TsINAO (Soils. Methods for determination of organic matter). For oxidation,
a solution of potassium dichromate in sulfuric acid was used. The trivalent chromium
equivalent to the content of organic matter was determined on a photoelectric colorimeter.
The photometry of the solutions was carried out in a cuvette with a transillumination
thickness of 2 cm relative to the reference solution, wavelength 590 nm [71].
The determination of the pH of the dense residue and aqueous extract was carried out
by the electrical conductivity method (Soils. Methods for determination of specific electrical
conductivity, pH, and solid residue of water extract). The extraction of water-soluble salts
from the soil was carried out with distilled water at a ratio of soil to water of 1:5, and the pH
was measured using a pH meter. The pH meter was adjusted using three buffer solutions
with pH 4.01, 6.86, and 9.18 prepared from standard titers [72].
The content of total nitrogen in the soil substrate was determined by photoelectrocolorimetry (Soils. Methods for determination of total nitrogen). An optical density of the
solution was measured at a wavelength of 655 nm relative to a zero solution in a cuvette
with an absorbing layer thickness of 1 cm. Based on the results, a calibration graph was
built [73].
Forests 2023, 14, 1492
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The content of the nitrate nitrogen was measured by the ionometric method (Soils.
Determination of nitrates by the ionometric method). Nitrates were extracted with a
solution of potassium alum with a mass fraction of 1% at a ratio of 1:2.5 between the mass
of the soil sample and the volume of the solution. The content of nitrates in the extract was
determined using an ion-selective electrode [74].
The nitrification ability of the substrate was determined by the Koravkov method. The
content of nitrates in the soil was measured by the ionometric method according to the
methodology described above. Then, the soil substrate was composted in a thermostat at a
temperature of 28 ◦ C and a humidity of 60% for 7 days. The content of the nitrates was
determined again. A difference between the initial content of nitrates in the substrate and
the content after composting is an indicator of nitrification ability. That is, an ability of the
substrate to accumulate nitrates under the influence of microbiological processes [75].
The content of HMs in soil and plant samples was determined in accordance with the
guidelines for the determination of HMs in soils of agricultural lands and products [76].
The Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb extractable (mobile) forms in the soil were determined by
atomic absorption spectroscopy with flame atomization. An extraction was carried out
from the separate samples in two repetitions. An ammonium acetate buffer solution (AAB)
with pH 4.8 was used as an extractant. A single soil sample mass was 10 g. The ratio
of soil to solution was 1:10. Used analytical lines: for Zn—213.8 nm, for Cu—324.7 nm,
Pb—217.0 nm, and for Cd—228.8 nm. The gas mixture was acetylene–air [76].
Biennial seedlings were used to determine HMs in plants. Plants were uprooted,
brought to an air-dry state, transferred to laboratory conditions, and analyzed in accordance
with the methods.
The HMs, Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb content in plant samples was determined in an ash
solution on an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The plant samples were mineralized
via dry ashing [77]. An acid extraction of a metal from the ash was carried out with diluted
nitric acid (1:1). The extract was kept in a boiling water bath for 30 min. The settled filtrate
was used for analysis. The determination of a metal in the ash solution was carried out on
an atomic absorption spectrophotometer with flame atomization according to the method
described above for the soil.
The biological absorption coefficient (BAC) was calculated as a ratio of a mobile form
of metal in the soil to its accumulation in the dry matter (DM) of plants. The whole batch of
two-year-old plant seedlings was used for analysis.
2.4. Data Processing and Statistical Analysis
The experimental data were statistically processed. An assessment of the reliability of
the results was fulfilled. A strength in the influence of organized factors was identified. The
method of analysis of two-factor complex variance (ANOVA) was used. The average values
(M), standard errors (m), and coefficients of variation (Cv , %) were calculated. Spearman’s
rank correlation (rs ) was used to identify the closeness of a relationship between the studied
traits. Calculations were carried out using Microsoft Excel 10.
3. Results
Accumulation of HMs in the Dry Mass of Seedlings of Two P. sylvestris Ecotypes
It should be noted that there is a slight variation in the indicators of the chemical
composition of the soil substrate. The coefficient of variation ranged from 1.43 to 9.85%,
which indicates the evenness of the area where the test was carried out.
