Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Estimating the absorptive root area in Norway spruce by using the common direct and indirect earth impedance methods

  • Regular Article
  • Published:
Plant and Soil Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Aims

Estimates of root absorption magnitude are needed for the balanced management of forest ecosystems, but no methods able to work on the whole tree and stand level were available. Modified earth impedance method was developed recently and here it was tested, by comparing the results with those obtained by combination of several classical methods.

Methods

We used direct (soil cores, scanning and microscopy) and indirect (sap flow patterns and modified earth impedance) methods in an attempt to estimate the absorptive root area indexes (RAI) at two sites of about 25 and 40-years-old Norway spruce. We considered the geometric surfaces of all scanned fine roots to be equal to the fine root absorptive area (RAI scan ). To estimate the potentially physically permeable area of fine roots, we microscopically evaluated the point of secondary xylem appearance and calculated the geometric area of root portions with primary structure (RAI micro ). We termed the area of electrically conductive root surface as the active (ion) absorptive area (RAI mei ) and measured its extent by the modified earth impedance (MEI) method.

Results

The highest values for absorptive root areas at the two experimental sites we obtained with the scanning method (RAI scan was considered to be 100%), followed by the RAI micro (51%) and RAI mei (32%). RAImei reached about 2/3 of RAImicro. The surface area of the ectomycorrhizal hyphae was an order of magnitude larger than that of all fine roots, but the MEI did not measure such increase.

Conclusions

We showed that the absorptive root area, indirectly estimated by the MEI, provides consistent results that approach the values obtained for fine roots with a primary structure estimated by traditional direct methods. The similar range of the values for the absorptive root surface area obtained by microscopy and by the MEI method indicates that this method is feasible and that it could be used to determine the extent of active absorptive root surface areas in forests.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Agerer R (2001) Exploration types of ectomycorrhizae: a proposal to classify ectomycorrhizal mycelia systems according to their patterns of differentiation and putative ecological importance. Mycorrhiza 11:107–114

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al Afas N, Marroni N, Zavalloni C, Ceulemans R (2008) Growth and production of a short-rotation coppice culture of poplar—IV: Fine root characteristics of five poplar clones. Biomass Bioenerg 32:494–502

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aubrecht L, Staněk Z, Koller J (2006) Electric measurement of the absorbing surfaces in whole tree roots by the earth impedance method - I. Theory. Tree Physiol 26:1105–1112

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Børja I, de Wit HA, Steffenrem A, Majdi H (2008) Stand age and fine root biomass, distribution and morphology in a Norway spruce chronosequence in southeast Norway. Tree Physiol 28:773–784

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowen GD (1973) Mineral nutrition in ectomycorrhizae. In: Marks GC, Kozlowski TT (eds) Ectomycorrhiza. Academia Press, New York, pp 151–205

    Google Scholar 

  • Brunner I, Godbold DL (2007) Tree roots in a changing world. J For Res 12:78–82

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butler AJ, Barbier N, Čermák J, Koller J, Thornily C, McEvoy C, Nicoll B, Perks M, Grace J, Meir P (2010) Estimates and relationships between aboveground and belowground resource exchange surface areas in Sitka spruce managed forest. Tree Physiol 30:705–714

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cao Y, Repo T, Silvennoinen R, Lehto T, Pelkonen P (2010) An appraisal of the electrical resistance method for assessing root surface area. J Exp Bot 61:2491–2497

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Čermák J and Nadezhdina N (2011) Field studies of whole-tree leaf and roots distribution and water relations in several European forests. Chapter 4 in: Bredemeier M, Cohen S, Godbold DL, Lode E, Pichler V, Schleppi P (eds.) Forest Management and the Water Cycle. Ecological studies, 2011, Vol.212, Part 1, e-ISBN 978-90-481-9834_4

  • Čermák J, Nadezhdina N (1998) Sapwood as the scaling parameter - defining according to xylem water content or radial pattern of sap flow? Ann Sci For 55:509–521

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Čermák J, Nadezhdina N (2009) Application of sap flow technique for characterizing the whole tree architecture, especially root distribution. 7th International Workshop on Sap Flow, Seville (Spain) 21–24 October 2008. Acta Hortic 846:219–228

    Google Scholar 

  • Čermák J, Hruška J, Martinková M, Prax A (2000) Urban tree root systems and their survival near houses analyzed using ground penetrating radar and sap flow techniques. Plant Soil 219:103–115

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Čermák J, Kučera J, Nadezhdina N (2004) Sap flow measurements with two thermodynamic methods, flow integration within trees and scaling up from sample trees to entire forest stands. Trees-Struct Funct 18:529–546

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Čermák J, Ulrich R, Staněk Z, Koller J, Aubrecht L (2006) Electric measurement of the absorbing surfaces in whole tree roots by the earth impedance method - II. Verification based on allometric relationships and root severing experiments. Tree Physiol 26:1113–1121

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Čermák J, Nadezhdina N, Meiresonne L, Ceulemans R (2008) Scots pine root distribution derived from radial sap flow patterns in stems of large leaning trees. Plant Soil 305:61–75

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chung HH, Kramer PJ (1975) Absorption of water and 32P through suberized and unsuberized roots of loblolly pine. Can J For Res 5:229–235

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cudlín P, Chmelíková E (1999) Fine root regenerative potential of mountain Norway spruce under pollution impact. Phyton 39:143–147

    Google Scholar 

  • Dědek L, Dědková J (2006) Electromagnetism. VUTIUM, Brno

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuka J and Havelka B (1965) Electricity and magnetism. SPN Praha

  • Gebauer R, Martinková M (2005a) Structure and functions of the types of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) roots. J For Sci 51:305–311

    Google Scholar 

  • Gebauer R, Martinková M (2005b) Root histology and morphology (in Czech). In: Neruda J (ed) Methods for improved determination of disturbances of tree roots in spruce stands by forwarders. I. Selection and verification of methods. Folia Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, Brno, pp 83–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Godbold DL, Fritz HW, Cudlín P, Bonifacio E (2003) Fine root status and element contents in three stands of Norway spruce in the Krkonoše mountains. Ekol Bratislava 22:91–94

    Google Scholar 

  • Gronský R,Cudlín P, Chmelíková E and Havlíček F (2005) Quantitative and qualitative analysis of Norway spruce fine roots using digital image analysis (in Czech). In: Klimešová J, Šmilauerová M and Jakrlová J (Eds.), Podzemní orgány rostlin (Underground plant organs), Zprávy ČSB, Praha Materiály 20, pp. 141–145

  • Guo D, Mengxue X, Xing W, Wenjing C, Ying L, Zhengquan W (2008) Anatomical traits associated with absorption and mycorrhizal colonization are linked to root branch order in twenty-three Chinese temperate tree species. New Phytol 180:673–683

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanika L (1975) Theory of electromagnetic field. SNTL/Alfa Praha

  • Harley JL, Smith SE (1983) Mycorrhizal symbiosis. Academic Press, London, 483 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Hishi T (2007) Heterogeneity of individual roots within the fine root architecture: causal links between physiological and ecosystem functions. J For Res 12:126–133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Janssens IA, Sampson DA, Čermák J, Meiresonne L, Riguzzi F, Overloop S, Ceulemans R (1999) Above- and belowground phytomass and carbon storage in a Belgian Scots pine stand. Ann For Sci 56:81–90

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Konôpka B, Takáčová E (2010) Effect of liming and NPK-fertilization on the soil and fine roots in a Norway spruce stand. Ekol Bratislava 29:28–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Kramer PJ, Bullock HC (1966) Seasonal variations in the proportions of suberized and unsuberized roots of tree in the relation to the absorption of water. Am J Bot 53:200–204

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar P, Hallgren SW, Enstone DE, Peterson CA (2007) Root anatomy of Pinus taeda L.: seasonal and environmental effects on development in seedlings. Trees-Struct Funct 21:693–706

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leuschner C, Coners H, Icke R, Hartmann K, Effinger ND, Schreiber L (2003) Chemical composition of the periderm in relation to in situ water absorption rates of oak, beech and spruce fine roots. Ann For Sci 60:763–772

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacFall JS, Johnson GA, Kramer PJ (1991) Comparative water uptake by roots of different ages in seedlings of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.). New Phytol 119:551–560

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Majdi H, Pregitzer K, Moren AS, Nylund JE, Agren GI (2005) Measuring fine root turnover in forest ecosystems. Plant Soil 276:1–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marjanović Ž, Nehls U (2008) Ectomycorrhiza and water transport. In: Varma A (ed) Mycorrhiza. Springer, Heildelberg, pp 149–159