Studies have not established a significant difference in the content of humus, various
forms of nitrogen, pH, or mobile forms of HMs in particles of soil substrate < 1 mm over
the period of study in different variants of the experiment. Data on the analysis of soil
substrate on average for 2019–2020 are shown in Table 2.
Forests 2023, 14, 1492
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Table 2. Chemical composition (mean ± error) of mechanical substratum particles less than 1 mm in
size in the chalk outcrop (2019–2020).
Parameter
M±m
Cv
lim
Mobile form Cu, mg
kg−1
8.12 ± 0.54
7.56
7.00–9.10
Mobile form Zn, mg
kg−1
4.28 ± 0.27
7.90
3.73–4.90
Mobile form Cd, mg
kg−1
0.11 ± 0.01
8.25
0.09–0.12
Mobile form Pb, mg
kg−1
1.28 ± 0.10
9.85
1.11–1.50
0.16 ± 0.01
7.82
0.15–0.18
14.46 ± 0.91
7.44
12.90–16.30
17.92 ± 1.11
7.44
12.90–16.30
Humus content, %
2.13 ± 0.12
7.28
1.90–2.43
pH value
7.84 ± 0.09
1.43
7.66–8.03
Ntotal content, %
N-NO3 Ccontent, mg
kg−1
Nitrification capacity, mg
kg−1
Note: M is the average value; m is the mean error; Cv is the coefficient of variation; lim are limiting values of
variation; n = 3.
HMs accumulation in the dry mass of seedlings against nutrition backgrounds is
shown in Table 3. It was found that the differences in the absolute values of HM content
were insignificant in the different ecotypes of P. sylvestris. The use of biological preparations
provides a significant increase in the content of HM in the dry mass of seedlings in both
pine ecotypes by 1.2–1.5 times. The value depended on the origin of the chemical element.
The absolute content of Cu increased most significantly.
Table 3. Accumulation of HMs in the dry mass of seedlings of two ecotypes of P. sylvestris L. using
biological preparations Biogor KM and MycoCrop® (mean ± error).
Pine Ecotype
Pinus sylvestris L.
Pinus sylvestris var.
cretacea (Kalen.)
Kom.
Accumulation of HMs, mg kg−1
Biological
Preparation
Cu
Zn
Cd
Pb
Water (c)
3.11 ± 0.03 A a
9.38 ± 0.28 B a
0.11 ± 0.01 C a
0.95 ± 0.05 B a
Biogor KM
4.58 ± 0.10 A b
12.27 ± 0.78 B b
0.17 ± 0.03 C b
1.13 ± 0.03 D b
MycoCrop®
4.67 ± 0.10 A b
12.55 ± 0.31 B b
0.14 ± 0.01 C b
1.14 ± 0.04 D b
Water (c)
3.24 ± 0.06 A a
10.11 ± 0.14 B a
0.12 ± 0.01 C a
0.99 ± 0.01 D a
Biogor KM
4.79 ± 0.11 A b
13.57 ± 0.11 B b
0.17 ± 0.03 C b
1.07 ± 0.05 D a
MycoCrop®
4.54 ± 0.14 A b
13.31 ± 0.12 B b
0.16 ± 0.01 C b
1.07 ± 0.06 D a
Note: In every cell of the table are presented the average value (first digit) and mean error (second digit).
Different capital letters describe statistically significant differences between HMs (in rows). Different lowercase
letters describe statistically significant differences between biological preparations Biogor KM and MycoCrop®
(in column). Tukey HSD test, p < 0.05; n = 3.
A two-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to assess the influence of the
studied factors “pine ecotype” and “biological product” on the resulting trait “accumulation
of HMs in plants”. The results are shown in Table 4. The biological preparations Biogor
KM and MycoCrop® most strongly affect the content of HMs in the dry mass of pine
seedlings. A significant difference between the ecotypes of P. sylvestris was established
only in the content of Zn in the dry mass. Among the HMs, the most strongly random
factors determined the accumulation of Cd (the strength of influence of random factors
h2 x = 34.6%) and Pb (the strength of influence of random factors h2 x = 21.7%) in plants.
Forests 2023, 14, 1492
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Table 4. Results of two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the influence of various factors on the
accumulation of HMs in seedlings of two ecotypes of P. sylvestris L. on chalk outcrops.
Source of
Variation
Resulting Trait
Accumulation of Cu in
plants, mg kg−1 DM
Accumulation of Zn in
plants, mg kg−1 DM
Accumulation of Cd in
plants, mg kg−1 DM
Accumulation of Pb in
plants, mg kg−1 DM
s2
h2 x
D
n−1
Total
8.98
17
100.0
Reps
0.03
2
0.4
Random
0.19
10
0.02
A
0.02
1
0.02
1.2
5
0.3
Ff
F0.05
2.1
B
8.63
2
4.32
224.0 *
4.1
96.1
A×B
0.10
2
0.05
2.5
4.1
1.1
Total
48.20
17
Reps
1.34
2
Random
2.25
10
100.0
2.8
0.22
4.7
A
3.88
1
3.88
17.3 *
5
8.1
B
40.43
2
20.21
89.9 *
4.1
83.9
0.15
0. 7
8.8
A×B
0.30
2
Total
0.019
17
100.0
0.6
Reps
0.001
2
7.0
Random
0.007
10
0.001
A
0.001
1
0.001
0.9
8.8
3.2
B
0.010
2
0.005
7.8 *
4.1
54.2
A×B
0.000
2
0.000
0.1
8.8
0.9
Total
0.129
17
100.0
Reps
0.010
2
7.9
Random
0.028
10
0.003
A
0.004
1
0.004
1.6
5
3.4
B
0.074
2
0.037
13.2 *
4.1
57.2
A×B
0.013
2
0.006
2.3
4.1
9.8
34.6
21.7
Note. Factor A—“pine ecotype”; factor B—“biological product”; D is the sum of squared deviations (deviant);
s2 —dispersion; n − 1 is the number of degrees of freedom; h2 x —the strength of influence on the effective attribute;
*—statistically significant differences; n = 3.
Table 5 shows the biological absorption coefficient (BAC) for TMs. It was found
that BAC increased against the background of the biological preparations Biogor KM and
MycoCrop® in both studied ecotypes of P. sylvestris.
A significant increase in BAC was found for Cu in the ecotype P. sylvestris against
the background of biological preparations Biogor KM and MycoCrop® by 1.29–1.30 times,
in the ecotype P. sylvestris var. cretacea by 1.49–1.55 times; BAC Zn increased in the dry
matter of P. sylvestris against the background of biological preparations Biogor KM and
MycoCrop® by 1.3 times, and in P. sylvestris var. cretacea by 1.39–1.41 times.
The trend of higher uptake of all studied HMs by the P. sylvestris var. cretacea ecotype
compared to the P. sylvestris ecotype was established against the background of the use
of biological preparations Biogor KM and MycoCrop® . Under comparable conditions of
a field experiment, when using biological preparations Biogor KM and MycoCrop® , a
significant excess of BAC in P. sylvestris var. cretacea plants compared to P. sylvestris was
found only for Cu.
The results of a two-factor analysis of variance for HMs and an assessment of the
strength of the influence of factors are shown in Table 6.
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Table 5. BAC of HMs uptake by seedlings of two P. sylvestris L. ecotypes under different biological
preparations, Biogor KM and MycoCrop® , in the chalk substrate (mean ± error).
Pine Ecotype
Pinus sylvestris L.
Pinus sylvestris var.
cretacea (Kalen.)
Kom.
HM
Biological
Preparation
Cu
Zn
Cd
Pb
Water (c)
0.41 ± 0.03 A a
2.26 ± 0.07 B a
1.02 ± 0.13 C a
0.80 ± 0.12 C a
Biogor KM
0.54 ± 0.02 A b
2.95 ± 0.26 B b
1.56 ± 0.22 C b
0.93 ± 0.04 D b
MycoCrop®
0.53 ± 0.02 A b
3.02 ± 0.19 B b
1.26 ± 0.06 C b
0.81 ± 0.05 D a
Water (c)
0.40 ± 0.01 A a
2.23 ± 0.05 B a
0.99 ± 0.07 C a
0.73 ± 0.02 D a
Biogor KM
0.62 ± 0.02 A b
3.11 ± 0.20 B b
1.60 ± 0.16 C b
0.85 ± 0.08 D b
MycoCrop®
0.57 ± 0.03 A b
3.14 ± 0.16 B b
1.53 ± 0.16 C b
0.88 ± 0.09 D b
Note: In every cell of the table are presented the average value (first digit) and mean error (second digit). Different
capital letters describe statistically significant differences between HMs (in rows). Different lowercase letters
describe statistically significant differences between biological preparations Biogor KM and MycoCrop® (in the
column). Tukey HSD test, p < 0.05; n = 3.
It has been established that the BAC of Cu, Zn, and Cd values are most strongly
influenced by the studied factor “biological preparation”, with the strength of influence,
respectively, h2 x (Cu) = 82.9%; h2 x (Zn) = 78.7%; h2 x (Cd) = 63.9%. There was no significant
effect of organized factors on the BAC Pb, which has depended to a greater extent on
random factors. A significant effect of the ecotype on the BAC was revealed only for Cu.
Table 6. ANOVA two-way analysis of variance of HMs uptake by seedlings of P. sylvestris L. on
chalk outcrops.
Resulting
Trait
BAC Cu
BAC Zn
BAC Cd
Source of
Variation
s2
Ff
F0.05
h2 x
D
n−1
Total
0.127
17
100.0
Reps
0.001
2
0.6
Random
0.010
10
0.001
A
0.005
1
0.005
4.9
5
3.8
B
0.106
2
0.053
53.0 *
4.1
82.9
A×B
0.006
2
0.003
3.1
4.1
4.9
Total
3.335
17
100.0
Reps
0.000
2
0.0
Random
0.654
10
0.065
A
0.027
1
0.027
0.4
8.8
0.8
B
2.623
2
1.312
20.1 *
4.1
78.7
A×B
0.031
2
0.015
0.2
8.8
0.9
Total
1.634
17
100.0
Reps
0.056
2
3.4
Random
0.424
10
0.042
A
0.036
1
0.036
0.9
8.8
2.2
B
1.044
2
0.522
12.3 *
4.1
63.9
A×B
0.075
2
0.037
0.9
8.8
4.6
7.8
19.6
25.9
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Table 6. Cont.
Resulting
Trait
BAC Pb
Source of
Variation
s2
Ff
F0.05
h2 x
D
n−1
Total
0.198
17
100.0
Reps
0.045
2
22.6
Random
0.085
10
0.009
A
0.003
1
0.003
0.3
8.8
1.4
B
0.046
2
0.023
2.7
4.1
23.4
A×B
0.019
2
0.010
1.1
4.1
9.7
43.0
Note. Factor A—“pine ecotype”; factor B—“sowing time”; D is the sum of squared deviations (deviant);
s2 —dispersion; n − 1 is the number of degrees of freedom; h2 x is the strength of influence on the effective
attribute; *—statistically significant differences; n = 3.
Table 7 shows a strong and medium-positive relationship between the accumulation
of HMs and the corresponding BAC and nitrification capacity of the soil substrate. Depending on the HM, Spearman’s correlation coefficients fluctuated in the absolute values
(rs = 0.610–0.744, p < 0.05) and in the value of the BAC (rs = 0.427–0.765, p < 0.05).
Table 7. Relationship between the accumulation of HMs, corresponding BAC, and nitrification
capacity of the soil substrate.
HM Accumulation, mg kg−1
BAC
Soil Chemical and
Biological Indicators
Cu
Zn
Cd
Pb
Cu
Zn
Cd
Pb
Nitrification capacity, mg kg−1
0.744 *
0.662 *
0.787 *
0.610 *
0.543 *
0.549 *
0.765 *
0.227
N–NO3 content, mg kg−1
0.132
0.006
0.067
−0.222
−0.031
-0.109
−0.087
−0.293
Ntotal content. %
0.065
0.083
−0.045
−0.327
−0.251
−0.024
0.013
0.017
Humus content, %
−0.041
−0.178
−0.057
−0.103
−0.117
0.070
0.069
0.098
0.090
0.050
0.025
0.220
−0.146
−0.079
−0.126
−0.044
pH
*—statistically significant correlation; n = 3.
4. Discussion
It is necessary to develop methods that provide an understanding of the trends in
the genotype-environmental interactions of plant organisms with the environment and,
especially, the highly toxic chemicals in the environment. The genetic features of coniferous
plants and their diversity make it possible to take into account a wide range of negative
factors that limit the favorable growth of forest crops in various environmental conditions.
At present, phytoremediation, i.e., the fixation and neutralization of HMs in plants,
is considered to be an environmentally and economically efficient method [78]. In this
regard, our approach is consistent with a general global trend in research on the interaction
of plants and HMs, which is especially relevant in a hydrographic network of erosion
landscapes. The use of various pine ecotypes allows for choosing the right directions in the
study of the soil–microorganism–plant system.
In the study, we developed environmentally and economically efficient afforestation measures based on the natural mechanisms of absorption, biotransformation, and
bioaccumulation of pollutants in plants [79].
The studies showed that the Scots pine (P. sylvestris), including the Cretaceous
(P. sylvestris var. cretacea) one, can become more important for degraded landscapes using
the biological preparations Biogor KM and MycoCrop® . This helps to utilize the useful properties of P. sylvestris—high polymorphism and high ecological amplitude—for
successfully growing in the conditions of the chalk outcrops.
Even though the Scots pine (P. sylvestris), as an obligate mycotroph, enters into symbiosis with many ectomycorrhizal fungi species [80,81], the biological preparations Biogor
Forests 2023, 14, 1492
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KM and MycoCrop® improve this capability. The preparations provide fungi with more
photosynthesis products, and a host plant mycorrhiza improves plant resistance to poor
environments [52,61,82,83].
Reliable data have been obtained showing that mycorrhiza protects pine seedlings from
soil pathogens and nematodes, starting from the first stages of plant ontogenesis [84,85]. In
this regard, treatment of pine seedlings with spores of ectomycorrhizal fungi increases the
survival rate of plants, especially during the first years of life [86,87].
The formation of an ectomycorrhiza and the symbiotic relationships with beneficial
microflora are necessary conditions for a pine seedling’s survival at the early stages of
ontogenesis [81]. In this regard, our data agree with other authors on the need to treat
the seeds of P. sylvestris with the biological preparations Biogor KM and MycoCrop®
based on mycorrhizal fungi. This should become an obligatory method for increasing
reforestation’s efficiency.
With the use of biological preparations Biogor KM and MycoCrop® based on a
consortium of microorganisms during sowing, a greater amount of HMs (Cu, Zn, Cd,
and Pb) is accumulated in the Scots pine (P. sylvestris) seedlings. This process occurs
against a background of a significant increase in the nitrification capacity of the fine aggregate chalk substrate (soil aggregates < 1 mm). Cretaceous pine culture (P. sylvestris var.
cretacea) accumulates a larger amount of HMs compared to P. sylvestris, indicating a greater
symbiotrophy of P. sylvestris var. cretacea on carbonate outcrops.
In previous studies conducted on deciduous and coniferous species, it was suggested
that a ramified ectotrophic mycorrhiza formation in the soil prevents the entry of HMs
into plants [88]. A strong negative correlation was established between the abundance of
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the rhizosphere and the HM content in the plants.
However, studies conducted with various coniferous crops have shown that ectomycorrhiza does not have selectivity for trace elements. Simultaneously with the absorption
of the necessary amount of mineral substances, the transport and absorption of HMs ions
increase [48]. A simultaneous treatment with arbuscular mycorrhiza and microorganisms
enhances the effect of HMs absorption and their accumulation in biomass. This increases
the stress resistance of host plants to the toxic effects of HMs [89]. These data are consistent
with ours: when plants of both P. sylvestris and P. sylvestris var. cretacea ecotypes were
treated with the biopreparations Biogor KM and MycoCrop® based on a consortium of
microorganisms, along with an increase in the content of HMs in the vegetative mass,
survival increased.
An increase in the nitrifying ability of substrates when using biological preparations
Biogor KM and MycoCrop® , as well as a high positive relationship between the accumulation of HMs in seedlings and the nitrifying ability of the fine aggregate substrate, confirms
the fact of an increase in biological activity in the rhizosphere on a carbonate substrate.
Previously, this process has been repeatedly observed in other species—Galega orientalis
Lam. and Medicago varia Mart. [90,91].
There is a close Spearman correlation between the BAC of Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb in
the dry matter of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings and the nitrification capacity of
substrate (rs = 0.610–0.744, p < 0.05), as well as the relationship between the nitrification
capacity and the value of the BAC of Cu, Zn, and Cd (rs = 0.543–0.765, p < 0.05). No
relationship was found between the BAC of Pb and other indicators.
Improved environmental services for Scots pine (P. sylvestris) growth can be achieved
using the Biogeosystem Technique (BGT*) methodology [68,92,93]. The BGT* application in
the form of intra-soil mechanical processing for soil structure and architecture improvement,
intra-soil pulse continuous-discrete watering, and intra-soil matter recycling is capable of
enhancing the soil nitrification ability [94], stabilizing and increasing the soil organic matter
content [95–97], ensuring the HM intra-soil passivation [98], and providing a long-term
efficient nutrition and stimulation function of nanomaterials, polymicrobial biofilms, and
humic substances [99–101].
Forests 2023, 14, 1492
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5. Conclusions
A result of the study is an improved development of the Scots pine (P. sylvestris),
including Cretaceous pine (P. sylvestris var. cretacea) seedlings, treated with the biological
preparations Biogor KM, created in Russia on the basis of a consortium of bacteria of
the genus Bacillus and mycorrhizal fungi of the genus Glomus, their metabolic products
and microelements, and MycoCrop® . These treatments provided a statistically significant
increase in the absorption of Cu, Zn, and Cd by Scots pine seedlings, a long-term HMs
concentration in the wood, and reliable HMs removal from the soil. We assess this as an
important phytoameliorative effect. Biogor KM and MycoCrop® increased the nitrification
capacity of the soil at a statistically significant level. The use of Biogor KM enhances Scots
pine growth and HMs transfer to a seedling at the same level as MycoCrop® , developed in
Germany, provides.
The significance of the work is the possibility of providing reliable reforestation with
Scots pine (P. sylvestris) and Cretaceous pine (P. sylvestris var. cretacea) on the chalk outcrops
using the biological preparations Biogor KM, MycoCrop® , and BGT* methodology and
ensuring soil phytoremediation from HMs.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, V.M.K., A.A.Z., M.G.B. and V.P.K.; data curation, E.V.D.,
V.G.K., I.V.Z., S.S.M. and M.V.B.; formal analysis, B.B.K., I.V.Z., V.A.C. and S.S.M.; funding acquisition,
A.P.G., M.A.S. and L.V.P.; investigation, V.I.C., E.V.D., L.D.S. and V.G.K.; methodology, V.M.K. and
V.I.C.; project administration, A.P.G.; resources, A.P.G. and L.V.P.; software, L.D.S., B.B.K. and V.A.C.;
supervision, A.A.Z., S.S.M. and V.A.C.; validation, L.L.S., E.V.D., L.R.V. and M.V.B.; visualization,
V.I.C., I.V.Z. and M.V.B.; writing—original draft, V.G.K. and V.I.C.; writing—review and editing,
M.G.B., M.A.S., L.L.S., L.R.V. and V.P.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: The research was carried out within the framework of the State task on the topic “Immobilization of trace elements by the products of interactions of layered silicates with soil organic matter
and microorganisms” (Additional Agreement No. № 073-03-2023-030/2 from 14 February 2023 to
Agreement № 073-00030-23-02 from 13 February 2023).
Data Availability Statement: Data are available on request to the authors.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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