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • McCrady RL, Comerford NB (1998) Morphological and anatomical relationships of loblolly pine fine roots. Trees-Struct Funct 12:431–437

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKenzie EB, Peterson CA (1995a) Root browning in Pinus banksiana Lamn. and Eucalyptus plularis Sm. 1. Anatomy and permeability of the white and tannin zones. Bot Acta 108:127–137

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McKenzie EB, Peterson CA (1995b) Root browning in Pinus banksiana Lamn. and Eucalyptus plularis Sm. 1. Anatomy and permeability of the cork zone. Bot Acta 108:138–143

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nadezhdina N and Čermák J (2000) Responses of sap flow rate along tree stem and coarse root radii to changes of water supply. In: Stokes A. (ed) The supporting roots of trees and woody plants: form, function and physiology. Klouwen Acad Publ, pp 227–238

  • Nadezhdina N and Čermák J (2003) Instrumental methods for studies of structure and function of root systems in large trees. Proc. of the 5th International Workshop on Field Techniques for Environmental Physiology, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain, 16–22 March 2003, pp. 23–33

  • Nadezhdina N, Čermák J, Nadezhdin V (1998) Heat field deformation method for sap flow measurements. In: Čermák J. and Nadezhdina N. (eds) Proc. of the 4th International workshop on measuring sap flow in intact plants. ˇŽidlochovice, Czech Republic, pp. 72–92

  • Nadezhhdina N, Čermák J, Gašpárek J, Nadezhdin V, Prax A (2006a) Vertical and horizontal water redistribution within Norway spruce (Picea abies) roots in the Moravian Upland. Tree Physiol 26:1277–1288

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nadezhdina N, Čermák J, Neruda J, Prax A, Ulrich R, Nadezhdin V, Gašpárek J, Pokorný E (2006b) Roots under the load of heavy machinery in spruce trees. Eur J For Res 125:111–128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nadezhdina N, Čermák J, Meiresonne L, Ceulemans R (2007) Transpiration of Scots pine in Flanders growing on soil with irregular substratum. For Ecol Manag 243:1–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nadezhdina N, Prax A, Čermák J, Nadezhdin V, Ulrich R, Neruda J, Schlaghamersky A (2012) Spruce roots under heavy machinery loading in two different soil types. For Ecol Manag 282:46–52

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Němec B, Bartoš JI, Hršel J, Chaloupka O, Lhotský M, Luxová P, Milovidov J, Nečásek J, Pazourková Z, Pazourek J, Sosnová V (1962) Botanical microtechnic (in Czech). Československá Akademie Věd, Prague, pp 60–414

    Google Scholar 

  • Neruda J, Adamčík L, Culek I, Čermák J, Gašpárek J, Gebauer R, Knott R, Martinková M, Naděždina N, Naděždin V, Ulrich R, Valenta J, Vavříček D, Pokorný E, Prax A, Aubrecht L, Staněk Z, Koller J and Hruška J (2008) Determination of damage to soil and root system of forest trees by the operation of logging machines. Monograph. Mendel Univ.of Agriculture and Forestry in Brno (Czech Republic), Tribune EU s.r.o., 138 p

  • Persson H, Ahlström K (1991) The effects of liming and fertilization on fine root growth. Water Air Soil Pollut 54:365–379

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson CA, Enstone DE, Taylor JH (1999) Pine root structure and its potential significance for root function. Plant Soil 217:205–213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plíva K (1984) Typology classification of forest in Czechoslovakia (In Czech). Institute of Forest Management, Brandýs nad Labem, 90 p

  • Prasad BK (1986) Staining technique in botany. International book distributors, DEHRA DUN, India, 107 p

  • Pregitzer KS (2002) Fine roots of trees: a new perspective. New Phytol 154:267–273

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pregitzer KS (2008) Tree root architecture: form and function. New Phytol 180:562–564

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Puhe J, Persson H and Borjesson I (1986) Wurzelwachstum und Wurzelschaden in skandinavischen Nadelwaldern. AFY: 488–492

  • Read DJ (1992) The mycorrhizal mycelium. In: Allen MF (ed) Mycorrhizal functioning: An integrated plant-fungal process. Chapman and Hall, New York, pp 102–133

    Google Scholar 

  • Read DJ, Boyd R (1986) Water relations of mycorrhizal fungi and their host plants. In: Ayres P, Boddy L (eds) Water, fungi and plants. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 287–303

    Google Scholar 

  • Rewald B, Ephrath JE, Rachmilevitch S (2011) A root is a root?Water uptake rates of Citrus root orders. Plant Cell Environ 34:33–42

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rewald B, Raveh E, Gendler T, Ephrath JE, Rachmilevitch S (2012) Phenotypic plasticity and water flux rates of Citrus root orders under salinity. J Exp Bot. doi:10.1093/jxb/err457

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rousseau JVD, Sylvia DM, Fox AJ (1994) Contribution of ectomycorrhiza to the potential nutrient-absorbing surface of pine. New Phytol 128:639–644

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schack-Kirchner H, Wilpert K, Hildebrand EE (2000) The spatial distribution of soil hyphae in structured spruce-forest soils. Plant Soil 224:195–205

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schulze ED, Beck E, Müller-Hohenstein K (2005) Plant Ecology. Springer, Berlin-Heidelberg, 702 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Smit AL, Bengough AG, Engels C, van Noordwijk M, Pellerin S and van de Geijn SC (Eds.) (2000) Root methods. A handbook. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. 587 p

  • Stanĕk Z (1997) Physical aspects of resistance measurement in plants and their ecological applications (in Czech). Assoc. Prof. Thesis, Department of Physics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, 166 p

  • Stracton JA (1961) Theory of electromagnetic field. SNTL, Praha

    Google Scholar 

  • Urban J, Bequet R, Mainiero R (2011) Assessing the applicability of the earth impedance method for in situ studies of the tree root systems. J Exp Bot 62:1857–1869

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Waisel Y, Eshel A and Kafkafi U (2002) Plant roots the hidden half. Third edition. Printed in the USA. pp. 295–323

  • Wang ZQ, Guo DL, Wang XR, Gu JC, Mei L (2006) Fine root architecture, morphology, and biomass of different branch orders of two Chinese temperate tree species. Plant Soil 288:155–171

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wells CE, Eissenstat DM (2003) Beyond the roots of young seedlings: the influence of age and order on fine root physiology. J Plant Growth Reg 21:324–334

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xiao CW, Curiel Yuste J, Janssens IA, Roskams P, Nachtergale L, Carrara A, Sanchez BY, Ceulemans R (2003) Above- and belowground biomass and net primary production in a 73-year-old Scots pine forest. Tree Physiol 23:505–516

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zlatník A (1976) Forest phytocoenology (in Czech). National Agricultural Publishing House (SZN), Praha, 496 p

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Eva Chmelíková for the excellent technical assistance in in handling the roots and to Valeriy Nadyezhdin for his expert use of the sap flow instrumentation. We thank to funds from the Research Intention of Czech MSMT 6215648902 project, Research Centre Czech Globe (CZ.1.05/1.1.00/02.0073), COST projects No.1P05OC077 and OC10023, and the EEA Norwegian Financial Mechanism project No. A/CZ0046/2/0009.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Forest Botany, Dendrology and Geobiocenology, Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry, Zemědělská 3, 61300, Brno, Czech Republic

    Jan Čermák, Roman Gebauer, Milena Martinková, Jindřich Neruda & Nadezhda Nadezhdina

  2. Institute of Systems Biology and Ecology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Na Sádkách 7, 370 05, České Budějovice, Czech Republic

    Pavel Cudlín

  3. Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431, Ås, Norway

    Isabella Børja

  4. Department of Physics, Czech Technical University, Technická 2, 16627, Prague, Czech Republic

    Zdeněk Stanĕk & Jan Koller

Authors
  1. Jan Čermák
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Pavel Cudlín
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Roman Gebauer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Isabella Børja
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Milena Martinková
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Zdeněk Stanĕk
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Jan Koller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Jindřich Neruda
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Nadezhda Nadezhdina
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jan Čermák.

Additional information

Responsible Editor: Peter J. Gregory.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Čermák, J., Cudlín, P., Gebauer, R. et al. Estimating the absorptive root area in Norway spruce by using the common direct and indirect earth impedance methods. Plant Soil 372, 401–415 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-013-1740-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-013-1740-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation