Green + There has never been a greater need for the people planning and running our cities, as well as the residents who pay for it, to understand the critical significance of green space in our urban environment. Working with green is a way to respond to the true needs of people when designing buildings, the public realm, transport and communications infrastructure. This is a goal to which every professional can apply themselves. These guidelines are a starting point so interested parties can come together internationally and discuss techniques for urban development.
www.thegreencity.com
The Green City Guidelines Techniques for a healthy liveable city Michelle de Roo | landscape and urban designer
Green +
Foreword Welcome to this volume of The Green City Guidelines – the first of its kind! There has never been a greater need for the people planning and running our cities, as well as the residents themselves, to understand the critical significance of green space in our urban environment. Working with green is a way to respond to the true needs of people when designing buildings, the public realm, transport and communications infrastructure. This is a goal to which every professional can apply themselves. These guidelines are a starting point so interested parties can come together internationally and discuss techniques for urban development. What this set of guidelines shows is that the knowledge is already there. The theory, substantiated by empirical scientific research, proves that green infrastructure is a key element in constructing living spaces that work. This is powerful information at a time when budgets are being cut and every cost scrutinised. This set of guidelines and techniques will demonstrate to practitioners that investment and maintenance in green infrastructure is not a cost but brings value from a social, economic and environmental point of view – in summary the ‘Green City Philosophy’.
The Hague, NL | Fotobureau Hendriksen/Valk
A group of leading researchers and practitioners have contributed to this volume and it is to be used as a stimulus for the global adoption of the Green City Philosophy. This book is the beginning of a process that could see green infrastructure responses fully incorporated into policy and practice – in effect become a ‘universal green city standard’. The authors and contributors hope that you will be part of that process. The ‘guidelines’ project has been made possible with funding from the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation (EL&I) and with the active support and co-operation of the Dutch nursery stock industry, Plant Publicity Holland (PPH), the International Association of Horticultural Producers (AIPH) and Niek Roozen bv landscape architects. signed by
Marcel Vernooij (EL&I)
Doeke Faber (AIPH)
Jaap Spros (PPH)
Niek Roozen
Green +
Table of contents Introduction Guidelines
3 Green streets
57
18 Green plazas
58
19 Air circulation & ventilation
60
20 Street layout
62
9
21 Right tree, right place
64
10
22 Use existing trees
66
4 8
1 Green cities 1
The planning process
2 Invest together
12
23 Big healthy trees
68
3 Filtering for fresh air
14
24 Growing conditions
70
4 Green network
18
25 Quality maintenance
72
5 Within walking distance
20
Case study: London 2012 Olympics
74
6 The art of nature
22
Case study: Shenyang Hunnan District
24
4 Green buildings
Housing development with newly planted trees | Photo PPH
2 Green neighbourhoods
77
26 Green oriented to buildings
78
27
27 Buildings blend into landscape
80
7 Microclimate parks
28
28 Green roofs
82
8 Resident participation
32
29 Green walls
84
9 Recreation
34
30 Green indoors
86
10 Playgrounds and schoolyards
36
Case study: Vancouver Convention Centre
88
11 Views of green
38
12 Private green
40
13 Semi-private green
42
14 Green business parks
44
15 Urban farming
46
16 Water runoff
48
17 Biodiversity
52
Case study: The High Line, New York City
54
Conclusion
91
Literature List Expert Team Participants Photo Credits
93
Colophon
99
96 97
Housing development with mature trees | Photo collage: Niek Roozen bv
2
3
Green +
Introduction The ‘Green City Guidelines’ project is an internationally targeted initiative that aims to provide practitioners and decision-makers with the essential information they need to understand and communicate the benefits of urban green space or more accurately green infrastructure. The purpose of this project is to bring this information more into the mainstream in a form that is immediately accessible, yet at the same time supported by the evidence-based substance that practitioners globally need to implement successful green infrastructure responses.
De Tussentuin, Rotterdam, NL | Photo: Wolbert van Dijk
The Green City movement has in its heart the belief that the green element is critical to the long-term functioning of healthy, successful, liveable urban spaces. Statisticians from the United Nations estimated that 50% of the world’s population would live in urban areas by 2008, with 70% by approximately 2047. For this reason, it is essential that the true value of urban green space is globally understood and that decision-makers have the tools to guarantee its position.
Objectives of this book This book is written to provide a wide range of professionals with the stimulus to ask ‘how green is my city?’ It provides tools in the form of practical pointers that show how the contribution of green infrastructure can be enhanced for the benefit of all. This applies both now and for future generations. It is written in the knowledge that the term ‘green city’ has a range of meanings but deliberately focuses on the physical, living green, plants as well as green spaces. The plant features are the elements that underpin the rest of the settlement and can deliver those essential ‘ecosystem services’ that are our life-support systems. “Ecosystem Services” is a term to describe any beneficial function provided by green space that would otherwise require a technical response (flood defence, air quality, countering the urban heat island) or that offers a cultural or other benefit (e.g. biodiversity or aesthetic/heritage benefits). Valuation of ecosystem services is emerging as an important concept for securing investment in green space. In itself, this book does not seek to provide all the answers. However it offers case studies, references and guidance relating to those subject areas where green infrastructure plays a part in the successful functioning of the human urban environment. The reader can follow up on these as required depending on site-specific needs.
Amount of green per resident in selected cities
Seattle
World cities and G30 (30 selected cities in The Netherlands) [red line indicates the recommended 35 m2 of green space per resident]
London, UK | Photo: Trees for Cities Source: Groene Meters: Peter Visschedijk en Veroniek Bezemer (Alterra – Wageningen UR)
4
Introduction written by Mark Long (Director, UK Green Forum) | Sources: Groene Meters II; Vitamine G
New York City
Washington D.C.
Milan
Memphis
Rome
Amsterdam
Kansas City
London
Brussels
Bologna
Jacksonville
G30
Luxembourg
Munich
Hannover
Århus
Ancona
m2 green space
Rationale Green infrastructure offers solutions to a wide range of the challenges faced by contemporary society. By applying green space solutions with reference to scientifically and economically proven models, outcomes can be predicted. This is an essential stage in the acceptance of green infrastructure as a mature and credible tool that can be utilised as a problem-solver in diverse situations all over the world. The case studies in this book serve to demonstrate the potential of a range of responses and approaches. By bringing them together in one place, they are convenient and accessible. They can be used by practitioners to stimulate thought and to win arguments. They will have greater impact because they have been collated.
“...the relationship between the amount of green space in the living environment and health should not be underestimated. Most of the diseases that were found to be related to the amount of green space in the living environment are highly prevalent in society and are subject of large-scale prevention programmes in many countries. Furthermore, diseases of the circulatory system, mental disorders and diseases of the digestive system, for which we found a relationship with the amount of green space, are among the most expensive diseases in terms of health care costs in many countries (Heijink et. al., 2006). Thirdly, the results indicate that people who live in a greener living environment generally feel safer...” Jolanda Maas in Vitamine G
5
Green + Basis of the guidelines The Green City Guidelines are founded on the principles of the Green City philosophy. This is an international approach that places green space at the centre of development and regeneration, on a par with red, blue and grey on the masterplan. It uses evidence-based arguments to highlight the importance of green elements and positions them as fundamental solutions and responses to many of the challenges of contemporary life – from stress, burn-out or obesity to climate-change preparedness. It argues that investment in green infrastructure is repaid many times over in terms of the benefits it brings. There are a number of key areas in which green infrastructure offers quantifiable benefits. These topics return at the bottom of every guideline in order to illustrate how each guideline benefits so many of these topics simultaneously, therefore strengthening the integral value of green.
Economy Quality green infrastructure increases house and office values (either rental or freehold). It provides a more attractive environment for inward investment and draws additional visitors to a city. Green roofs and green walls help reduce energy costs in buildings by K 0.71 to K 19 per m2. The longer life of a green roof can save K 18 – K 43 per m2. Houses with a view of green are 1–15% more valuable. This added value benefits both the home owner and the city. The lease prices for offices with green nearby can be 10% more than offices with no green.
Structure Health
Water
Residents and workers are happier and healthier when they live and work in green surroundings. This is because of the psychological benefits – we are hard-wired to be more at ease in green spaces rather than concrete ones – but also because of shade, air quality and the increased likelihood that we will take healthy outdoor exercise when we have access to green space nearby. Improved health results in lower costs for the health-care sector, benefits the economy and leads to enhanced human well-being. The productivity of workers increases and reported sick days decrease in offices with indoor green, which can save a company K 837 per employee per year. Patients recover up to 10% quicker in hospital rooms with views of green, resulting in the possiblility for more patient turnaround and therefore more revenue.
Water management and climate change resilience are very closely linked and relate directly to the management of the urban green estate. A range of ‘Sustainable Urban Drainage System’ (SUDS) responses are increasingly being put in place by water companies and communities who are seeking to respond to the challenges of increased incidence of extreme rainfall events. SUDS solutions offer considerable cost advantages over engineering solutions, as well as providing amenity areas for wildlife, recreation and even food production. Green roofs can save K 10 – K 19 per m2 per year on water runoff and treatment. Green parks can save K 19 per m2.
Social interaction Greener environments encourage people to spend more time in outdoor spaces which in turn increases the rates of social interaction and mixing. Valuable in all situations, this is especially important in multi-cultural communities where barriers of ignorance and distrust can lead to real conflict. Green space and what can be done in it (from growing food to fishing to flying kites) is also an enabler of inter-generational social relationships. Building stronger communities in this way improves social cohesion and helps to bring down the social costs of crime.
Ecology Bringing green into the city can also bring in diverse plant and animal communities. Green roofs and walls, allotment gardens, parks, private gardens, street trees can all provide habitat for thriving ecological communities and help to boost biodiversity in the city. Linked to this is urban agriculture which has a part to play in feeding the cities of tomorrow and making them more resilient to external forces such as transport costs, crop failure in distant regions and political instability.
Climate and pollution Green infrastructure responses such as street trees, green roofs and walls, parks and gardens all contribute to moderating the impacts of the urban heat island effect – recognised as a significant cause of premature death in cities. In addition all plants and trees remove dust (particulate matter) and gaseous pollution including ozone, nitrogen dioxide and volatile organic compounds from the air, with certain groups being particularly effective. The shade and air-cleaning benefits of urban greenery has an enormous cash-value for a city in improved health of residents. The capacity of an average tree in a “hotspot” in the city has a benefit of K 40 per year per tree.
The structure of the book is broken down into four scale levels:
1 Green cities
deals with key elements of the planning process and its relationship to green space.
2 Green neighbourhoods
examines those green spaces that form part of the wider neighbourhood and contribute to the social and catchment-scale functioning of the community.
3 Green Streets
introduces the role of street trees and plants and their contribution to the effective functioning of streets in relation to air quality and urban microclimate.
4 Green Buildings
explores how the performance of buildings can be enhanced through the application of green infrastructure elements. This could include positioning within the landscape, green roofs and walls, as well as interior landscaping.
The information contained within this book is based on the best available knowledge now. It is intended that the reader can follow-up on these case studies as required, with reference to their own local climate and other conditions. This is a dynamic document that is linked with a central, international Green City website: www.thegreencity.com New information will be uploaded as it becomes available in order to enhance what has been gathered here and build upon it.
6
Introduction written by Mark Long (Director, UK Green Forum) economic benefits: Greenspots Reloaded
7
Explanation of the symbols Urban green (in the form of parks, gardens, trees, rooftops and walls) plays an important role in the liveability, attractiveness and sustainability of a city, neighbourhood, street or building. The benefits of each guideline are sometimes limited to two or three topics, but often span the entire spectrum of topics including economy, health, social interactions, ecology, water, climate and pollution.
Green cities, neighbourhoods, streets and buildings: increase the value of real estate, reduce energy costs, reduce water runoff costs
Green + cities
1 The planning process 2 Invest together 3 Filtering for fresh air
provide opportunities for relaxation and recreation, improve mental and physical health and the well-being of people
1
4 Green network 5 Within walking distance
increase social cohesion resulting in stronger communities with less criminality and anti-social behaviour
6 The art of nature Case study: Shenyang Hunnan District
increase habitats for ecological communities, biodiversity and opportunities for urban residents to experience nature
decrease the amount of impervious surfaces and provide water retention possibilities on site, thus reducing peak runoff problems
filter pollutants and dust from the air and regulate temperature extremes These topics return at the bottom of every guideline in order to illustrate how each guideline benefits so many of these topics simultaneously, therefore strengthening the integral value of green. Each one of these functions contains an ecosystem service element.
8
9
Green + cities
1 The planning process “Grey” plans based on green Infrastructure projects should incorporate green early on in the design of new roads, transit facilities and other projects by assuring ample space (both above ground and underground) and budget for trees and other green. Higher density development which brings people closer to mass transit and takes people out of their cars also increases the “greenness” of an area. The pedestrian experience is therefore very important and can be improved by aesthetic and functional green.
“Red” plans based on green
Suzhou, China | The green structure along the street is planted and established long before the surrounding development it is built for.
New development of residential and business areas should incorporate urban forests into the design and use green as a building block. An urban forest is a collection of trees in the urban environment and can vary anywhere from a forest, ecological corridor, park or recreational green space to a green roof garden, street, plaza or front garden. A liveable neighbourhood in a compact city contains 15-20% green in the direct living environment.
“Blue” plans based on green The water structure should be designed within a team of engineers plus urban designers, landscape architects and ecologists so green is incorporated into the design.
Consider the multifunctionality of green Use green not only for aesthetics but also for its ability to raise the value of houses, improve the health of residents and workers, encourage social interactions, regulate temperatures, retain water, increase biodiversity, reduce energy needs in buildings and remove air pollutants.
Convince decision makers to demand green
Madrid RIO Park, Spain | The park, designed by West 8 urban design and landscape architecture B.V. and Mrio arquitectos, Madrid is a 150 ha inner city park built on
A long term cost-benefit analysis should be undertaken to help convince decision-makers that green elements are essential in all urban projects. The development of green spaces should also play a central role in policies related to health, nature conservation and spatial planning.
top of the M30 highway. | Photographer: Jeroen Musch (copyright city of Madrid)
10
Experts: Eva Stache (Stache architects), Fred Tonneijck (Triple E & Knooppunt Innovatief Groen), Mark Hinshaw (LMN Architects), Vincent Kuypers and Barry de Vries (Alterra – Wageningen UR); Arda van Helsdingen (Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten) | Sources: Groen Loont!; Alle extra groen helpt de luchtkwaliteit verbeteren; Recht op Groen; Vegetation in relation to air quality in Shanghai; Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen; Vitamine G; www.landscapeinstitute.org; www.west8.nl
Benefits of planning & green • • • • • • • • • • •
Image creates a green and healthy image for the city Value of real estate increases in the vicinity of green Air quality filters pollutants and dust from the air Health provides opportunities for relaxation, social contact and recreation, and increases health and well-being Aesthetics beautifies streets and neighbourhoods Climate reduces the greenhouse effect by absorbing CO2 Microclimate regulates temperature extremes through shade and wind and humidifies the air, creating a cooler and more comfortable environment Water runoff provides water retention possibilities and reduces peak runoff Biodiversity provides habitats for flora and fauna in the city Buffers reduces the negative effects of traffic and industry Energy savings reduces the need for heat in winter and airconditioning in summer
...Why Invest in Landscape? is a new campaign from the Landscape Institute, which shows how towns and cities around the UK are seeing a good return on their investment in public space. From the small scale of a single town square up to plans for whole new settlements, the returns on investment are clear. When landscape is placed at the heart of the development process, communities and local businesses reap the economic benefits... www.landscapeinstitute.org/invest/index.php
In new & existing development: Inform decision makers of the benefits of green in urban areas so it becomes just as standard an element in projects as roads, parkingdensity. Multidisciplinary teams for all infrastructure and development projects require landscape architects.
Place just as much weight on green in the planning process as grey, red and blue. Landscape architects and urban designers working together at the planning stage of the project.
11
Green + cities
2 Invest together Communicate the benefits to various parties Parties such as the health sector, businesses, engineers, designers, the building sector, developers, cities / local governments and of course the residents themselves can all gain from green in the city. Emphasize the long term benefits.
The cost of green is an investment Costs for green should be seen as an investment just like any other building investment. Approach a green project as a business case and ask the question: what is the joint ambition and how can it be achieved together? Only then will green have added value. And the costs will be seen as an investment that earns itself back.
Businesses benefit from quality public projects
Bioscience Park, Leiden, NL | Companies pay yearly dues to a collective fund
Businesses tend to look at the public sector that is responsible for the surroundings we live in. By co-investing in public projects they can help improve their business location as well as make the city more liveable for their employees and new talent.
which pays for joint improvements of the business park, including the artwork. The green business park behind the central train station attracts biosciencerelated businesses from all over the world.
Benefits of investing together • • • •
More sources of funding for projects is available A broad spread of ownership increases the willingness to invest Various parties become responsible for the liveability of their own city Improve the image of a company and/or city
“By using sophisticated modelling systems, cash values can be applied to ecosystem services such as moderating temperature fluctuations, improving air quality and buffering intense rainfall events. By using this approach trough computer models such as STRATUM (US Forest Service) New York City is able to show that every $1 invested in planting generates more than $ in direct benefits. Who said money doesn’t grow on trees?
12
Real estate near green is more valuable Developers should be aware that houses with quality green in the neighbourhood are worth 4-12% more than houses of the same type in non-green neighbourhoods and therefore calculate green into the total budget. The range depends on whether the property is adjacent to green, has a view of green or is near green.
Regulation incentives encourage good development Invite businesses who are looking to invest in green (PeoplePlanet-Profit) to locate their business in the city and invest locally. Give incentives such as a shorter permit process to projects that incorporate green (a technique used sucessfully in Chicago). Most new buildings in the US now seek certification under the LEED program. Developers and agencies even use it in their real estate marketing efforts.
Experts: Sjerp de Vries (Alterra – Wageningen UR), Eva Stache (Stache architects), Bastiaan de Roo (Chamber of Commerce The Hague); | Sources: Integrale beplantingsmethode levert geslaagd Prins Bernhardbos op; Groen Loont!; Beweegvriendelijke wijken voor kinderen; Rotterdam gezond groen, gewoon doen; The Green City Post 2011; How much value does the city of Philadelphia receive from its park and recreation system?; Who said money doesn’t grow on trees?; www.impala-eu.org
Partners who have an interest / experience / or can benefit from quality green: Policy makers • • • • • • • • •
Local governments Regional governments Water authorities Waste management Social affairs Infrastructure Transportation Urban planners Engineers and designers
Combine the needs of various parties in order to optimize the funding sources for a project with (more) green
“Investing in green cities is investing in a healthy population and a healthy economy, with high financial and social returns.” Henk Bleker, Minister of Foreign Trade and Agriculture
Investors • • • • • • • • •
Local and regional governments Businesses Private sector Building sector Healthcare sector Wellness sector Tourism sector Education sector NGO’s
In new & existing development: Create a high quality catalyst green project with a multidisciplinary team and market it to the various parties in order to create enthusiasm and encourage future team investments.
Users • • • • • • • • •
Local governments Regional governments Water authorities Waste management Social affairs Infrastructure Transportation Urban planners Engineers and designers
Philadelphia, USA | According to a study carried out by the Trust for Public Land, green space saves the city annually a total of $1,155,722.00. The total increase in wealth for the city arising from green infrastructure is $729,112.00. The residents also benefit as a result of higher property values and an enhanced sense of well being.
13
Green + cities
3 Filtering for fresh air Improve regional air quality with large scale green spaces The filtering effect of large scale green is the best way to improve air quality at the regional level. Forests are especially suitable for reducing background concentrations before the pollution even reaches the city. By providing as much leaf volume as possible in an area as big as possible, the general air quality can increase. This way the air that reaches the urban area has more capacity to filter pollution from traffic and other local sources at neighbourhood and street level. The capturing of particulate matter only actually occurs at the edges and tops of a forest, but because they usually cover a large surface area, they are very effective.
Plant big trees with more leaf area
Chicago, USA | Study by DJ Nowak (1994): Trees were able to remove 1% of the pollutants from the air within the city: 0.3 kg / ha / year of CO2
1.4 kg / ha / year of SO2
1.5 kg / ha / year of NOX
3.5 kg / ha / year of PM10
3.1 kg / ha / year of O3
Bigger trees and more leaf area are more effective at cleaning the air. An average tree in the city (with a trunk diameter of +/- 30 cm) is able to capture about 100g particulate matter (PM10) while a mature tree captures as much as 1.4kg in The Netherlands [Tonneijck, 2008]. 100g PM10 equals the particulate matter emission from a private car that travels 1,500 km. 1.4kg PM10 equals 20,000 km. The porosity of the canopy should be above 50% so the leaves inside the canopy can also help. Combine trees with broad canopies and undergrowth of herbaceous plants and shrubs to have effective leaves at all levels. Green roofs and green walls also contribute to air filtering.
Some trees are better at cleaning the air Gaseous air pollution such as nitrous oxide (NOX) and particulate matter (PM10) can be removed from the air by leaves. Nitrous oxides (NOX), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and ozone (O3) are absorbed by the stomata of leaves. Deciduous trees with a large leaf volume are most effective. Organic compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB’s), dioxins and furans are taken up by the cuticles of leaves (even at night). Particulate matter (PM10) is captured on the surface of leaves, called impaction, and travels to the ground through wind, rainwater or fallen leaves. After the particulates hit the ground, they are either washed away with runoff or fixed in the soil by organic decomposition. Conifers are most effective because of
the large surface area of needles and the fact that the trees keep their needles all year round. Ozone (O3) concentrations are reduced in the presence of trees because they not only absorb ozone themselves to varying degrees, but they also absorb NO2 , keeping humidity higher and temperatures lower so ozone does not have a chance to form. Do not use any tree species that are sensitive to air pollution (NOX) and limit the use of trees which emit biogenic volatile organic compounds (VOC).
Plant a variety of trees and plants Include a mix of evergreen and deciduous tree species in the design with different characteristics so the air is filtered of more than one type of air pollution. Include green at different heights / levels to catch more pollutants that would otherwise blow under the canopy of the trees.
Green roofs and green walls also filter the air Green on roof gardens and green walls are also very effective at removing pollutants from the air. Green walls planted with vines have a very dense leaf area per square metre and thus are good in removing PM10. A wall with Parthenocissus tricuspidata can catch 4g of PM10 per m2 of wall and Hedera helix can catch 6g.
Table of air pollution types and leaf effectiveness: Continued on the next page -->
SO2 NOX O3
PM10
Method absorption impaction Best tree type broad leafed evergreen trees conifer trees (evergreen) flat, wide, glossy leaves cone-shaped needles Leaf characteristics Other good tree type Leaf characteristics
14
deciduous trees flat, wide, glossy leaves
VOC adsorption conifer trees needles with a fatty toplayer (cuticle)
deciduous trees course, hairy, sticky leaves
Experts: Ceciel van Iperen (CROW), Fred Tonneijck (Triple E & Knooppunt Innovatief Groen), Pauline de Koning and Peter Schildwacht (BELW Advies bv), Arda van Helsdingen (Copijn Tuinen Landschapsarchitecten), Jelle Hiemstra (Applied Plant Research WUR); ES Consulting | Sources: Groen Loont!; Alle extra groen helpt de luchtkwaliteit verbeteren; Meetproef Groen; Vegetation in relation to air quality in Shanghai; Stadsbomen voor een goede luchtkwaliteit; Bomen, een verademing voor de stad; Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen
Hedera helix vines can catch 6g of PM10 per square meter wall area. Because they are evergreen, they are effective all year long.
15
Green + cities Trees, shrubs and vines* that are effective in capturing PM10 Picea abies Pinus mugo Pinus nigra Pinus sylvestris Taxus sp. Metasequoia glyptostroboides
Hedera Prunus padus Betula pubescens Ilex x. meservae Corylus colurna Acer pseudoplatanus
Trees, shrubs and vines* that are effective in absorbing NOX Robinia pseudoacacia Prunus Yoshino Sophora japonica Zelkova serrata Magnolia Populus nigra Salix babylonica ‘Tortuosa’
West-Midlands, UK | A coverage of 25% green can reduce the concentration of particulate matter in the air by 10% (Steward, 2002 in Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen).
Trees, shrubs and vines* that are effective in absorbing O3 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana Crataegus monogyna Larix decidua Prunus laurocerasus Acer platanoides
Betula pendula Acer campestre Pinus nigra Alnus glutinosa
Trees and shrubs* that emit biogenic volatile organic compounds (limit widespread planting) Liquidambar styraciflua Koelreuteria paniculata Quercus Robinia pseudoacacia
Benefits of green infrastructure for air filtering • • • • •
Less health complaints and premature deaths due to short-term exposure to air pollutants such as PM10 and ozone Gaseous pollutants (O3, NOX, SO2 ) are absorbed out of the air Particulate matter, ash, pollen and smoke are captured out of the air Shade and water are provided which result in lower temperatures and less ozone (O3 ) forming Photosynthesis results in more O2 in the air
Use trees and plants to reduce background concentrations of air pollution. All plants contribute to the improvement of air quality. Some species are more effective than others.
“The contribution of the city to the regional air pollution can be compensated through the planting of filtering green. For every car in the city one tree.” Peter Schildwacht, BELW Advies bv
In new development: ...Although the amount of PM10 and NO2 that is removed from the air by green is not enough when compared to the amount of pollution produced by human activity, there is a positive effect at the regional and national level on air quality. Green cannot alone, however, solve pollution hot spots at the local level... Beplanting en Luchtkwaliteit
Place green strategically in new plans in order to maximize the filtering capacity of each tree and prevent conflicts between land uses. Provide enough room (both above and underground) to allow trees to grow to maturity and therefore maximize their filtering capacity.
In existing development: When replacing or adding trees, add a variety of species which are especially good in filtering the air.
Cercidiphyllum japonicum Platanus Salix
*plants used in The Netherlands
Approximately 10% of the available amount of NO2 can be filtered from the air by optimal green. (Wesseling, 2004 in Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen).
16
Experts: Ceciel van Iperen (CROW), Fred Tonneijck (Triple E & Knooppunt Innovatief Groen), Pauline de Koning and Peter Schildwacht (BELW Advies bv), Arda van Helsdingen (Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten), Jelle Hiemstra (Applied Plant Research – WUR; ES Consulting | Sources: Groen Loont!; Alle extra groen helpt de luchtkwaliteit verbeteren; Meetproef Groen; Vegetation in relation to air quality in Shanghai; Stadsbomen voor een goede luchtkwaliteit; Bomen: een verademing voor de stad; Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen
Needles are effective at catching PM10.
Leaves are effective in absorbing NOX.
17
Green + cities
4 Green network Incorporate movement into daily life
Benefits of a green network
Encourage daily routine short trips by foot or bicycle instead of with the car. Routes to work, school, public transportation, urban forests and parks should be safe, comfortable, attractive and green alternatives. It is also important to provide bicycle parking facilities at popular destinations.
• • •
Safe routes for pedestrians and bicycles to and from parks, play and sports facilities, schools, etc. Larger network of habitats for small animals Less car use for daily short trips
Provide bicycle and pedestrian paths all over the city to bring people from home to the city’s parks, recreational spaces, schools and work.
Children do more outside in neighbourhoods with safer infrastructure Children should be able to walk or bicycle safely through the neighbourhood to schools, parks, sports and recreational facilities. Slowing cars (with speed bumps or smaller street profiles at specific points) or creating car-free areas in neighbourhoods and near schools contribute to safer streets. Create street profiles where pedestrians and bicycles are separated from motorized vehicles and have priority over cars at crossings. Madrid RIO Park, Spain | A safe attractive pedestrian network with parks and plazas created along the water, separated from heavy traffic. Designed by West 8 urban design and landscape architecture B.V. and Mrio arquitectos, Madrid | Photo: Jeroen Musch (copyright city of Madrid)
Create one large green park network Connect public green spaces and parks to create one large urban recreation and / or ecological network within the city as well as with connections to green and nature outside the city. Ecological corridors which connect green spaces throughout the city raise the value of the urban ecological system. Use existing nature / water / topographical characteristics of the area as starting points to guide the planning and location of the network. Every household should be within 500m of an arm of the green network. This distance allows one to walk to, in and from the green structure in an average of 45 minutes (Bervaes et al, 1996 in Groene Meters I).
...The creation of playgrounds and sports complexes is not enough to stimulate children to be more active.Children who are able to walk or bicycle to school, playgrounds or sports facilities perform significantly more physical activity per day... Beweegvriendelijke wijken voor kinderen ...TNO has developed a calculating model for interactive planning to see the effects that complex planning solutions have on various situations in the surroundings, One of the features is the influence green spaces / land uses have on the physical movement patterns of residents... Urban Strategy, TNO Innovation for Life
In new development: Set up a green structure plan connecting all neighborhoods to the urban forests / parks from the beginning of a project together with infrastructure so everyone has safe access to green.
In existing development: Make neighbourhoods safer for bicycles and pedestrians by replacing street crossings with roundabouts or traffic lights along routes to schools, sports and play areas.
Ensure accessibility within the green network
Promenade Plantee, Paris France | A 4.7km long green belt and promenade through Paris along an old railway line. The path is accessible in some areas at street level and at other points with footbridges and a viaduct | Photo: Robert ten Elsen
18
Where unavoidable infrastructural barriers block access within a network, alternatives should be designed such as bridges, tunnels and ecobridges so connections are safe. By creating a green network at the planning stage of a project, many of these conflicts and dangerous intersections can be solved. Semi-public and public buildings can also be used as part of the continuous green network. Green through the building (atriums, galleries) and over the buildings (green roofs) can be made accessible, both physically and visually.
Experts: Martine van Loon (Kenniscentrum Recreatie), Irini Salverda (Alterra – Wageningen UR), Pauline de Koning and Peter Schildwacht (BELW Advies bv), Fred Tonneijck (Triple E & Knooppunt Innovatief Groen), Sanda Lenzholzer (Wageningen University), Eva Stache (Stache architects), Arda van Helsdingen (Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten), TNO Innovation for Life Sources: Groene meters II; Vitamine G; Beweegvriendelijke wijken voor kinderen; Kinderen in prioriteitswijken: lichaamlijke (in)activiteit en overgewicht; Recht op Groen; Rotterdam gezond groen gewoon doen; www.west8.nl; www.impala-eu.org; www.tno.nl/downloads/IB_URBAN_STRATEGY_EN.pdf
Bicycles and pedestrians separated from vehicular traffic | Photo: Children walk safely to school | Photo: PPH; collage: Niek Roozen bv
Stichting Open Boek
19
Green + cities
5 Within walking distance The amount of recreational green is important
Millinxbuurt, Rotterdam, NL | A city block in a declining neighbourhood in Rotterdam was transformed into a park during a large scale neighbourhood renovation. People used to complain of shoot-outs, now they complain if
75m2 of recreational green should be provided for every household in an urban area. 60m2 of this green should be within a 500m radius of home and 15m2 can be incorporated into regional green within a 3 km radius. 75m2 green / household divided by 2,5 people per household = 30m2 green/person. Muliply the number of people in an urban area times 30m2 and this equals the total amount of green needed in the urban area. Divide the size of the urban area by the amount of green needed in the urban area and you have the percent of green needed in the urban area. (For an example see the Green City case study, page 20-21.)
Provide recreational possibilities and green for residents who stay closer to home The elderly and people with a lower socio-economic status have less opportunities to seek green elsewhere. Therefore green in the vicinity of home is essential.
Develop ample parks and usable green spaces within walking distance of all residents.
Create parks in inner city neighbourhoods Include parks in the rehabilitation of declining neighbourhoods. Remove a housing block and replace it with a pocket park, involving the residents in the process. This, in combination with the planned improvements to the remaining buildings, creates a more liveable neighbourhood for the residents.
someone cycles on the pavement | Photo: PPH
The quality of recreational green is important ...In The Netherlands, the direct costs of people being overweight are thought to be 3%-5% of the healthcare budget... Groen Loont! ...The number of obese adults in England has tripled over the last 20 years and is still rising. The number of obese 6 yearolds has doubled in the last 10 years. Inactivity is identified as being the primary cause of obesity. The cost to the UK economy of overweight and obesity was £15.8 billion in 2007, including £4.2 billion additional costs to the NHS... Tackling Obesities: Future Choices - Project Report
Recreational green should be accessible, useable, varied, inviting and well maintained in order to attract users from the neighbourhood and beyond.
Provide nearby recreational facilities for children Children between the ages of 6 and 11 are most dependant on their direct living environment in order to fulfill their daily outdoor physical activity. Provide formal and/or informal play areas for these age groups at the block level to encourage more outdoor play. Safe routes to the play areas are important as well as safe edges between street and play areas. Prevent children from running into the street and keep play areas visible.
20
type of park
distance from house
size of park
200m 400m 800m 1600m 3200m
0,01 ha - 1 ha 1 ha - 6 ha 6 ha - 18 ha 18 ha - 200 ha >200 ha
(4 min. walk) (6 min. walk) (12 min. walk) (20 min. walk) (up to 30 min. walk)
• • • • • •
Healthier, happier residents (5-15% more) More outdoor play (10% more) More social contact and social cohesion* Less overweight or obese residents (15% less) Less doctor visits, less depression, for some diseases up to 33%* More likely to be physically active (24% more) if green space is easily accessible
* especially noticeable with children, the elderly and people with a lower
In new development: 25% of the total urban area should be set aside for green recreational uses. The green areas should be distributed throughout the city vary in size and vary in use so everyone has access to green.
In existing development: Where a lack of space is available, the quality, use and accessibility of recreational green should be improved to provide maximum enjoyment for as many residents as possible.
social/economic status
...Social cohesion and the willingness to participate in the upkeep of an urban park is higher in smaller neighbourhood parks than in larger city parks... Buurtgroen en Sociale Cohesie
Size and location of green spaces in urban environments:
pocket park neighbourhood park community park large urban park city-wide park
Benefits of neighbourhood green space
Experts: Pauline de Koning and Peter Schildwacht (BELW Advies bv), Irini Salverda (Alterra – Wageningen UR), Fred Tonneijck (Triple E & Knooppunt Innovatief Groen) Jolanda Maas (EMGO Institute, VU Medical Center) | Sources: Leefkwaliteit Stationsgebied Utrecht 2003; Groen Loont!; Vitamine G; Rood en Groen in Balans; Groene Meters II; Recht op Groen; Niet bij rood alleen: buurtgroen en sociale cohesie; Beweegvriendelijke wijken voor kinderen; Rotterdam gezond groen, gewoon doen; Kinderen in Prioriteitswijken: Lichaamlijke (in)activiteit en overgewicht; Foresight: Tackling Obesities: Future Choices – Project Report; An estimate of the economic and health value effectiveness of the expanded Walking Health Initiative scheme 2009; Green Space and our Health
...Park and green space facilities provide easily accessible recreational opportunities which are usually free. A brisk walk daily reduces the risk of heart attack by 50%, strokes by 50%, diabetes by 50%, fracture of the femur by 30%, colon cancer by 30%, breast cancer by 30% and Alzheimers by 25%... Green Space and our Health
Westerpark, Amsterdam, NL | Photo: Gemeente Amsterdam
21
Green + cities
6 The art of nature Use plants to beautify streets and neighbourhoods and add to the overall image of the city.
Use green to beautify the city Residents, workers and visitors are attracted to green and flowers in the urban environment. Green for aesthetic reasons is still a legitimate investment. (The fact that green has so many other benefits only adds to its value.)
Planting design is a creative process Planting design is the art of combining plants based on their colour, texture, bloom time, bloom colour and growing conditions (sun, soil, wind, water). In public open spaces it is also important to consider the use of the space, possiblities of vandalism and level of maintenance. The softscape (green) is just as important in terms of design as the hardscape (layout, paving, benches, lighting, etc.). Use the right plants for public spaces and avoid dangerous situations such as high plants which block views at intersections or poisonous plants near playgrounds. Floriade 2002, Haarlemmermeer NL | Niek Roozen bv and Jacqueline van der Kloet, planting specialist, used the Floriade 2002 as a testing ground for the aesthetic use of successful perennial and bulb mixtures for public spaces | Designed by Niek Roozen bv
In new development: Create green spaces which combine the character of the place and the needs of the users with a hardscape and planting design that is aesthetically pleasing.
In existing development:
Use existing conditions as the basis for design
Replace planting which does not add to the aesthetics and function of an area with planting combinations which do.
Start the design process with an inventory of what exists on the site (or what once existed). Use elements such as existing trees, water, topography and native plants to inspire the design and give it a local character which fits into the surrounding neighbourhood or environment. The use of historical and cultural elements also adds to the character. Garden in Kyoto, Japan | Photo: Philomene van der Vliet and David Kloet
Quality and maintenance are important Nature is beautiful, but in the urban environment it needs help staying beautiful. Every square metre of green needs to be high quality and well maintained for city residents to keep this positive image of green.
Benefits of the art of nature
Eindhoven, NL | A green wall and roof integrated into a bus stop | A Soontiëns Stadsnatuur project | Design: WVTTK Architects | Photo: WVTTK Architects
• • • • •
Creates a positive image for the city Gives residents a positive perception of green Inspires residents to take pride in their neighbourhood Attracts tourists / visitors Offers rest and inspiration Floriade 2002, Haarlemmermeer, NL | Designed by Niek Roozen bv
22
Experts: Niek Roozen (Niek Roozen bv landscape architects), Robbert Snep (Alterra – Wageningen UR), Soontiëns Stadsnatuur
23
Green + cities
Shenyang Hunnan District Masterplan case study The 5750ha site is located south of downtown Shenyang between the Hun River and the airport.
Shenyang, China | Masterplan: Niek Roozen bv landscape architect, Urhahn Urban Design, BELW Advies bv | 2010
The team began the design process from the green perspective: first an inventory of the existing conditions including the natural landscape and the villages that have organically grown over time and then a layout of the desired amount of green space. In the masterplan, the green land uses were given a place before the infrastructure of roads and other land uses.
Type of green
Max distance
Area
200 m 400 m 800 m 1600 m 3200 m
< 1 ha 3 ha 15 ha 100 ha 500 ha
block green street park neighbourhood park sub-district park district park
The grid was faded back and used as the basis to design the overall NIEK ROOZEN bv l a n d s c a p e
a r c h i t e c t s
masterplan in a new creative way, resulting in a dynamic green urban plan.
The green infrastructure of the street system was also designed in order to
Some parts of the final concept green plan, such as a few city parks and
reduce the negative impact of air pollutants for residents by locating trees and
the central main axis, are currently under construction, including Mozi Mountain.
green in the right place.
Parkdesign by Niek Roozen bv, Roodbeen Architectuur, Urhahn Urban Design and Loos van Vliet.
24
Experts: Niek Roozen bv landscape architects, Urhahn Urban Design, BELW Advies bv
25
Green + cities Literature:
• Vitamine G
• Bastiaan de Roo, Director Leiden
[Vitamin G]
Chamber of Commerce The Hague
• Greenspots Reloaded
• Kinderen in prioriteitswijken:
• Sjerp de Vries, Senior Scientific Researcher
• Groen Loont!
Lichaamlijke (in)activiteit en overgewicht
Alterra – Wageningen UR
[Green Pays!]
[Children in problem neighbourhoods:
• Pauline de Koning, Landscape Architect
• Alle extra groen helpt de luchtkwaliteit verbeteren
Physical (in)activity and overweightness]
Peter Schildwacht, Air Specialist, Biologist
[All extra green helps improve the air quality]
• Leefkwaliteit Stationsgebied Utrecht
BELW Advies bv
• Recht op Groen
[Liveability Station area Utrecht]
• Ceciel van Iperen,
[The Right to Green]
• Rood en Groen in Balans
Project Manager Living Environment
• Vegetation in relation to air quality in Shanghai
[Red and Green in Balance]
CROW
• Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen
• Niet bij rood alleen: buurtgroen en sociale cohesie
• Jelle Hiemstra, Senior Researcher
[Manual Air Purifying Green]
[Not with red alone: neighbourhood green and
Applied Plant Research, Wageningen UR
• Integrale beplantingsmethode levert geslaagd
social cohesion]
• Martine van Loon, Project Officer
Prins Bernhardbos op [Integrated planting method is a success in the
Kenniscentrum Recreatie
Websites:
Assistant Professor Landscape Architecture
Prins Bernhardbos] • How much value does the city of Philadelphia
• www.landscapeinstitute.org/PDF/Contribute/
Wageningen University
recieve from its park and recreation system?
PressRelease-LandscapeInstituteEcobuildFringeSe
• Filip Fraga, Project Manager
• Who said money doesn’t grow on trees?
minarstacklethecaseforinvestmentinlandscapean.pdf
• Joram Nauta, Project Manager
• Beweegvriendelijke wijken voor kinderen
• www.impala-eu.org
TNO Innovation for Life
[Exercise-friendly neighbourhoods for children]
• www.tno.nl/downloads/IB_URBAN_STRATEGY_EN.pdf
• Jolanda Maas, Senior Researcher
• Rotterdam gezond groen, gewoon doen
• www.west8.nl
EMGO Institute, VU Medical Center
[Rotterdam healthy green, just do it]
• www.bomenstichting.nl
• Irini Salverda, DLO Researcher
• Foresight: Tackling Obesities: Future Choices – Project Report
Alterra – Wageningen UR
Experts:
• Green Space and Our Health
26
• Sanda Lenzholzer,
• Robbert Snep, Researcher Urban Ecology and
• An estimate of the economic and health value
• Eva Stache, Architect
Green Businessparks
effectiveness of the expanded Walking Health
Stache Architects bna
Alterra – Wageningen UR
Initiative scheme
• Fred Tonneijck, Senior Advisor/Researcher
• Niek Roozen, Landscape Architect
• The Green City Post 2011
Triple E and Knooppunt Innovatief Groen
Niek Roozen bv landscape architects
• Meetproef Groen
• Arda van Helsdingen, Director
• ES Consulting • Soontiëns Stadsnatuur
[Experiment Green]
Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten
• Stadsbomen voor een goede luchtkwaliteit
• Mark Hinshaw, Director of Urban Design
[City trees for good air quality]
LMN Architects
• Bomen: een verademing voor de stad
• Vincent Kuypers, DLO Researcher
[Trees: Relief for the city]
Alterra – Wageningen UR
• Groene meters II
• Barry de Vries, DLO HBO Researcher
[Green meters II]
Alterra – Wageningen UR
For a complete list of literature and expert participants, see pages 94-97.
Green+ neighbourhoods
7 Microclimate parks 8 Resident participation 9 Recreation
2
10 Playgrounds and schoolyards 11 Views of green 12 Private green 13 Semi-private green 14 Green business parks 15 Urban farming 16 Water runoff 17 Biodiversity Case study: The High Line, New York City
27
Green Green++ neighbourhoods neighbourhoods 7 Microclimate parks Plant more trees to increase the overall canopy cover
Benefits of parks on microclimate
Studies in Chicago show that increasing tree cover in the city by 10% may reduce the total energy used for heating and cooling by 5-10%. Trees and vertical green prevent sunlight from reaching the surface and converting into heat. They also create more humidity, which in turn reduces the strength of the sun’s rays and thus reduces the temperature.
• • • • •
Reduce the amount of impervious surfaces in the city and replace them with green Surface temperature can be reduced just by reducing the amount of paved surfaces, which in return reduces the amount of latent heat in the city. For every 10% of green surface area that is increased, the temperature drops by 1o0 C.
Use trees to decrease wind velocities Latent heat in the city of Nijmegen, NL | The paved surfaces are clearly the “hotspots”, while the parks and green spaces are blue/dark green in the colour spectrum | Photo: Alterra – Wageningen UR
The following plays a role in the Urban Heat Island Effect: • • • • • • •
The amount of impervious surfaces in the city Local weather patterns (temperature, wind) The location (on the water / inland) Design (height of buildings, density) Wind patterns + ventilation + cooling Green / water vs. buildings / paving in the city Air pollution
Trees and plants are physical obstacles and have an effect on wind speed and turbulence. These in turn influence how effective trees are in removing air pollutants. Wide tree plantings such as forests drive wind upwards and act as a solid barrier. Wind speeds beyond the forest return to normal after a short distance. The wind speed behind a row of trees returns to normal at a distance of 10 times the height of the trees.
Shade from trees regulates temperature extremes Green humidifies the air and makes the environment cooler and more pleasant City streets, plazas and parks are comfortable to use in hot weather Less ozone is produced if temperatures are reduced in hot periods Less temperature extremes in the summer result in less premature deaths due to excessive heat (especially for elderly people)
...The use of green to create microclimates and protect against wind, etc. is simply farmer’s wisdom. The techniques can be applied to the urban environment as a fresh new way to approach the use of green. The scientific and academic proof is building to support what farmers have known for centuries... Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen
Bilbao tram line, Spain | Light rail in a city is not only a green mode of transportation but can also actually be green. Grass or a mix of sedum and/or mosses planted between the rails instead of pavement is not only attractive but also helps improve the microclimate in summer and absorb water runoff over great lengths within the urban environment. (Sedum and mosses require less maintenance and even help remove particulate matter (PM10) from
Prevent trees from reducing wind speeds too close to the source of pollution
the air.) | Photo: Robert ten Elsen
Where possible, plant rows of trees perpendicular to the direction of polluted air and allow a sideways flow of air along the trees for ventilation near a source of pollution. Continued on the next page -->
Create large areas of green outside the city as a buffer A forest planted outside the city can help reduce the urban heat island effect.
The urban heat island effect | Source: Alterra – Wageningen UR
28
Experts: Sanda Lenzholzer (Wageningen University), Vincent Kuypers and Barry de Vries (Alterra – Wageningen UR), Triple E, ES Consulting Sources: Groen Loont!; Alle extra groen helpt de luchtkwaliteit verbeteren; Groen voor Klimaat; Bomen: een verademing voor de stad; Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen
29
Green Green++ neighbourhoods neighbourhoods Spread city parks and green areas throughout the city Cooling effects of parks Source: adapted from Groen voor Klimaat: Barry de Vries, Alterra â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Wageningen UR)
City parks are themselves cooler, but can also cool the surroundings both day and night. The influence of two smaller parks spread out in a city have more effect in cooling the surroundings than one larger park. The cooling effect can be significantly measured up to 300m from the park (and felt up to 2km away). Evaporation at night from trees and shrubs transports cool water from the ground to the air which reduces the air tempe-rature. There is a strong relationship between the reduction of temperatures and the density of planting.
Parking areas need shade too Trees in parking areas keep cars cooler and reduce the amount of hydrocarbon vapour emissions from parked cars. Leidse Hout, Leiden NL | The Leidse Hout is a recreational forest on the edge of
Prevent city-wide hot spots by spreading parks and green around the city and increasing the overall tree canopy area.
In new development: Create pocket parks spread throughout the city in order to reduce temperature extremes, limit the amount of impervious surfaces and provide shade where it is needed.
In existing development:
1 large park
Determine where the hot spots in the city are and replace impervious surfaces where possible with green (parks, green connections, trees, green roofs, etc.) in order to reduce the urban heat island effect in the city.
the most densly populated city in The Netherlands. It is frequently used by residents for recreation, relaxation, walking, bicycling, picnicking, education, etc. park
affected area
2 small parks EXPO Park, World EXPO 2010, Shanghai, China | The EXPO Park along the river was used as a cool green oasis away from the crowded warm EXPO site. After the EXPO, it will serve as a community park for the future urban residential development | Designed by Niek Roozen bv
30
Experts: Sanda Lenzholzer (Wageningen University), Vincent Kuypers and Barry de Vries (Alterra â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Wageningen UR), Triple E, ES Consulting | Sources: Groen Loont!; Alle extra groen helpt de lucht-kwaliteit verbeteren; Groen voor Klimaat; Bomen: een verademing voor de stad; Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen
Parking lot Kasteeltuinen Arcen, NL | Designed by Niek Roozen bv
EXPO Park, World EXPO 2010 Shanghai, China | Designed by Niek Roozen bv
31
Green+ neighbourhoods
8 Resident participation Listen to what the residents want Resident participation leads to the creation of quality green because it responds to the needs and wishes of the people who will actually use it.
Adopt green right outside the door Allow planting beds or trees to be “adopted” in parks or along streets. The residents can choose their own planting as long as they care for the plants themselves. An agreement can be signed between the city and the residents if either of the parties do not fulfill their agreed level of participation.
Create respect for public green space
The Garden, Eden Project, UK | Sensory Trust and Eden Project worked together
By allowing residents to take part in design, construction and maintenance they respect the green spaces and care for them as their own instead of waiting for the city to fix them up. People are more likely to pick up litter on “their own street” than on a “public street”, as well as ask others to do the same.
to run community consultation sessions with a mix of people so the garden could be inspired by and designed to their wishes. The participants were kept involved throughout the process in order to offer feedback and continued support | Photo: Sensory Trust
Plan green activities for residents Bring residents together at key moments to create enthusiasm and involve them in the process of creating green spaces in the neighbourhood. Use publicity to spread the enthusiasm to other neighbourhoods. Organize activities such as tree planting events or the UK’s “Love Parks Week”.
Benefits of participation • • • •
Liveability of the neighbourhood increases Criminal and anti-social behavior decreases, safety improves More social control and social cohesion People identify more with their neighbourhood and green space
...Over recent years we have seen a real difference in the attitude to trees in UK cities. They’re becoming much more valued as an asset to the community, and provide a wealth of cultural benefits. Studies compiled by our partners at Nottingham Trent University provide a clear indication that a healthy, safe city is one in which residents are inclined to get out onto the streets and into green spaces. By getting involved in decisions about their streets and green spaces, and making them nicer places to live, residents feel ownership of these places – they use them and help maintain them, which ensures the quality and long term sustainability of these spaces... Sharon Johnson, Chief Executive, Trees for Cities
Include residents in the design and maintenance of green spaces in their direct living environment.
In new development: Invite residents to be a part of the planning and design process of public green spaces.
In existing development: Allow residents to adopt nearby green spaces and participate in the construction and maintenance of these spaces.
Transform unused space in the city with green Give people on the waiting lists for permanent community/ allotment gardens and others the chance to garden plots of temporarily vacant land in their own neighbourhoods. The neighbourhood becomes greener, the gardeners are happy and surrounding residents and passersby are inspired.
De Tussentuin, Gaffelstraat, Rotterdam, NL | The Tussentuin, a local resident Manchester, UK | Children involved in a community planting project |
initiative, not only provides gardening plots but also activities such as music workshops, concerts and neighbourhood feasts | Photos: Wolbert van Dijk
Nieuw Leyden, Leiden, NL | Residents not only designed their own houses, but also
Photo: Trees for Cities
had the opportunity to design their own street collectively with the neighbours.
32
Experts: Irini Salverda (Alterra – Wageningen UR), Wolbert van Dijk and Joke van der Zwaard (De Tussentuin), Jane Stoneham (Sensory Trust), Sharon Johnson (Trees for Cities), Fred Tonneijck (Triple E & Knooppunt Innovatief Groen), Arda van Helsdingen (Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten) | Sources: Niet bij rood alleen: buurtgroen en sociale cohesie; In herstructureringsplannen is groen een sociale verbinder
33
Green+ neighbourhoods
9 Recreation Provide a variety of spaces for physical activity
Benefits of recreation
Outdoor active recreation not only occurs on formal sports fields but also other spaces such as playgrounds, skateboard parks, bicycle and jogging/walking paths and open lawn. Spontaneous ball games in informal green spaces are flexible and do not require specific dimensions or amount of players.
• Encourages people to live healthier lifestyles • Stimulates children to grow into healthy fit adults • Provides a public space for social contact
Create a variety of choices for active and passive recreation throughout the city for all ages.
Relaxation is an important form of recreation Places to meet or be alone, benches or grass for resting and watching, paths for walking, forests and water for contact with nature and environmental education, etc. are examples of passive recreation. A variety of spaces and uses are important to accommodate all the users of neighbourhood parks. Green near offices also allows workers to take a walk during breaks for fresh air and relaxation.
Accommodate the user groups Outdoor exercise.
...‘The Big Greenery Study’, conducted by Amsterdam’s own Physical Planning Department, showed that visits made to the city’s green spaces have increased enormously in recent years. Not only are more ‘Amsterdammers’ visiting parks, but they are also doing so more often... Piet Eilander (Amsterdam’s Greenery, Ecology, Urban Recreation and Water team)
Children, people with a lower socio-economic status and the elderly are more dependent on their direct living environment to fulfil their exposure to green recreational opportunities. The smaller scale parks spread throughout the neighbourhoods should cater to these groups. Larger parks that are more spread out should include these uses plus uses for other user groups. Provide separate areas for dogs and provide bins for dog waste so the play areas remain clean.
In new development: Spread ample green parks of various sizes throughout he city. Vary the types of recreational accommodations to reach a broad user group and design with flexibility because user groups can change over time.
In existing development: Take an inventory of the available recreational spaces and determine how to make existing accommodations more useful and attractive for residents.
Quality and usability are essential There are four factors which determine the success of recreational spaces in the city: • availability (area and distribution of spaces) • usability (maintenance, policy, provisions, social safety) • accessibility (service area, walking / biking distance) • utilization (users and possible activities)
Recreation also encourages recreation related business Outdoor relaxation | Photo: Gemeente Amsterdam
34
Businesses such as restaurants and cafés, kiosks, tourism, water sports, etc. can also benefit economically from recreation in the city.
Experts: Filip de Fraga and Joram Nauta (TNO Innovation for Life), Martine van Loon (Kenniscentrum Recreatie) | Sources: Groen Loont!; Recht op Groen; Groene meters II; Beweegvriendelijke Stadswijken voor Kinderen; Rotterdam gezond groen, gewoon doen; The Green City Post 2011; www.impala-eu.org
Outdoor play.
Outdoor sports.
35
Green+ neighbourhoods
10 Playgrounds & schoolyards Create variations in the landscape Differences in high-low, dark-light, open-closed, dry-wet make a play area more interesting, less predictable and more natural. Unexpected (natural) differences in the terrain such as hills, horizontal tree trunks and rocks for climbing, etc. are encouraged.
Use various natural materials Ground: clay, sand, mud Water: pumps, fountains, streams, wetlands, ponds Planting: groundcover and flowers, shrubs, trees Materials: wood and steel
Benefits of playing in green • • • •
Stimulates creativity and imagination Children can come into contact with nature in a creative way Offers space to move, play and dream Stimulates motor skills, interaction with other children and physical activity
Provide children with the opportunity to experience and play in nature within the city.
In new development: Situate school buildings to provide optimal outdoor spaces for play and education. Create new green public playgrounds accessible to all children.
In existing development: Transform existing playgrounds and schoolyards by replacing paving with green. Install play equipment made of natural materials which both stimulates play and allows children to experience nature.
Cater to the needs of children Vrijeschool Valentijn, Harderwijk, NL | The pavers were removed from the schoolyard and replaced by plant beds, a separate ball field, sitting areas, herb gardens, paintings, hills, an amphitheater, play equipment and a dry stream
Encourage active movement such as climbing and running, provide peaceful sitting areas while allowing others to play together and make noise. They should feel at home and be comfortable in the seasons, with the trees and among the butterflies.
bed with a water pump connected to the school building’s rain pipes.
Allow children to explore the possibilities of nature Create opportunities to playfully change the surroundings with sand, mud and water, use loose natural elements as play equipment, allow them to exercise their own fantasy and creativity and make it inviting to explore nature. Encourage children to make something useful and beautiful from natural materials. Make it possible for hands-on nature and environmental education in the city.
Involve children in the design process, realisation, maintenance and use Educate and demonstrate how nature can be created in the city and encourage continuing interaction with the seasonal changes of nature.
Ieper, Belgium | Use of natural materials.
36
Sources: Prijsvraag Groene Speelplekken 2011; Een Groene Gezonde Wijk; Hoera! Een Burgerinitiatief; Kom je buiten spelen?; www.groeneschoolpleinen.nl
...From day one the success was obvious to the school children as well as the other users. The children have more choices for play, they play more together and there is much less fighting... Hoera! Een Burgerinitiatief
Criteria for construction, maintenance and safety of green playgrounds
The Speeldernis, Rotterdam, NL | Photo: Sigrun Lobst
Aspect of design
Criteria
Planting Ecological value Maintenance plan Design Surroundings Safety
the right tree in the right place, must be central in design, functional and offer more than just aesthetics fruit, color and structure are important, attractive for animals, native plants must be set up and responsibility should be taken must be flexible and multifunctional, be realized within 3-5 years, be presented to the users as well as the nearby residents should fit into the surroundings, connect to existing water storage, ecological connections, educational functions or other special interests design should be transparent for social safety, have visible entrances/exits to traffic, avoid poisonous plants and must fulfil the safety criteria for all play areas
37
Green+ neighbourhoods
11 Views of green Not all green needs to be accessible Views of green are also important for the overall green image of a city. Green roofs, green walls, private gardens, street trees, sports fields, cemeteries, agricultural land and surrounding landscapes all contribute to the green of a city.
Physical health improves with views of green
Benefits of green views • • • • •
Physical health: less doctor visits, shorter stays in hospitals (10% less) Mental health: reduction of depression and stress Views of green increase employee productivity Employees take up less sick days Properties with views of green are 4-12% higher
Patients recover up to 10% quicker in hospital rooms with views of green. Green park-like settings around hospitals, parking lots full of trees, courtyards, green walls and green roofs are all ways to increase green views from every room.
In new development:
Mental health improves with views of green
Amnesty International, Amsterdam, NL | The courtyard behind the headquarters of Amnesty International in the center of Amsterdam | Designed by
Consider the layout of buildings and their relationship with green elements.
Residents as well as workers with views of green report less cases of depression and stress than those with no views of green from their homes and offices. Planting strips between houses and the street, front gardens, offices surrounded by green and trees and parking areas with green buffers are ways to increase views of green from houses and offices.
In existing development: Multi-layered buildings with views over rooftops should replace grey roofs with green roofs. Parking areas adjacent to buildings should include trees and green elements so views are more attractive from indoors.
Niek Roozen bv
Property with views of green are more valuable Houses and apartments with views of green (adjacent parks, surrounding landscapes, etc.) are worth 4-12% more than houses of the same type without views of green.
Views of green from houses | Photo: PPH
38
...Patients who have a view of trees use less pain killers than patients who have a view of a wall... Groen Loont!
Experts: Eva Stache (Stache architects), Robbert Snep (Alterra - Wageningen UR), Fred Tonneijck (Triple E & Knooppunt Innovatief Groen), Soontiëns Stadsnatuur Sources: Groen Loont!
Borrow views of private / semiprivate green because of its impact on the urban green experience, both mentally and physically.
De Hogeweyk, Weesp, NL | Green stimulates positive memories in people with dementia | Architect: Molenaar en Koeman | Designed by Niek Roozen bv
The Medina residential complex in Eindhoven, NL | A Soontiëns Stadsnatuur project | Photo: Soontiëns Stadsnatuur
Gaixa Forum, Madrid, Spain | Photo: Robert ten Elsen
39
Green+ neighbourhoods
12 Private green Diversity of choices means a diversity of green People are free to choose their own plants and layout which increases the diversity of green in the neighbourhood for everyone. Plants can be used for their ornamental value or functionality. Edible gardens provide fresh produce and herbs for individuals. A varied planting design allows residents to experience the four seasons right outside their windows.
...Garden furniture and materials lose their value over time and have to be replaced after a few years. A living garden of plants, on the other hand, becomes more valuable as time goes on... De Levende Tuin
Use the potential that private gardens have to add to the amount of green spaces and impervious surfaces in the city.
Rediscover the art of plants Many urban residents fill their private gardens with paving for ease of maintenance, lack of knowledge of plants and their care or practicality. By bringing the interest back to plants in the garden, the impervious surfaces in the city can be reduced. Plant nurseries, retailers and community groups can show people how easy and attractive (low maintenance) gardening can be. The Medina, Eindhoven, NL | The Medina residential complex, high quality urban green with plenty of opportunities for an urban wildlife experience located in downtown Eindhoven. A Soontiëns Stadsnatuur project | Photo: Soontiëns Stadsnatuur
In existing development: Create campaigns to encourage more plants and less impervious surfaces in private gardens. Involve the media and plant nurseries in offering advice and techniques for making gardens beautiful and easy to care for.
Increase the surface area of green no matter how small by planting green walls, balconies, private gardens and roofs.
• • • •
chosen species for biodiversity and environmentally friendly maintenance.
Provide room for small private gardens in front of, behind or on top of houses.
Every square metre counts
Benefits of private green spaces
EVA-Lanxmeer, Culemborg, NL | The ecological front gardens include specially
In new development:
Bercy, Paris, France | Private roof gardens
Increases biodiversity in the city Helps keep streets and houses cooler Helps intercept water runoff Makes neighbourhoods attractive
...What we tend to forget is that our lawns, flower beds and vegetable patches add up to a significant share of the capital’s land: approximately 24% of London’s total land area. Their habitat potential is enormous... Anna Simpson, Gardens: the hidden capital revealed
Arnhem, NL | Private garden with vegetables and flowers | Photo: Brechtje Horsten Weesp, NL | Private garden next to De Theetuin | Designed by Jacqueline van der Kloet
40
Experts: Robbert Snep (Alterra – Wageningen UR), Soontiëns Stadsnatuur | Sources: De Levende Tuin; Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen; www.forumforthefuture.org/greenfutures/articles/ gardens-hidden-capital-revealed; www.eva-lanxmeer.nl
41
Green+ neighbourhoods
13 Semi-private green Combine efforts to improve the direct living environment
Benefits of semi-private green spaces
Semi-private green provides an opportunity for those urban residents who either have no private green space, have no time or desire to garden themselves or are not able to maintain an entire garden on their own. Collective funds can be set aside for routine maintenance if there is no one who takes the initiative to organize this between residents. They can also decide how the space is used and when and set quality standards for maintenance.
• • •
People with no private garden can enjoy their own piece of nearby green Takes the elderly out of their social isolation Many residents take pleasure in performing (physical) activities outdoors
Design with flexibility for potential users
De Hogeweyk, Weesp, NL | The wings of the building with 9 accompanying
Users change over time and everyone has a different idea of how common private green spaces are or should be used. (Peace, quiet, relaxation and healing versus gardening, socializing, playing). Unless the intent is clear in the design and fellow residents set up the ground rules, the success of the space is limited.
In new development:
Horticultural therapy benefits special needs groups
Consolidate existing parking and unusable green and transform it into usable green spaces for adjacent residents.
Provide space in dense urban development not just for parking and planting between buildings, but for usable green space. Consider the multifunctionality of spaces such as green roofs above parking.
In existing development:
courtyards were designed with various themes to stimulate early memories of the people with dementia who live there. Architect: Molenaar en Koeman | Designed by Niek Roozen bv
Provide city residents / workers / patients in dense urban environments with usable green space they can collectively call their own.
People who otherwise cannot maintain their own gardens are sometimes those who profit the most from gardening activities and exposure to green. People in hospitals, elderly homes, mental illness facilities, children’s hospitals, Alzheimers facilities, etc. can all benefit. Provide accessible therapeutic gardens including raised beds, barrier-free paths, sensorystimulating environments which awaken the five senses and places to relax. People with dementia that are able to work in the garden have less negative reactions and anger episodes than patients with no access to gardening.
Amsterdam, NL | Common courtyard with kitchen garden for the cooking students of Nowhere, a community centre.
Courtyards and roof gardens are ideal semi-private spaces
Amsterdam, NL | All the residents of Sciencepark are able to use the courtyard located between the buildings on top of the shared parking garage | Designed by Niek Roozen bv
42
Sources: Een Groene Gezonde Wijk; www.ahta.org
Spaces which can be occasionally or partially closed off and are within view of the user groups add to the success of semi-private green. The chances of low quality maintenance, misuse of the space and vandalism are reduced. Rooftops are also beneficial because of their multifunctionality in dense urban settings.
Culemborg, NL | A shared green space in the neighbourhood EVA Lanxmeer | Photo: Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten
43
Green+ neighbourhoods
14 Green business park Green business parks attract companies and employees
Benefits of green business parks
Companies are attracted to business parks with a green character in order to improve their own corporate image. Employees are attracted to companies who provide a pleasant working environment. By providing green views from office windows, worker productivity increases. Outdoor spaces for employees include lunch areas with a pleasant microclimate, walking and bicycle paths, benches and sports facilities.
• • • •
Provides attractive multifunctional spaces for business, recreation and ecology Helps create a positive green image many companies / industries aim for Provides a healthy environment for employees Increases the real estate value of parcels within the business park
Use business parks as a (green) link between the edge of the city and its surroundings
Park 20 / 20, Hoofddorp NL | Park 20 / 20 is a joint development from the
Traditional business parks often form a barrier between the city and the outskirts. Design business parks with green corridors and recreational opportunities so urban residents can reach urban forests outside the city.
“The quality of the workplace directly affects the work itself.” William McDonough, www.park2020.com
Make the “parks” in business parks and the “estates” in industrial estates true to their names.
In new development: Design new business parks with functional green spaces / corridors that are linked to the surrounding landscape or urban park network.
Delta Development Group, VolkerWessels and Reggeborgh Groep. The innovative concept integrates sustainabile building techniques, a high quality inspiring public space and a new way of working based on the Cradle to Cradle philosophy of William McDonough. Landscape design by Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten | Photo: Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten
Extend the use of business parks beyond working hours Business parks are large scale land uses that are intensively used during the weekdays. By including green spaces that can be used for recreation by both employees and residents, the useful hours are extended into early mornings and evenings as well as weekends. Many species of nocturnal animals also benefit from quiet business parks at night.
Three scenarios for adding green to business parks Source: Biodiversity conservation at business sites
In existing development: Convert flat roofs into green roofs and improve the existing green spaces within the business park in order to provide usable outdoor spaces for employees and increase biodiversity.
Increase the chances for nature to flourish Combine the efforts of entrepreneurs, businesses, urban planners, landscape architects and ecologists in order to reach a high quality combination of commerce and nature. Biodiversity can be increased by using plants and providing habitats that are beneficial to local wildlife. Make room for storm water management solutions that also function as landscape features. Green roofs can fulfil both of these goals on top of the businesses themselves.
convert flat roofs
improve the
create habitat
into green roofs
ecological
corridors through-
quality of the
out the site
existing green Leiden Bioscience Park, NL
44
Experts: Robbert Snep (Alterra – Wageningen UR), Bastiaan de Roo (Chamber of Commerce The Hague), Arda van Helsdingen (Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten) Sources: Biodiversity conservation at business sites; www.park2020.com
Leiden Bioscience Park, NL
45
Green+ neighbourhoods
15 Urban farming Reserve room in neighbourhoods for community / allotment gardens Inventory the demand and provide space throughout the city, no matter the size, for people to grow their own food. By scattering gardens across the city, people are able to garden closer to home, exchange ideas and seeds with neighbours, stimulate others to participate, and reduce the waiting lists for the larger community garden complexes on the edge of the city.
Havana, Cuba The citizens of Havana were able to make it through the ‘Special Period’ in 1989 by cultivating their own food and medicine on ‘huertos’ – unused land where crops are grown. Eventually the government established large organic market gardens (organoponicos) where local residents are employed to work the land and food is sold locally. By 2002, Havana was growing 90% of the city’s fresh produce within the city limits.
Claim land in the city for urban farming Detroit, Michigan, USA | Detroit, a city which suffers severely from postindustrial decline, is home to nearly 900 urban gardens operating on a notfor-profit model. These urban farms offer employment, fresh affordable food, the possibility of urban renewal and environmental improvement as well as a source of optimism within the community | Photo: http://www.urbanfarming.org
Cities can encourage and educate residents about the temporary development of vacant lots into green oases of food and flowers, they can sponsor events and plants or they can allow ‘guerilla’ gardening to emerge from resident initiatives. This not only provides healthy food for residents, gets them active and engaged in healthy outdoor activities, but also helps buffer water runoff in neighbourhoods and beautifies otherwise empty holes in the urban landscape. When development does eventually reclaim the land, the city can help the residents find a new parcel to garden. Larger parcels of land on the edge of the city where traditional industry is declining can provide more space for market gardens and allotment gardens.
Provide areas for edible green in public parks
De Tussentuin, Gaffelstraat, Rotterdam, NL | On a temporarily empty parcel of
Involve nearby residents in the design and maintenance of public green spaces and allow them to share in the harvesting of fruits, vegetables and herbs. Only provide edible plant beds if neighbouring residents are enthusiastic, and keep the design flexible so changes can be made to the gardens as residents and needs change over time.
land in the middle of Rotterdam, a group of residents came together and created a community garden where neighbours exchange seeds and ideas and proudly show off their harvest. There are 7 residents and a few school classes who garden, a designer, a beekeeper, a work group who organizes the music workshops and concerts, two gardeners who create a neighbourhood feast twice a year and a website. When development proceeds on the parcel of land, they hope to move to another prominent paved parcel in the
Reach residents who do not participate directly Demonstrations for children, programs for the homeless and food production for shelters are all ways to spread the benefits of urban gardening. Farmers markets also bring local producers and consumers in contact with eachother, something that city people really appreciate.
neighbourhood. Plan B is to spread the plants throughout the neighbourhood | Photo: Wolbert van Dijk
46
Experts: Wolbert van Dijk and Joke van der Zwaard (De Tussentuin), Griffin Felski (Drost Landscape), Mark Long (UK Green Forum), Fred Tonneijck (Triple E & Knooppunt Innovatief Groen), Sanda Lenzholzer (Wageningen University) | Sources: Groen Loont!; www.stroom.nl; http://www.urbanfarming.org
Benefits of urban farming • • • •
A place to grow safe fresh food with less “food kilometres” Children and adults learn where food comes from Opportunities for social projects for marginalised or socially excluded groups A social element that brings residents from different backgrounds and cultures together
Provide opportunities for urban residents to grow their own food within the city limits or even within their own neighbourhood.
In new development: Provide space in the city for community gardens and make them an integral part of urban development.
In existing development: Create temporary community gardens or allow crops to grow on unused parcels of land in the city. This will either stimulate development of the unused lots or act as a catalyst to green more areas of the city.
“In Detroit, urban farming has immense potential to catalyze change within the city, create thousands of greatly needed jobs and provide vast quantities of fresh, locally grown produce for the remaining citizens. However, urban farming is only a piece of what creates a successful green and self-sufficient city, and must be integrated with various forms of sustainable development in order to provide a desired result.” Griffin Felski, Landscape Architect
“Cuba was forced to develop ‘resilience’ and fast. It had to feed its people when the previous routes for doing so were closed off overnight. Urban agriculture is something that the rest of the world could develop – before it is forced to.” Mark Long, Director, UK Green Forum
UK | Urban farming opportunities | Photo: The Sensory Trust
47
Green+ neighbourhoods
16 Water runoff Integrate water into planning and design
Plaza dry
Surface storm water management solutions should be integrated into the overall design and planning of an area and involve a multidisciplinary team of professionals. This way technical as well as aesthetic issues are addressed at all phases of design. Be sure to consider maintenance requirements in the design in order to guarantee performance and quality.
Use water as a green solution
Plaza after a heavy rainfall
Bellamyplein, Rotterdam, NL | Bellamyplein, a multifunctional water plaza designed by ds + V, afdeling Stedenbouw, has the capacity to hold 750 m3 water during extreme rain in order to ease the storm sewer system in the
Combine water with the need for recreation and nature in the city or other green city solutions such as green roofs and green streets. Be sure that the solution appropriately ties in with the land use. Make stormwater visible in the design of public and private open spaces. Features add to the amenities in urban public green spaces. Create ways to not only buffer water but also to use it in times of drought.
Compensate paving with water All newly paved surfaces should be compensated by extra open water which equals at least 10% of the paved surface area.
High Tech Campus, Eindhoven, NL | Workers on the campus are able to walk around the lake and over the wetlands during breaks | Photo: Robert
Parc Grand Moulins, Paris, France | The park collects rain water from nearby
ten Elsen.
rooftops, allows it to flow through a series of ponds and wetlands and is then stored in an undergound tank to be used as irrigation | Photo: Robert ten Elsen
neighbourhood of Spangen. The plaza is 90% of the time dry | Photo: Gemeente Rotterdam, afdeling Stadsontwikkeling
Use trees to catch water runoff Trees are very effective at slowing runoff. They intercept peak rainfall, improve the infiltration capacity of the soil and can improve the quality of the water that is buffered. They also bring groundwater from the roots up to the surface where some evaporates and the soil is kept moister. Conifers are 3x more effective than deciduous trees.
Use plants to help purify water Biofiltering wetlands can be designed as functional and aesthetic solutions to surface water pollution. As water gradually filters through the plants into a series of basins, the pollution sediments are able to sink to the bottom. European Patent Office, Rijswijk, NL | The 25,000m2 roof garden includes a
48
Trees with a high capacity to intercept water runoff in The Netherlands Conifer trees: Abies, Picea, Pinus, Pseudotsuga menziessii Deciduous trees: Acer, Aesculus, Fagus, Quercus, Tilia, Ulmus
Plants used in biofiltering wetlands in The Netherlands Lysimachia nummularia, Sagittaria sagittifolia, Phragmites australis, Carex, Menyanthes trifoliata, Pontederia cordata, Sparganium emersum
series of gardens including a wetland and lake with ecological value | Photo:
Trees have a high capacity to intercept water runoff | Photo: Stichting
Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten
Open Boek
Experts: Fred Tonneijck (Triple E & Knooppunt Innovatief Groen) | Sources: Water Sensitive Urban Design; Over Bomen en Buien; www.bomenstichting.nl
49
Green+ neighbourhoods Benefits of water runoff in green
Techniques and technical solutions for Surface Stormwater Management technique
description
function
application
harvesting
above or underground cisterns
rainwater use
fountains, pools, etc.
bioretention shallow landscaped depressions which water treatment drain by filtering through the vegetation and soil biotopes ecologically stable landscape of water treatment plants and animals gravel / sand filters above or below ground chambers to treat runoff water treatment
landscaped element
edging along green spaces, channels, buildings
50
swales
linear planted drainage feature which allows detention + infiltration water to travel downstream or infiltrate
open spaces and parks
geocellular systems
prefab underground structures to store and slowly detention + infiltration infiltrate water
use in high density urban settings
detention pond (dry) surface storage basin holds stormwater and slowly detention + infiltration drains and settles particulates (otherwise dry) detention pond (wet) surface storage basin stores / holds rainwater and detention + infiltration circulates through other treatment techniques
landscape and recreational uses
channels open stormwater channels instead of sewerage
channels, streams, canals
ponds, lakes, recreation
passive
all green spaces with vegetation evapotranspiration evapotranspiration
urban green spaces, gardens
active
use water to directly influence temperature or evapotranspiration
rainwater walls, pools, fountains
Experts: Fred Tonneijck (Triple E & Knooppunt Innovatief Groen) Sources: Water Sensitive Urban Design; Over Bomen en Buien; www.bomenstichting.nl
evapotranspiration air quality
Decreases impervious surfaces in the city Increases public awareness of water Microclimate is cooler and more humid Decreases the risk of flooding and storm sewer overflow Less stormwater needs to be transported and processed in the sewerage system
wetlands, biofiltering wetlands
rooftop retention extensive or intensive green roofs or brown roofs detention + infiltration green roofs permeable paving paving that allows water to pass to a gravel subgrade detention + infiltration parking areas, where it can evaporate, infiltrate or be drained paved areas infiltration zones and planted areas with layers for retention, filtration detention + infiltration open spaces trenches and infiltration and parks
conveyance pipes underground
• • • • •
Solve runoff problems closer to the source in urban areas with surface storm water management instead of draining all the water into the sewer system.
...The Hohlgrabenächer housing development includes 265 private homes and 9 apartment buildings on a 16.7ha site in Stuttgart, Germany. The design aimed to save costs of storm water management through the application of green roofs, cisterns and pervious pavement instead of enlarging the sewer system for rain water drainage. Investment costs: The investment costs for conventional storm water management = G 938,000. The investment costs for a decentralised storm water management = G 532,900. Running costs: The savings per year for not using the conventional storm water management system = G 25,680. The total savings over 30 years = G 1,177,900... Water Sensitive Urban Design
In new development: Consider surface storm water management needs and solutions from the beginning of the planning and design process in order to provide the best integrated solutions for future runoff.
In existing development: Reduce the amount of impervious surfaces by replacing them where possible with the surface stormwater techniques (see next page) based on size, capacity, budget and surrounding development.
“If the design of a new development is actually based on the surface stormwater management solutions, with its accompanying green spaces, the amount of green spaces will also increase.” Water Sensitive Urban Design ...In a natural setting, 40% of the water goes to evapotranspiration, 25% to shallow infiltration, 25% to deep infiltration and 10% to runoff. In an urban setting, 30% of the water goes to evapotranspiration, 10% to shallow infiltration, 5% to deep infiltration and 55% to runoff... Over Bomen en Buien GWL, Amsterdam | Photo: Robert ten Elsen
51
Green+ neighbourhoods
17 Biodiversity Plant a wide variety of plants Pollen and nectar-rich trees, shrubs and perennials attract bees, butterflies and other insects which are essential for the pollination of plants. The pollinators themselves are food for many birds and small animals Plant a variety of berry and nut producing trees and shrubs to allow birds and other small animals to sustain themselves in urban areas. Create sheltered areas with dense shrubs as nesting, hiding and foraging places for birds and other small animals.
plants enhance the urban setting while giving a sense of the native character. Select those non-native species, such as Buddleia, that have added value for wildlife.
All forms and scales of urban green count Private gardens, water plants, water edges, city parks, green roofs, green walls, trees, hedges, meadows, borders, planters, street trees and shrubs all contribute to the biodiversity of urban areas.
Develop new / existing biotopes
Biodiversity of the planting at street level
Create stepping stones of wildlife habitats in between the paved urban environment to attract various sorts of plants and animals. In areas with water such as shallow ponds, natural processes provide habitat for water plants, amphibians, dragonflies and other aquatic insects, etc. The use of the right set of plant species will support the provision of sufficient food for native animals.
Trees, shrubs and groundcover plants along the street do not always have to consist of one single species. By varying the species, a broader range of wildlife species can be supported. Also, by pointing street light down, green lanes can function as migration zones for easily disturbed flying nocturnal animals such as bats.
Plant mix for biodiversity | Plants selected for their added biodiversity value (e.g. nectar source for butterflies and bees) can be attractive for people too. A Soontiëns Stadsnatuur project | Photo: Soontiëns Stadsnatuur
Plant choices are not limited to native species
“Attention for urban biodiversity makes that citizens have unique opportunities to experience the diversity of plant and animal life in their living and working environment.” Dr. Robbert Snep, researcher urban ecology, Alterra – Wageningen, UR
Many non-native plant species are well adapted to urban conditions as well as being colorful and attractive for use in parks, gardens etc. Combinations of native and non-native
Example of plants used in The Netherlands that benefit the biodiversity in the city trees, shrubs, vines & perennials
bees & bumblebees
butterfies
birds
Crataegus laevigata x media x x x Salix sp. x x x Buddleija davidii x x Rubus fructicosus x x x Hedera x x x x x Agastache Monarda x x Sedum spectabile / telephium x x Aronia sp x x Taxus x
52
shelter x x (x) x x
x x
Experts: Robbert Snep (Alterra – Wageningen UR), Marco Hoffman (Applied Plant Research, Wageningen UR), Soontiëns Stadsnatuur | Sources: Biodiversiteit in tuin en plantsoen; Groen Werkt Beter; Bedrijventerreinen kan bijdragen aan behoud biodiversiteit
Add to the opportunities to experience flora and fauna in the places where people live and work.
In new development: Integrate wildlife habitats in architecture and public and private green by using plant species and vegetation structures with added value for biodiversity. Interconnect the green of the development project with the overall green network in and surrounding the city, to support the migration of animals.
In existing development: Replace pavement where possible to create habitats for urban birds, bees and butterflies using a diverse mix of selected plants and flowers.
Benefits of biodiversity • • • •
Opportunity for citizens to experience wildlife in the place where they live and work Create habitats and food sources for (endangered) insects, birds and small animals Biodiversity creates more biodiversity (through cross pollination, more plants means more bees which means more plants) Adds colour and interest to the urban landscape Photo: Soontiëns Stadsnatuur
53
Green+ neighbourhoods
The High Line, New York City case study Friends of The High Line
Benefits
The original freight rail line was scheduled for demolition in the nineties and was only saved from this fate by the passionate advocacy and fund raising of a dedicated group of campaigners.
Preserving and developing the High Line has brought enormous benefit to Manhattan’s West Side. It brings much needed green space into the heart of the city, which in turn results in a whole raft of benefits, from recreational opportunities for people of all incomes and social/ethnic backgrounds, environmental benefits such as improved air quality and reduction of the heat island, right the way through to enhanced property values along the line.
Robert Hammond, Co-founder of the Friends of the High Line comments: “The High Line is many things – an historic artefact; a unique urban landscape; a social centre for a changing neighbourhood. But it is also an inspiring example of what can be accomplished when communities and their elected leaders work together for the common good. The High Line would not be here today were it not for the support our elected officials, neighbours, volunteers, and partners at civic organizations who rallied around us at the very beginning, when the idea was unpopular, and supporting it was truly visionary.”
Support The High Line is a public park built on an historic freight rail line elevated above the streets on Manhattan’s West Side. It is owned by the City of New York, and maintained and operated by Friends of the High Line, the non-profit conservancy that raises the essential private funds to support more than 90 percent of the High Line’s annual operating budget pursuant to a licensing agreement with the New York City Department of Parks & Recreation.
Phasing The first section of the park, which runs between Gansevoort to West 20th Streets, opened in June, 2009. The second section, which runs between West 20th and West 30th Streets, opened in June, 2011. Friends of the High Line continues to advocate for the preservation and transformation of the High Line at the Rail Yards, the third and final section of the historic structure, which runs between West 30th and West 34th Streets.
New York City, USA| Photo: Iwan Baan
54
Experts: Robert Hammond (Co-Founder, Friends of the Highline) | Source: Friends of the Highline
New York City, USA | The Highline Design is a collaboration between: James Corner Field Operations, project lead, landscape architecture, Diller Scofidio + Renfro architecture, Piet Oudolf planting design | Client: Friends of the Highline | maintainence & operations | Owner: City of New York | 2009 – present
Visitors Since the first section opened in June of 2009, the High Line’s popularity has exceeded expectations. The public park has welcomed more than four million people, comprising nearly equal proportions of New Yorkers and out-of-town visitors, making it one of the most highly visited public parks per acre in the city.
Revitalization Recognized as a significant contributor in the revitalization of Manhattan’s West Side, the High Line has become a defining feature in its neighborhood and a powerful catalyst for private investment. In 2005, the City rezoned the area around the High Line to encourage development while protecting the neighborhood character, existing art galleries, and the High Line. The combination of the rezoning and the park has helped to create one of the fastest growing and most vibrant neighborhoods in New York City. From 2000 to 2010, the population within the rezoned area has grown more than 60 percent. Since 2006, after the rezoning was approved and construction of the High Line began, new building permits in the immediate vicinity of the High Line doubled and at least 29 major development projects have been initiated (19 completed, 10 underway). Those 29 projects account for more than $2 billion in private investment, 12,000 jobs, 2,558 new residential units, 1,000 hotel rooms, more than 423,000 square feet of new office space and 85,000 square feet of new art gallery space. In May, construction began on a new downtown home for the Whitney Museum of American Art, which will serve as a major cultural anchor at the southern end of the High Line when it opens in 2015.
New York City, USA | Photo: Iwan Baan
55
Green+ neighbourhoods Literature: • Groen Loont!
• Over Bomen en Buien
[Green Pays!]
[About Trees and Rain]
Trees for Cities
• Alle extra groen helpt de luchtkwaliteit verbeteren
• Groen Werkt Beter
• Arda van Helsdingen, Director
[All extra green helps improve the air quality]
[Green Works Better]
Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten
• Groen voor Klimaat
• Bedrijventerreinen kan bijdragen aan behoud
• Wolbert van Dijk,
[Green for Climate]
biodiversiteit
Garden & Landscape Architect & Urban Designer
• Bomen: een verademing voor de stad
[Business parks can help preserve biodiversity]
De Tussentuin
[Trees: Relief for the city]
• Biodiversiteit in tuin en plantsoen
• Joke van der Zwaard, Urban Sociologist
• Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen
[Biodiversity in gardens and parks]
De Tussentuin • Filip Fraga, Project Manager
[Manual Air Purifying Green] • In herstructureringsplannen is groen een
• Sharon Johnson, Chief Executive
Websites:
sociale verbinder
Joram Nauta, Project Manager TNO Innovation for Life
[In revitalisation plans, green is a social connector]
• www.eva-lanxmeer.nl
• Eva Stache, Architect
• Buurtgroen en Sociale Cohesie
• www.groeneschoolpleinen.nl
Stache Architects bna
[Neighbourhood Green and Social Cohesion]
• www.ahta.org
• Jolanda Maas, Senior Researcher
• Recht op Groen
• www.forumforthefuture.org/greenfutures/articles/
EMGO Institute, VU Medical Center
[The Right to Green]
gardens-hidden-capital-revealed
• Robbert Snep,
• Groene meters II
• www.impala-eu.org
Researcher Urban Ecology and
[Green meters II]
• www.park2020.com
Green Businessparks
• Beweegvriendelijke wijken voor Kinderen
• www.stroom.nl
Alterra - Wageningen UR
[Exercise-friendly neighbourhoods for children]
• www.bomenstichting.nl
• Rotterdam gezond groen, gewoon doen [Rotterdam healthy green, just do it]
• Bastiaan de Roo, Director Leiden Chamber of Commerce The Hague
Experts:
• The Green City Post 2011
• Mark Long, Director UK Green Forum
• Prijsvraag Groene Speelplekken 2011
• Fred Tonneijck, Senior Advisor/Researcher
• Griffin Felski, Landscape Architect
[Design Competition Green Playgrounds 2011]
Triple E and Knooppunt Innovatief Groen
Drost Landscape
• Een Groene Gezonde Wijk
• Sanda Lenzholzer,
• Marco Hoffman, DLO Researcher
[A Green Healthy Neighbourhood]
Assistant Professor Landscape Architecture
Applied Plant Research – Wageningen UR
• Kom je buiten spelen?
Wageningen University
• Robert Hammond, Co-Founder
[Come out and play?]
• Vincent Kuypers, DLO Researcher
Friends of the Highline
• Hoera! Een Burgerinitiatief
Alterra – Wageningen UR
• ES Consulting
[Hooray! A Resident Initiative]
• Barry de Vries, DLO HBO Researcher
• Soontiëns Stadsnatuur
• De Levende Tuin
Alterra – Wageningen UR
[The Living Garden]
• Irini Salverda, DLO Researcher
• Biodiversity conservation at business sites
Alterra - Wageningen UR
Green+ streets
18 Green plazas 19 Air circulation & ventilation 20 Street layout
3
21 Right tree, right place 22 Use existing trees 23 Big healthy trees 24 Growing conditions 25 Quality maintenance Case study: London 2012 Olympics
• Water Sensitive Urban Design
56
For a complete list of literature and expert participants, see pages 94-97.
57
Green Green++ neighbourhoods streets 18 Green plazas Use trees and green as an urban shelterbelt Wind across an open urban plaza makes the space unattractive for people. Place planting and trees strategically to create comfortable spots for people to sit, walk and play.
Trees create comfortable outdoor spaces Shade under a tree can make the apparent temperature at ground level 5-20˚C cooler. The perceived temperature under a tree is lower due to the reduction of direct sunlight that reaches the ground and evapotranspiration of water via the leaves. Deciduous trees allow sun to reach the ground and heat the surface in winter and prevent the sun from reaching the ground and heating the surface in summer. Not only trees but also vine-covered pergolas and other planting can add to the shade solutions. Lower plants also help reduce surface heat.
Benefits of green plazas • Shade under trees makes outdoor areas usable on hot days • Sunny areas with no wind are usable on cold winter days • Green plazas are oases in the hard urban environment
“People want green and trees in plazas. Trees can function as protection from the wind and sun. But they need to be planted in the right spot, otherwise they can actually create a wind tunnel effect.” Sanda Lenzholzer, Wageningen University
Prevent local hot spots in urban plazas by planting trees to increase shade and reduce wind and make outdoor spaces more comfortable.
In new development: Base the design and layout of new urban spaces on the microclimate and existing conditions of the space and the way the plaza will be used. Use green to make spaces more comfortable.
Create a comfortable oasis of clean air in the city
In existing development:
Protect outdoor spaces from air pollution through the use of green elements and trees. Green can act as a buffer to prevent local sources of pollution such as from traffic from entering the plaza. Trees and shrubs can force the polluted air upwards so it blows over the plaza and not through it. A continuous canopy of trees over a plaza can prevent background air pollution from settling in the plaza.
Plant trees with wide canopies in order to increase the amount of shade on the surface in plazas, public outdoor spaces and along streets where shade is desired. Use shrubs, pergolas and green walls where wind protection is needed.
Vary the microclimate within the park The temperature, season and time of day determine where people prefer to sit in a plaza. Personal preferences also vary: some people enjoy sitting in the full sun, others prefer to sit in the shade. Provide a variety of places to sit, walk or play so everyone has a choice.
Shade in Madrid RIO Park, Spain Photographer: Jeroen Musch (copyright city of Madrid)
Expo Park, World EXPO 2010, Shanghai, China | The park contained enough trees to provide 60% shade for visitors to cool off during the warm summer months of the World EXPO. The breeze along the riverfront, together with the shade under the trees, provided an oasis away from the busy EXPO buildings on the other side of the street | Designed by Niek Roozen bv
58
Experts: Sanda Lenzholzer (Wageningen University), Pauline de Koning and Peter Schildwacht (BELW Advies bv), Triple E, ES Consulting continuous line Sources: Groen Loont!; Alle extra groen helpt de luchtkwaliteit verbeteren; Groen voor Klimaat; Bomen: een verademing voor de stad; Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen; www.west8.nl
Photo: PPH
59
Green Green++ neighbourhoods streets 19 Air circulation & ventilation
Use green to drive the polluted air upwards air circulation basis
air circulation with hedge
The air pollution from a local source can be reduced by thinning the polluted air with cleaner air. Encourage the mixture of local high concentrations of air pollution with cleaner air to prevent local hot spots. Air filtration alone cannot provide enough reduction. By creating a barrier effect, the air is driven upwards where it can mix with cleaner air in higher air layers. A continuous, closed and linear barrier is most effective. The ability of the air to return to background concentrations of air pollution when it reaches ground level depends on conditions such as weather, barrier type, barrier height and the local air pollution concentration. It is important to provide enough ventilation behind the barrier.
Benefits of air circulation • Buffers people from local sources of pollution • Reduces health risks due to exposure to air pollutants
Drive air upwards A vegetation barrier works best if the wind hits it at a 90˚angle (taking into account the prevalling wind direction). On the top of the barrier, the turbulence in the air mixes the polluted air with the passing cleaner air. The polluted air is forced upwards, where the concentrations will lower because of mixing with cleaner air. The air stream will flow back down to ground level after approximately 10-15x the height of the barrier.
Prevent the green tunnel effect air circulation basis
air circulation with trees
air circulation with hedges
Air circulation principles along streets | The sketches from the inter-regional project ‘Toepassen Functioneel Groen’ [Application of Functional Green] illustrate the way air circulation is affected with and without different types of green | Source: BELW Advies bv
60
It is important that the green solution does not increase the concentration of pollution locally. Tree canopies which form a tunnel (along narrow streets) have a negative effect on the flow of fresh air into the street and the flow of polluted air away from the street. The tunnel effect can be prevented by eliminating the obstruction, for instance by choosing a row of trees on only one side of the street or creating green façades on adjacent buildings.
Dilute the source concentrations of air pollution with higher layers of cleaner air.
In new development: Lay new streets and neighbourhoods out based on the wind direction and possible sources of air pollution.
In existing development: ...The negative effect on air quality from traffic will decrease by 5-30% with a special green structure compared to the situation without a green structure... Based on air models/research by IPL, VITO
Adjust existing green structures to avoid the green tunnel effect and encourage the flow of polluted air away from people and buildings.
The size and spacing of the green structure are important in forming an effective barrier A dense leaf structure, smooth regular habit and compact form create a solid barrier and keep turbulence down. The porosity should be as low as possible, preferably less than 30%, when used as a wind barrier. Create a closed (leaf) surface for optimal effect: horizontally (choose a planting distance which is smaller than the tree crown or plant width so there are not gaps between the plants) and vertically (use a combination of trees and shrubs for effect at various heights in the vegetation structure). Evergreen plants have a better effect than deciduous plants. Low hedges or green screens between the street and pedestrian zone act as a barrier to reduce the amount of gaseous pollutants and particulate matter emitted by cars near ground level that reach the pavement.
Experts: Pauline de Koning and Peter Schildwacht (BELW Advies bv), Fred Tonneijck (Triple E & Knooppunt Innovatief Groen), Arda van Helsdingen (Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten), Ceciel van Iperen (CROW), Triple E, ES Consulting | Sources: Effecten van groen op de luchtkwaliteit; IPL rapport 1b: Toepassingsadvies Schermen; IPL rapport 2b: Toepassingsadvies Vegetatie; Bomen, een verademing voor de stad; Alle extra groen helpt de luchtkwaliteit verbeteren; Stadsbomen voor een goede luchtkwaliteit; Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen; www.functioneelgroen.nl
Green barriers along highways are less effective for the reduction of noise than Flow of air behind a barrier.
artificial barriers. However, when used in combination, they can help reduce air pollution and noise and prevent graffiti. | Sketch: Luchtgroen Genk: BELW
Source: BELW Advies bv
Advies bv
61
Green Green++ neighbourhoods streets 20 Street layout Use trees to control wind
Benefits of street layout
Street trees work best if wind is not too strong yet enough ventilation is provided. Wind turbulence remains above the tree canopy in narrow streets while ventilating wind flows through the tree canopies and filters the particulate matter (PMIO) and gaseous pollutants from the cars. Porosity of the canopy should be more than 40% in order to allow trees to function optimally as air filters.
• • •
The planting layout is more important than the plant species Street design which uses green elements to improve air quality needs to be designed on a site-specific basis. A row of streets trees along a 30m wide street with low adjacent buildings may help clean the air, but those same trees along a 20m wide street with high buildings will worsen the air quality. The size of the trees, the distance to and height of adjacent buildings and the porosity of the trees all affect the capacity of the design to improve the experience at street level.
Choose other green alternatives if space is limited
Ningbo, China | Study of how to improve road conditions with green by NITA Ningbo and Niek Roozen bv.
If there is not enough room in the street profile for trees, use other methods such as hedges, green roofs, green walls (min. 5-7m high) and pergola structures with green to perform air filtering and/or ventilation functions. Groundcover plants also capture particulate matter at pedestrian level. Natural, uneven, extensively maintained plant mixes are more effective than mowed lawn.
Improves air quality at street level by up to 30% Creates a comfortable microclimate along streets for pedestrians and bicycles Provides structure and orientation in urban environments
Plant green along the street so it is functional, aesthetic and does not hinder the flow of traffic.
The sources and distribution of PM10 in a street with buildings on both sides In new development: Include enough room for green in the planning of infrastructure in order to optimize the effects on the air quality, wind and water runoff. 20% of the infrastructure surface should be reserved for green.
In existing development: background input pollution
turbulence of PM10
local concentration
height 5 to 7 meters
local input
turbulence of PM10
Total concept for the use of green in a street in order to improve the local air quality
Determine whether existing trees help or hinder the air quality of the street and adjust the design to provide optimal functioning of the trees and other green layers. Check the availablity of space for green, as well as the traffic safety regulations.
Provide bioretention of water in the streetscape Integrate green solutions for storm water management within the street right-of-way by reducing unnecessary impervious surfaces and replacing them with green swales, pavement planters and green curb extensions. This not only helps reduce the stress on storm sewer systems, but also adds to the aesthetics of the street.
Water retention solution next to the road | Photo: PPH
62
Experts: Fred Tonneijck (Triple E & Knooppunt Innovatief Groen), Ceciel van Iperen (CROW), Pauline de Koning and Peter Schildwacht (BELW Advies bv), Triple E, ES Consulting Sources: Alle extra groen helpt de luchtkwaliteit verbeteren; Stadsbomen voor een goede luchtkwaliteit; Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen
1. roof planting 2. green roof (higher edge) 3. block hedge (0.6-1.0 meter, allows air to flow through) 4. groundcovers, grass 5. block hedge as middle berm
(0.6-1.0 meter, allows air to flow through) 6. trees in triangle formation or in a line (prevent tunnel effect along the street) 7. block hedge (0.6-1.0 meter, allows air to flow through) 8. façade planting
Nijmegen, NL | Effective use of a green screen to capture PM10 along a street Photo: Fred Tonneijck
63
Green+ streets
21 Right tree, right place Choose tree species which adapt well to urban conditions
Benefits of the right tree
Urban conditions (soil compaction, tolerance of salt, drought, low maintenance), local climate conditions (rain, wind, temperature, humidity, winter hardiness) and the soil type all need to be considered when choosing which tree to plant.
• • • •
Plant trees whose full grown size fits in with the scale of surrounding uses Avoid the ‘green tunnel effect’ along streets where polluted air is trapped by too dense or too large trees and no ventilation. Either plant smaller trees or be sure that the porosity is more than 40% by choosing trees with open canopies or through sufficient maintenance. Also consider the amount of space available underground where the roots need to develop and above ground for crown development.
Trees fit with the scale of the buildings | Photo: Stichting Open Boek
Trees should enhance and not hinder their desired function
The right tree in the right place requires less maintenance A tree that can adapt to the urban conditions can reach maturity Properly placed trees have the most effect on air quality and provide shade where it is most needed The appropriate choice of tree species avoids damage to property
“Trees can only fully mature and function when they are carefully selected, taking into consideration their growth characteristics, site conditions (including available space) and the functions to be performed by the trees. These three aspects are equally important and always need to be considered simultaneously.” Jelle Hiemstra (Applied Plant Research – Wageningen UR)
Trees for shade should have big canopies in the warm months, trees for streets should have a high branch structure to prevent obstacles in the streetscape, use columnar trees in narrow streets, trees in small gardens should not overtake the entire space, park trees should fit with their location and function, etc. A tree that overgrows its boundaries will create negative opinions of trees in urban settings.
Choose the tree variety based on the desired function as well as the site conditions.
In new development: Trees should be included in the design at an early stage so they can be used for aesthetics and perform other beneficial functions such as air filtering, shade and wind. Let trees determine the character of development instead of the other way around: The right place for the right tree.
In existing development: Existing conditions should be studied to determine which tree variety, size and characteristics fit best aesthetically and functionally in the space.
Prevent hazardous situations Do not plant trees with falling fruit, seeds, uplifting roots or branches that fall in the wind in areas where they can cause damage, such as along streets, in parking areas and next to houses.
Choose tree species which require low maintenance for public spaces and streets Trees in a park | Photo: PPH
Trees on a shopping street | Photo:
Trees should be able to survive in changing weather / climate conditions or periods when the public maintenance budget is not secure.
GWO Laanbomen
64
Experts: Jelle Hiemstra (Applied Plant Research – Wageningen UR) Sources: Alle extra groen helpt de luchtkwaliteit verbeteren; De bomenplanner; The Green City Post 2011; www.straatbomen.nl
Trees along a wide street
Trees along a narrow street
Photo: GWO Laanbomen
Photo: Niek Roozen bv
Tree with room to mature | Photo: Stichting Open Boek
65
Green+ streets
22 Use existing trees Perform a tree survey Be sure that a tree is worth being saved before taking measures to design and build around it. First take an inventory of the size, location and species of all existing trees on the site. Ask a tree specialist to check the trees that are considered to be worth saving. The life expectancy, condition, stability and quality of the tree should be determined.
Plan ample space around existing trees Do not place buildings too close to an existing tree. Keep at least 5m between a building and the trunk of the tree (or more if the canopy is already larger than 10m in diameter). This allows the canopy and roots to develop to maturity. Do not cut large structural roots near the trunk to avoid instability of the tree.
Avoid underground conflicts
Benefits of existing trees • New development automatically gets a mature green character • Mature green is more valuable both aesthetically and economically • Existing tree structures provide a spatial quality only achieved after many years with new plants • Old trees have history and meaning for people and the site • Mature trees are most effective in providing the desired functions
“A mature beech tree with a trunk diameter of 100cm removes 11x more PM10 than a corresponding tree with a trunk diameter of 20 centimetres.” Fred Tonneijck (Triple E & Knooppunt Innovotief Groen)
When renovating underground situations such as cables and pipes, do not use heavy digging equipment around existing trees. Dig by hand near the roots to avoid damage.
value a mature tree would bring as a centerpiece in a nearby plaza. When a forested area of the Willem van den Bergh Institute was thinned for development, one of the trees was transported from one end of the campus to the other and successfully replanted | Designed by Niek Roozen bv
Transplant trees if possible Ask a tree specialist if it is possible to transplant trees. This varies per species, root system and availability to adapt to the new situation. Trees should be transplanted with a root ball as big as possible, including fine roots. Growth conditions and maintenance are important in the new location.
66
In new development: Let existing valuable / characteristic trees inspire or become the basis for new development. Be sure the design incorporates the needed space for trees and green to thrive in the new surroundings. Protect and monitor the trees during the entire construction process.
In existing development: Trees and green should be incorporated into the redesign of areas and be given more room if needed so the trees can reach their optimal form. Be sure to protect trees both above and underground during the construction process.
Protect trees during construction
Noordwijkerduin, NL | The client, ‘s Heeren Loo, was convinced of the added
Consider existing trees as assets to a development from the beginning phases of design through construction.
Building specifications should clearly state what the protocol is around existing trees and green. Place a fence around a tree at least as big as the canopy in order to keep growing conditions optimal and protect the roots and canopy from machinery. Be sure that the area around the tree does not become storage for building supplies and equipment or a dumping ground for building waste and oil. Inspect the ground water tables in case of (temporary) level changes or pollution that could damage the trees. Include a penalty clause in the contract if trees are damaged.
Guarantee growing conditions after construction After all construction is completed (including the new surrounding landscaping), trees and plants should be checked for damage and soil conditions should be monitored for quality. Maintenance should begin immediately thereafter.
Experts: Fred Tonneijck (Triple E & Knooppunt Innovotief Groen), Jelle Hiemstra (Applied Plant Research – Wageningen UR), Arda van Helsdingen (Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten) Sources: Groen Loont!; De bomenplanner
Amsterdam, NL | Photo: PPH
Existing tree protection during construction.
67
Green Green++ neighbourhoods streets 23 Big healthy trees Green character is established quicker with large healthy trees and mature green Healthy trees planted in a healthy environment have more influence in the short term as well as the long term on the green character, value and usability of green spaces, real estate and the health of surrounding residents. The usability, attractiveness and effectiveness is not only visible right after construction, but improves as time goes on. These benefits should be weighed into the budget of green projects.
Canopy area should be compensated, not the number of trees
Floriade 2002, Haarlemmermeer, NL | Large trees with healthy rootballs were
Cities should base their tree regulations on the quality of the trees more than on the amount of trees planted. When mitigating the loss of existing trees (which has a negative effect on air quality), the canopy area of the removed trees should be compensated, not the number of trees.
Large healthy trees have a better survival rate Trees with a trunk diameter of 30-35cm (measured 1m from the ground) have a better rate of survival because they are more established and less susceptible to diseases, molds, bacteria, wind, etc. Vandalism occurs less to trees with a minimum trunk diameter of 20-25cm. The root ball should also be large, compact and contain some fine roots. The costs of replacing dead trees are high when compared to the price of larger specimens.
Trees should be able to adapt to the urban conditions The suppliers of plant material should take into account the eventual conditions that the plants will need to survive in. The production process should include a period of adaptation (transplanting, etc.) so the plants are not shocked in their new urban environment.
Plant big quality trees and shrubs in urban areas in order to achieve the desired green result directly after realisation.
“Scientific and market-conform calculations show that the Integrated Planting Method actually saves money in the long term. The construction costs are two times more expensive than the traditional forest thinning method, but the maintenance costs are actually 60 - 75% lower.” Dr. Frits Ruyten, landscape architect, Integralis PP
planted at the Floriade 2002 site so the desired landscape character could be achieved quickly | Designed by Niek Roozen bv
Benefits of big trees in green spaces
Tree planting in urban green spaces
68
‘The Integrated Planting Method’
The Traditional Forest Thinning Method
Designed by Frits Ruyten and tested in the Prins Bernhardbos in The Netherlands, 1999 and later in other locations
Originally used in forests planted for wood production
• • • •
• Small tree seedlings planted in rows • Tree seedlings spaced from 1-5m between trees planted on a grid
Trees planted: 6-7m height, 2.5-3m crown width Trees spaced: 10m or more between trees Shrubs planted: 1.5-2m height, 1.25-1.50m wide Shrubs spaced: 5m or more (planted at the location desired when the trees/shrubs reach maturity)
Plant costs are high, maintenance costs are low
Plant costs are low, maintenance costs are high (15 years of removing and pruning trees)
Can be used directly after realisation
Takes about 15 years to fill in and gain a forest or mature park character
Sources: Integrale beplantingsmethode levert geslaagd Prins Bernhardbos op; Groen Loont!; De bomenplanner; Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen
• • •
Big healthy trees give a project an instant green character Large healthy trees require less maintenance and have a less chance of dying Larger trees are less susceptible to vandalism
In new & existing development: Convince developers of the short term as well as the long term benefits of using big plant material in projects and secure the budget for quality planting and design.
Leiden, NL | Newly planted trees along the Vijfmeilaan
69
Green+ streets
Photo: Stichting Open Boek
24 Growing conditions Trees need quality soil to grow
Trees have specific water needs
Soil should have good air circulation, organic content, porosity, water storage capacity and soil biology. Enough decomposition should occur in the ground in order to convert some of the compounds from the dust particles collected by the trees into harmless compounds. Remove sterile building sand and replace with the appropriate soil mixture depending on the situation.
Especially during the first year of planting, maintenance and water should be budgeted into the project to guarantee that the trees grow. Avoid digging planting beds deeper than 20cm above the groundwater table. Do not use the planting beds around trees as drainage for surrounding pavement because of the damage resulting from the excess water or salt.
Roots need room to grow
Do not allow soil compaction to occur
Prevent the ‘flower pot effect’ by providing enough underground growing room with the right conditions. The size of the tree planting area depends on the surrounding uses above ground (park or yard vs. street or building), the size of the tree, and how high the water table is. The rule of thumb is 1m3 space under ground per growing year for healthy root growth. At the design stage, the mature size of the tree should be considered. Excessive pruning due to adjacent buildings, powerlines, etc. denies the tree its necessary energy (leaves are the lungs of the tree).
If too much compaction occurs under pavement (traffic areas) then root growth is limited due to less porosity, air circulation and water drainage / availability. Compacted soil does not allow water to infiltrate and reach the root zone and groundwater table.
Benefits of good conditions
Characteristics of soil used for trees in urban settings
tree soil
tree sand
tree granulate
organic matter
high content (5-7%)
4-5%
structure
open and loose
mix of course sand and organic matter
60% rocky material mixed with 40% compost, peat or clay
porosity
65%
50%
amount of traffic
no traffic within canopy radius
light traffic
location
open ground: parks, green areas, green strips between paving and grass/planting
under sidewalks, bicycle paths, parking
under streets (with good circulation)
min. points
not suitable under pavement and traffic
must be professionally mixed to avoid compaction, lack of oxygen and drying out
must be professionally mixed because it does not mix evenly, also difficult to dig holes for utility work
medium to heavy traffic
Tree roots need adequate oxygen This can be achieved by the proper soil type with porosity or with a perforated pipe network with 40% perforation under the pavement. Pavement which is damaged by roots is usually caused by roots searching for oxygen closer to the surface.
• • • • • •
Trees are able to reach maturity Trees are healthier and more vigorous Trees perform optimally (provide shade, clean the air, etc.) Trees require less maintenance and control which saves money in the long term Less problems such as damaged paving, diseases and pests Healthy roots have a positive effect on the capacity of the ground to buffer water
“Green in the city ... provide the right conditions ... and nature will do the rest.” De bomenplanner
Create the proper growing conditions for urban trees so they are healthy and can perform optimally.
In new development: Remove building sand in all tree and plant beds and replace with planting soil. Design not only above ground but also underground so there is ample room for trees to grow.
In existing development: Street renovation should not only be based on traffic circulation but also the optimal growing space for the new or existing street trees. Street profiles, space underground and soil type should be adjusted to prevent problems such as paving damage due to roots.
Space needed for various tree sizes
large
medium
small
max. height max. canopy dia. length of bed min. width of bed
>12m 10-15m 6-12m 3-4.5m
6-12m 7-10m 4-8m 2.5-3.5m
<6m 5-7m 2-3m 1.5-2m
Source: Kwaliteitseisen Boombeheer Beheerrichtlijnen versie 2007 NOCB, from Bomensubstraten en hun toepassing
Source: Bomensubstraten en hun toepassing
70
Experts: Arda van Helsdingen (Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten) Sources: Groen Loont!; Alle extra groen helpt de luchtkwaliteit verbeteren; Praktijkbrochure Bomensubstraten en hun toepassing; De bomenplanner
71
Green+ streets
25 Quality maintenance Maintenance is a long term commitment
Involve all parties who are affected by the results
A plan should be set up for all green projects in order to guarantee the quality and functionality of the trees and other plants. A systematic multi-year maintenance plan includes water schedules and amounts, pruning schedules, fertilizing and control of soil.
Are everyone’s expectations being met with the level of maintenance provided, including the local government, the contractor, the residents, the users and the businesses. If not, bring everyone to the table to understand what their impression of quality maintenance is compared to the available resources (money, manpower) and find solutions to achieve this. Find funds from various sectors who also profit from an attractive urban environment. Ask residents to communicate with the maintenance experts when the agreed-upon standard is not being met.
Maintenance is an investment Well maintained quality green is more attractive, thereby raising the value and usage of green spaces as well as the value of the surroundings. Unmaintained and overgrown green creates negative attitudes toward green in urban areas. Falling branches are dangerous to people and property and are more costly to repair than routine pruning. Funds should be reserved for maintenance based on a cost-benefit-analysis.
Design and maintenance go hand in hand Abu Dhabi, UAE | An attractive streetscape that is maintained to a high standard in the city of Abu Dhabi.
From the beginning of the planning process through the choice of landscape and plant materials, designers should take into account the effects these have on maintenance after it is built. There should be a balance between design and maintenance capabilities, including budget, initiative and ability.
Maintenance technique used to assure quality:
Allow trees to reach their full potential by providing proper maintenance from day one.
In new development: Guarantee proper maintenance, especially in the first years after planting, by stating clearly in the project specifications the requirements for care, water and fertilizer. Budget the time and money for maintenance from the beginning so it is not seen as an extra cost later.
Benefits of maintenance • • • •
Attractive well maintained green is treated with respect by users and surrounding residents Attractive well maintained green raises the value of surrounding properties Preventable accidents such as falling branches and uplifted pavement can be avoided by timely control and maintenance Well maintained green spaces are perceived as being safer green spaces that are well maintained
In existing development: Take an inventory of maintenance needs in the city based on a desired level of quality, set up a yearly plan, train the people who will carry the plans out and reserve a budget to raise the quality of the existing green.
Cyber Adviseurs has developed a technique for cities to assure the quality of maintenance meets the standards of the user groups. By using images of the various levels of maintenance, agreements can be made between the balance of
“Ultimately, a green area’s suitability for use is determined by the maintenance it receives.” Piet Eilander, Amsterdam’s Greenery, Ecology, Urban Recreation and Water team, in The Green City Post 2011
budget and expectations and the workers can clearly see when they need to perform certain maintenance tasks.
72
Experts: Frans Bouwman (Cyber Adviseurs), Fred Tonneijck (Triple E & Knooppunt Innovatief Groen) Sources: Groen Loont!; Community Green: using local spaces to tackle inequality and improve health; Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen; The Green City Post 2011
Street trees require care.
73
Green+ streets
London 2012 Olympics case study Green Infrastructure The London 2012 Olympics is an iconic event with green space at its heart. The site of the London Olympic Games was made up of contaminated and derelict land, leftover following the slow decline of a range of polluting industries including tanning, rendering and vehicle dismantling. Not only did it offer the space for the development of an outstanding sporting facility, it also had the potential to contribute to the economic recovery and environmental improvement of the site itself and surrounding area.
“London is the first summer host city to embed sustainability in its planning from the start... we have used the Games as a catalyst for the regeneration and improvement of quality of life in East London. A multi-functional landscape addressing biodiversity, flood risk management, carbon sequestration, energy, water use, walking and cycling will set the context for continuing legacy development for new and existing communities.” John Hopkins, Project Director, Olympic Delivery Authority
London, UK | designers: LDA Design & Hargreaves Associates | Client: Olympic Delivery Authority | 2012
The ‘Greenest’ Games The green space element is key to London 2012 – an event that sets out to be the ‘Greenest Games’. It is a core element of its sustainability thrust, itself a cornerstone of the event.
Working with leading landscape architects and designers, landscape contractors and the nursery stock industry, the ODA has set a standard for putting green infrastructure at the heart of developments like this and ensuring that green space is a central part of the sustainability of the project. Photo: London 2012
Quality Green Space From the start, the Games have set out to deliver superb sporting facilities, supported by the kind of public realm that will allow athletes to rest and relax between events and as a result, perform to their best ability. This environment includes quality green infrastructure, a ‘green canopy’ that provides habitat and shade, and 10 hectares of new wetlands and parkland. It includes more than 2000 new trees and 100 000 plants and space for cycling, picnics and play. As well as providing a wonderful environment for athletes and spectators, when the games are over, the Olympic park will become a resource for the residents of the 3000 homes that will be created from the athletes’ accommodation, and for residents of the surrounding boroughs.
74
Experts: John Hopkins (Olympic Delivery Authority), Mark Long (UK Green Forum) Sources: London 2012
Photo: London 2012
Photo: London 2012
75
Green+ streets Literature:
Websites:
Experts:
• Groen Loont!
• www.west8.nl
• Fred Tonneijck, Senior Advisor/Researcher
[Green Pays!]
• www.functioneelgroen.nl
Triple E and Knooppunt Innovatief Groen
• Alle extra groen helpt de luchtkwaliteit verbeteren
• www.straatbomen.nl
• Pauline de Koning, Landscape Architect
[All extra green helps improve the air quality]
Green+ buildings
Peter Schildwacht, Air Specialist, Biologist
• Groen voor Klimaat
BELW Advies bv
[Green for Climate]
• Sanda Lenzholzer,
• Bomen: een verademing voor de stad
Assistant Professor Landscape Architecture
[Trees: Relief for the city]
Wageningen University
• Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen
• Arda van Helsdingen, Director
[Manual Air Purifying Green]
Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten
• Effecten van groen op de luchtkwaliteit
• Ceciel van Iperen,
[Effects of green on air quality]
Project Manager Living Environment
• IPL rapport 1b: Toepassingsadvies Schermen
CROW
[IPL report 1b: Advice for applying screens]
• Eva Stache, Architect
26 Green oriented to buildings 28 Green roofs 29 Green walls
• IPL rapport 2b: Toepassingsadvies Vegetatie
Stache Architects bna
[IPL report 2b: Advice for applying vegetation]
• Jelle Hiemstra, Senior Researcher
• Stadsbomen voor een goede luchtkwaliteit
Applied Plant Research – Wageningen UR
[City trees for good air quality]
• Frans Bouwman, Director
• De bomenplanner
Cyber Adviseurs
[The Tree Planner]
• John Hopkins, Project Director
• The Green City Post 2011
Olympic Delivery Authority
• Integrale beplantingsmethode levert geslaagd
• Mark Long, Director
Prins Bernhardbos op
UK Green Forum
[Integrated planting method is a success in
• ES Consulting
the Prins Bernhardbos]
• London 2012
27 Buildings blend into landscape
4
30 Green indoors Case study: Vancouver Convention Centre
• Praktijkbrochure Bomensubstraten en hun toepassing [Practical brochure Tree soils and their application] • Community Green: using local spaces to tackle inequality and improve health
76
For a complete list of literature and expert participants, see pages 94-97.
77
Green+ buildings
26 Green oriented to buildings Prevent cold winter winds near the building Coniferous windbreaks planted between cold winter winds and a building reduce heat loss inside buildings. Wind speed can be up to 70% less directly behind a planting structure. Avoid dense trees in the direction of cooling summer breezes. The reduction of relatively low wind speeds (max. 4m/second = 1.5-10mph) can mean an annual savings of 10% on energy consumption for heating. For greenhouses the savings are 15-40%.
Benefits of adjacent green • • • • •
Reduces the energy demands of buildings by up to 10% Reduces the use of air conditioning in the summer Reduces the use of heating in the winter Maintenance on building façades is less if shielded from excessive wind and sun Indoor ventilation and climate is improved
In new development:
Prevent excess sun from reaching the building
Hotel in Abu Dhabi, UAE | The hotel is surrounded by a lush green landscape which not only provides a comfortable climate just outside the lobby for guests and passersby, but also helps shade the lower levels of the building
Improve the microclimate around and in buildings by placing trees and green structures strategically outside buildings.
Include green around buildings as a sustainable building technique used to calculate the energy coefficient. Calculate green into the budget for new buildings because of the integral role it plays in meeting these standards.
Trees planted on the east and west sides of buildings block summer sun before it enters the building, therefore reducing the need for air conditioning. Large deciduous trees on the south side not only block summer sun but also allow winter sun to filter through the empty branches and warm the building. Temperatures are also reduced by transpiration in the warm growing season.
In existing development: Plant trees in the right place to change the microclimate directly outside a building so fluctuations in sun and wind are less dramatic, resulting in a more consistent indoor climate.
against the sun.
Prevent air pollution from entering the building Trees planted outside act as a pre-filter for the air that eventually enters the building. The air has already gone through a filtering process by flowing through the tree canopy first. Place planting structures close to buildings so polluted air rises above the building or is led along the building.
Place planting near ventilation ducts Place evergreen plants near the in-going ventilation ducts of a building. This improves the quality of the air that enters the building. Deciduous plants also help shade and cool the areas around the ventilation ducts in summer and allow the sunlight to warm the ingoing air in the winter.
Use trees to filter background pollution Deciduous trees along the south-facing office windows provide shade in the summer and allow sun to pass through in the winter.
78
Experts: Pauline de Koning and Peter Schildwacht (BELW Advies bv), ES Consulting Sources: Groen Loont!; Groen voor Klimaat
Do not only place trees to filter pollutants next to the source of pollutants (industry, streets, etc.) but also around sensitive objects such as schools, hospitals, elderly homes, etc. These are the groups most susceptible to the health hazards of air pollution.
Musee de Quai Branley, Paris, France | Design by ECO Architect Patrick Blanc
Arnhem, NL | Large vertical green planters placed in front of an existing façade
Photo: Robert ten Elsen
Photo: NEXIT Architecten
79
Green+ buildings
27 Buildings blend into landscape Anchor the form of the building in its surroundings Use the natural characteristics of the site itself and its surroundings (not just the program and functions) to determine the size and form of a building. Situate the building based on the climate, microclimate, topography, existing trees and water. Connect the building to these characteristics by providing views to and from the landscape and creating physical links for people. The urban cityscape is also a type of landscape that can guide the principles of a building’s design.
Benefits of blending • • •
Saves on energy costs inside the building (cooler indoors in summer and warmer in winter) Enhances the sense of place Encourages sustainability practices in the design
“The problem with sustainable building is that the environmentally friendly construction practices often remain hidden to the eye.” Wytse Algra, Dura Vermeer in The Green City Post 2011
Encourage the multi-functionality of buildings
Sportplaza Mercator, Amsterdam, NL | The use of green walls blends the
By combining functions and uses within buildings, such as parking below offices or retail under housing, more room is left in the urban landscape for green spaces. Green can also be incorporated into the building itself through the use of green roofs, green walls and atriums.
buiding with its surrounding sports facilities. The building is located in downtown Amsterdam | Photo: Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten
Use the landscape to help create energy-efficient buildings
Capture the sense of place and use the natural characteristics of a site to inspire the design of buildings.
...Ypenburg which is located next to the Delftse Hout nature reserve. “Here, ecologists, city architects, landscapers and real estate developers teamed up. The final result gave the Ypenburg residents the impression they were living in a natural beauty spot as opposed to actually living next to it...” Willem Weeda, Mostert de Winter in The Green City Post 2011
In new development: Situate buildings based on the existing conditions of a site and use them to the design’s advantage.
In existing development: Connect the building to its surroundings by providing views to and from the landscape. Combine functions by creating parking garages in the city to make room for more urban green spaces.
Energy usage inside buildings can be reduced by using the landscape as insulation in the form of green roofs, green walls or semi-underground spaces. The orientation of buildings and the location of windows should be designed based on the position of the sun and prevailing winds. Water management of a building site can be combined with the architectural design. The location of the building should not interfere with the natural drainage patterns of the site. Green roofs decrease the amount of water runoff and storage areas for water allow buildings to re-use grey water for toilets or irrigation. The use of local materials also adds to the sense of place of a building while also reducing the carbon footprint.
Blend the landscape into the buildings De Hoek, Hoofddorp, NL | The business park near Schiphol Airport, developed by Segro and designed by Urhahn Urban Design, is an ecologically sustainable concept with green roofs, inspired by the surrounding polder landscape | Image: Urhahn Urban Design
80
Experts: Arda van Helsdingen (Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten), Urhahn Urban Design Sources: De Bouw Kleurt Groen; The Green City Post 2011; Bouwen met Groen en Glas
The surrounding landscape can also be extended into, over or around the buildings. Landscape design can be used to enhance the character of the site and create a balance between the architecture and the natural characteristics of the site and its surroundings.
Katwijk, NL | Plants and materials used on the site to root the buildings into the
High Tech Campus in Eindhoven, NL | Photo: Robert ten Elsen
surrouding dune landscape.
81
Green+ buildings
28 Green roofs Only choose hardy plants which are able to survive in rooftop conditions
Benefits of green roofs
Extensive roof garden plants should be able to survive and grow in high temperatures, full sun, high wind speeds and periods of drought. The should be able to survive in a thin substrate layer, a small waterbuffer and fluctuating temperatures.
• • • • • • • •
The best plants for extensive roofs are:
Rotterdam Climate Initiative: green roofs | “Rotterdam gives subsidies of G 30. per square metre to homeowners to build a green roof. The price of a vegetated roof starts at G 45. per square metre, so the subsidy is substantial.” Alexandra van Huffelen, municipal councillor Rotterdam in ‘De Bouw Kleurt Groen’
• Perennial, low, seed-forming, drought tolerant plants • Succulent plants with grey hairs or a thick blue layer on the leaves (sedum and sempervivum are available as plants or as ready-made living mats) • Plants with strong woody twigs or thin leatherlike leaves • Annuals that bloom once and go to seed so they always return
A larger variety of plants can grow on an intensive roof garden The plants have more soil, water and fertilizer availability. Location factors for plants include the height of the roof, wind speeds, irrigation availability, sun position, relation to other buildings, climate zone
The best plants for intensive roofs are:
ING Bank, Amsterdam, NL | The concept for the rooftop landscape was to bring
• Plants that don’t get too big (maximum weight capacity), grow in full to half sun, can tolerate wind (do not use plants with lots of seeds that blow away, high plants with breakable or falling stems or plants with strong spreading roots) • Perennials should be suitable for full sun and fully cover the ground • Eco-roofs should consist of native plants • Shrubs should be winter hardy, not be sensitive to wind, grow in full sun and grow in normal to dry soil, solitary shrubs can be pruned like trees. Low, drought tolerant shrubs are good choices • Trees should only grow up to 6m high, not be sensitive to wind, have a crown that is not too big and open • Trees with shallow roots must be anchored
nature back into the city. This garden, built in 1985-87 and designed by Copijn, still functions after 25 years | Photo: Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten
82
Experts: Peter Fraanje (Bouwend Nederland), Niek Roozen (Niek Roozen bv landscape architects) Sources: Dak en Gevel Groen; Groen Loont!; Bomen voor Daken 2011 poster; Groen voor Klimaat; Daktuinen verbeteren leefomgeving; De Bouw Kleurt Groen
Life of the roof is up to 20 years longer Insulates the building against cold and warm Gives a “green” image Absorbs noise and vibrations Makes solar panels more efficient Eases the peak flow in stormwater sewers; lessens the urban heat island effect; produces oxygen; absorbs carbon dioxide Captures particulate matter, absorbs gaseous pollutants Improves the living and working environment
Create green roofs on new and existing buildings and fulfil the need for green where space is limited in the urban environment. ...The price of a garden is the same on the ground as on a roof: the land is already paid for! The extra costs of the roof construction / preparation, special soil mixture preparation and transportion of the materials to the roof make up the difference... Niek Roozen, landscape architect
Criteria for building a green roof Depth of soil: Weight: Maintenance:
• 7-10 cm for sedum, moss • 25 cm for for shrubs • 80 cm for trees (0,75m3 per m2 canopy) • 30-130 kg for 2-15 cm soil • 130-300 kg for 15-20 cm soil • 250-1000 kg for 15-80 cm soil • A conventional roof requires inspection 1x per 5 years • An extensive green roof requires inspection 1x per year and weeding (no irrigation required) • An intensive green roof requires inspection 8x per year (weeding, pruning and fertilizing) and always requires irrigation in dry periods.
In new & existing development: Check local building codes and permits and have a structural engineer check the plans to be sure the roof is strong enough to hold the weight. It is also wise to compartmentalize the roof so it is easier to find the sources of possible leaks and prevent damage to neighboring roofs.
In existing development: The existing roof must be in good condition, strong enough, insulated and waterproof. Check if the insulating layer is under the waterproofing layer or over it and design accordingly. A layer of root barrier is also needed.
List of trees successfully used on roof gardens in The Netherlands: Nothofagus antarctica Amelanchier lamarckii Taxus baccata Cornus mas
Pyrus salicifolia ‘Pendula’ Pinus nigra ‘Nigra’ Betula utilis ‘Doorenbos’
This roof garden uses the Zorgeloos Groen technique by Heijmans Sport en Groen | Photo: Heijmans Sport en Groen
83
Green+ buildings
29 Green walls Green walls can be created with vines Use twining or clinging self-climbers and provide support if needed. Be sure to replace building sand with proper soil so the vines can grow. The advantages of vines are that they grow from the ground up, they do not need irrigation and they can reach a height of up to 20-25m. The disadvantage of vines is that they take a long time to establish. Self-climbing vines include Hedera helix and Parthenocissus tricuspidata (not on north-facing walls). Twining or climbing vines on climbing racks include Ampelopsis, Aristolochia, Celastrus orbiculatas, Humulus lupulus, Wisteria and Vitis.
Green walls can be created using planters Spoorhoek, Arnhem, NL | Vertical planters are built in front of an existing façade and filled with sedum, grasses, groundcover plants and vines. The project ‘Standing Garden’ was designed by NEXIT Architecten together with Buro Poelmans Reesink Landschapsarchitecten and built by Koninklijke Ginkel Groep | Photo: NEXIT Architecten
Use climbing and hanging plants and shrubs in the planters. Hang planters on the wall or install ready-made planters with climbing racks. The advantages of planters are that irrigation is needed but the plants can survive if it is temporarily not used, fertilizer can be provided directly into the soil or given in the water and the results can be seen after 1-2 years. The disadvantages of planters are that they can be expensive and maintenance is needed a few times per year. Climbing plants for planters include Hedera, Actinidia, Akebia and Periploca. Hanging plants include Hedera and Jasminum nudiflorum.
Green walls can be created with façade panels
Darthuizen, NL | Plant mix used by Mobilane on a living wall
84
Use annuals, perennials and small shrubs which grow in special growing panels. “Living wall” techniques include a geotextile cloth with holes and sacks where plants are rooted, vertical hanging plastic plates, façade modules with soil or mineral wool substrate, vertical sedum mats (no irrigation needed) and free-standing wall systems. The advantage of façade panels is that the results can be seen after only a few months. However irrigation is always necessary, the panels are relatively expensive and they need weekly maintenance. Plants for façade panels include hanging plants, annuals, perennials and groundcover plants. Choose perennials and shrubs for leaf form and colour more than their temporary flower colour. All annuals are good if they are not too big and some even absorb NO2 such as Nicotiana, Petunia and Cosmos.
Experts: Robbert Snep (Alterra – Wageningen UR), Soontiëns Stadsnatuur, Triple E Sources: Dak en Gevel Groen; Gevelgroen maakt inhaalslag; Planting green roofs and living walls; http://vroegevogels.vara.nl
Benefits of green walls • • • • • • • • • •
Improves the indoor climate and reduces energy needs indoors Absorbs noise Offers unique possibilities for design and advertising Insulates the façade against cold and warm Protects the wall from water and sun Helps lower summer temperatures in the city Helps improve air quality in the city Brings nature to the city Creates more views of green in the city Is an efficient use of space for green in the city
Conditions for determining wall type: Façade orientation to the sun, weight-bearing capacity, sensitivity to damp, wind turbulence Planting preferred density, perennial or seasonal, evergreen or deciduous, adapted to dry/wet panels
Create green walls on new and existing buildings in order to fulfil the need for green where space is limited.
In new devlopment: Façade panels can be integrated into the building design if planned at the beginning of the building design process and engineered to hold the weight (80-100 kg/m2).
In existing devlopment: Use vines planted in the ground or light planter systems where the plants can grow on climbing racks against the façade or use hanging plants in planters as a curtain in front of the Façade. A planter built in front of the wall (but not attached) is also possible.
Irrigation tap water or rainwater, fertilizer, recirculation, distribution after watering, timed irrigation or damp sensor, empty hoses after watering or not Façade panels accessibility to wall, ornamental value throughout the year, necessary maintenance, procedure of replacing panels/plants
...Greenpark Rotterdam, Westblaak is a parking garage in Rotterdam with a 5,000m2 green façade which is due to be completed in 2011. The green façade was designed by Kühne & Co Architektburo for West Star. This is a project associated with the Rotterdam Climate Initiative. www.vroegevogels.vara.nl
Szczecin, Poland | Vine-covered façade | Photo: Robert ten Elsen
85
Green+ buildings
30 Green indoors Use plants to improve indoor climate Ventilation is improved when trees are placed in open areas, hallways and in individual rooms. Transpiration of the leaves creates humidity in the air which is more comfortable and regulates the temperature indoors. If plants occupy 5% of a room volume, the relative humidity in winter goes up by 20% and the room temperature rises by 1-3˚C and the room temperature decreases by 1-3˚C in the summer.
Use plants to improve air quality Air pollution (such as benzol, nicotine and other volatile organic compounds and gasses) are absorbed by indoor plants. These pollutants, along with dust, can be reduced by 20%. The leaves transport the pollutants down into the root zone where microorganisms convert them into nutrients in the soil. Allow air to flow along as much green as possible indoors as it moves from room to room. Atriums, wintergardens, halls and plants in individual office spaces are all effective.
Indoor green improves health (both physical and psychological) Studies show that sick days from work are reduced by 3.5 days per employee in offices with plants. The presence of green can improve the healing of patients in hospitals. The effects are especially psychological. There is a therapeutic impact just by looking at plants. Green fosters neutral relaxed and happy feelings without negative feelings. Oriental style flower arrangements stimulate the right brain functions while western style flower arrangements stimulate the left brain functions. Plants and flowers also affect the 5 senses to varying degrees which stimulates different parts of the brain.
Maintenance is essential for quality plants Good healthy soil, potting techniques, water and pruning are necessary to guarantee the continued vitality of indoor plants.
Create a more comfortable climate indoors with the use of indoor plants, which has a positive effect on the psychological and physical well-being of the users of the building.
In new development: Design builidings with permanent places for green and plenty of natural light to guarantee that green is valued and maintained by the users.
In existing development: Add indoor plants inside buildings in open areas, hallways and individual rooms to maximize the benefits for all users.
LUMEN building, Alterra, Wageningen, NL | The greenhouse construction creates a link between inside and outside and provides the needed light for
Benefits of green indoors
the plants. Designed by Luc van Dam (LIMES architecten), Copijn and Benisch Architekten | Photo: Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten
The effects of plants on the well-being of office workers Health complaints without green
with green present
Exhaustion Headaches Sore / dry throat Coughing Dry skin Peeling scalp / ears Facial irritation Eye irritation Dizziness Fuzzy head
20% 30% 30% 40% 25% less less less less less
less less less less less
(Source: Groen Loont! and Triple E (from Prof. Tove Fjeld, Oslo Agricultural University))
86
List of best indoor plants Hedera helix L. Aloe barbadensis Ficus elastic Ficus benjamina L. Syngonium podophyllum Chrysalidocarpus Chamaedorea elegans Dieffenbachia amoena Spathiphyllum Dracaena deremensis cv. Warneckii Compacta
• • • • • • • • • • •
Improves indoor air quality Reduces indoor dust particles and microorganisms Adjusts seasonal temperature and humidity Reduces fatigue and stress Employees who work in offices with green take up less sick days Enhances work efficiency Reaction time and productivity of employees increases by 12% Concentration of employees increases Has a high impact compared to the costs Is easy to install and remove Has a horticultural therapeutic impact on mind and body Not only does the plant filter the air, but the pot is part of a ventilation system which cleans and humidifies the air in the office. This system was created by
(Sources: Ki-Cheol Son, Konkuk, and Bouwen met Groen en Glas)
Experts: Ki-Cheol Son (Healthy Life Conference Taipei 2010), Axel Möltgen (FARO Architecten), Arda van Helsdingen (Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten), Triple E Sources: Groen Loont!; Bouwen met Groen en Glas
Tromp Medical | Photo: Axel Möltgen
87
Green+ buildings
Vancouver Convention Centre case study reduce the heat island effect in downtown. The roof contains over 400,000 plants, all native or adaptive to Vancouver’s climate. When the plants are established, they will only require limited irrigation in late summer.
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada | LMN Architecture, Urban Design, Interiors, Seattle, USA, in association with MCM and DA Partnership | 2009
“The living roof itself has no public access points, allowing it to develop as a fully functional habitat for non-human species, while the landforms fold in specific ways to open views onto its lush vegetation from inside and outside the building.”
The interior spaces, full of windows and views of the waterfront and downtown, keep the visitors in constant contact with the surrounding context and daylight, “setting up an extroverted, community-friendly relationship with the exterior.”
“The design of the new Vancouver Convention Centre West presented an opportunity to fully engage the urban ecosystem at the interface between a vibrant downtown core and one of the most spectacular natural ecosystems in North America.”
Living roof coverage: 58% 250,360 sf [24,281 m2] | Decrease in impervious surface: 29.7% | Marine habitat: 1,500 linear feet [457 linear metres] of marine habitat created | Photo: coutesy DA Architects + Planners, from brochure LMN Architects
City Zoning required strict regulations regarding view corridors from the downtown streets to the water. The form of the building and its sloping green roof responded to these issues and was inspired by the topography of the region, connecting it to Stanley Park and the mountains on the other side of Burrard Inlet.
Photo: LMN Architects
Connectivity & Sense of Place
The Vancouver Convention Centre West received a 2010 “What Makes It Green?” Gold Award from the Seattle Chapter of the American Institute of Architects.
matter of the roof forms the terminus of a chain of waterfront parks that rings the harbor and created continuous green space between the Convention Centre and Stanley Park.” The convention district itself contains continuous public access to the water’s edge with 400,000 sf (37,161 m2) of walkways, cycling paths, public open space and plazas.
Connectivity & Nature The Vancouver Convention Centre West is a building with real environmental quality, most visible in the project’s ecologybased approach to land use and its living roof. The site was a contaminated brown field with traces of its historical past as an industrial site and train yard. The building’s design features a 24,281 m2 living roof and a foundation system around the building’s waterfront perimeter designed as an artificial reef. A team of marine biologists consulted the architects and designers so it would function as a restoration of the natural shoreline. The living roof is not only an attractive addition to Vancouver’s skyline, but also functions as a large permeable surface in the city to control rainwater, slow storm water runoff and
88
Source: brochure LMN Architects: What Makes It Green? Vancouver Convention Centre West
Photo: LMN Architects
Photo: LMN Architects
Photo: LMN Architects
89
Green+ buildings Literature:
Websites:
Experts:
• Groen Loont!
• http://vroegevogels.vara.nl
• Pauline de Koning, Landscape Architect
[Green Pays!]
Peter Schildwacht, Air Specialist, Biologist
• Groen voor Klimaat
BELW Advies bv
[Green for Climate]
• Arda van Helsdingen, Director
• De Bouw Kleurt Groen
Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten
[Building Is Turning Green]
• Robert ten Elsen, Urban Designer
• The Green City Post 2011
Urhahn Urban Design
• Bouwen met Groen en Glas
• Peter Fraanje, Manager Sustainability
[Building with Green and Glass]
Bouwend Nederland
• Dak en Gevel Groen
• Fred Tonneijck, Senior Advisor/Researcher
[Roof and Façade Green]
Triple E & Knooppunt Innovatief Groen
• Bomen voor Daken 2011 poster
• Robbert Snep,
[Trees for Roofs poster]
Researcher Urban Ecology and
• Daktuinen verbeteren leefomgeving stad
Green Businessparks
[Roof gardens improve the urban living
Alterra - Wageningen UR
environment]
• Axel Möltgen, Architect
• Gevelgroen maakt inhaalslag
FARO Architecten
[Green façades are gaining tempo]
• Mark Hinshaw, Director Urban Design
• Planting Green Roofs and Living Walls
LMN Architects
• Horticultural Therapy: New Dimension of Plant,
• ES Consulting
People and Environment Relationship
• Soontiëns Stadsnatuur
Green + Conclusion
Many of the principles contained within these guidelines are similar to those of Ebenezer Howard’s 1902 Garden Cities of Tomorrow, where parks, houses and gardens, boulevards and grand avenues were at the heart of the city. This utopian vision, part of the Garden City Movement, was a reaction against the conditions in cities during the Industrial Revolution. People in the 19th century came to the cities to work and subsequently lived under unhealthy, crowded and polluted conditions. There were only a few of these “utopian” plans built before the Great Depression. After that, the mass use of the car became a significant driver for urban planners and those ‘garden city’ principles were put to one side. The Green City approach described in this book focuses on improving the conditions of the urban (inner) city environment in order to create healthy liveable cities where people want to live and work. By providing green spaces where people can relax and exercise, green streets which help refresh the air and green buildings that remind us of nature beyond the city limits, The Green City has a chance to bring people back in touch with nature in their everyday lives. Liveable urban neighbourhoods within the city limits will make living in the city in which people work a desirable option. And those with no choice have a right to live in a healthy urban environment. By drawing people back into the city, the reduction in car usage can help reduce background air pollution, carbon emissions, congestion and the social problems associated with high levels of road traffic that cities are struggling with today.
Green spaces and trees in the city have proven positive influences on the image of cities in terms of liveablity, attractiveness and sustainability. The cities thatwho strive for sustainable solutions are the cities thatwho will be able to provide healthy growth and development in the future. As mentioned in our summary chapter, iIt is expected that in the year 2047, 70% of the world’s population will live in urban areas. The professionals, politicians, community leaders and others who help to shape our cities have a responsibility to ensure that the developers and designers work hand in hand with the green sector in order to provide enough space for green, whether it be in the form of a parks, a gardens, a trees or green roofsa rooftop. The key is to remember that investment in green outweighs the costs. No one green solution will solve the complex problems which cities face, and many of the benefits are difficult to translate into monetary terms. However the integral benefits of green are far-reaching and cannot be ignored. The guidelines in this book are suggestions as to how a city can become “greener” with plants, trees and parks. They are grounded in the knowledge and ideas that have been brought to the mainstream by many researchers and designers today. This book represents the beginning of an evolving, dynamic process of updating, enhancing and expanding the Green City guidelines in order to reach a truly international handbook that can be applied in cities around the world. www.thegreencity.com
90
For a complete list of literature and expert participants, see pages 94-97.
91
Green + benefits of guidelines:
Literature economy
health
social interactions
ecology
water
climate & pollution
+ + + + +
+
+
+
+
+
Bade, T., Smid, G. and Tonneijck, A.E.G.
Entente Florale Nederland.
• Groen Loont!
• Brochure Prijsvraag Groene Speelplekken. 2011.
De Groene Stad, 2011.
the planning process invest together filtering for fresh air green network within walking distance the art of nature
+ + + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + + +
Government Office for Science. Berg, A.E. van den.
• Foresight: Tackling Obesities: Future Choices – Project Report,
• Kom je buiten spelen? Een advies over onderzoek naar de invloed op natuur
2nd edition, 2007.
op de gezondheid van kinderen. Wageningen: Alterra, 2007.
• IPL rapport 1b: Toepassingsadvies Schermen. Berg, A.E. van den, Beer, A., Hamel, R., Manneke, A., Schildwacht, P.
microclimate parks resident participation recreation playgrounds and schoolyards views of green private green semi-private green green business parks urban farming water runoff biodiversity
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + +
+
+
+
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ +
December 2009.
• Leefkwaliteit Stationsgebied Utrecht. Utrecht: Gemeente Utrecht, 2003.
Het Innovatie programma Luchtkwaliteit. • IPL rapport 2b: Toepassingsadvies Vegetatie.
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
Bezemer, V. and Visschedijk, P.A.M.
+ + + + + + +
+
+ + + +
+ + + + + + + +
December 2009.
• Groene meters deel II: Analyse van het stedelijke groen in de G30 steden. Alterra-rapport 833. Wageningen: Alterra, 2003.
Hiemstra, J.A., Schoenmaker-van der Bijl, E. and Tonneijck, A.E.G. • Bomen: een verademing voor de stad.
Bird, W.
Plant Publicity Holland and Vereniging van Hoveniers en Groenvoorzieners, 2008.
• Green Space and our Health. Paper to London Green Space Conference, 2002.
Hoffman, M. • Biodiversiteit in tuin en plantsoen.
Bom, J. (ed.).
green plazas air circulation & ventilation street layout right tree, right place use existing trees big healthy trees growing conditions quality maintenance
Het Innovatie programma Luchtkwaliteit.
Brochure Plant Publicity Holland, 2010.
• “De Bouw Kleurt Groen” P+Bouw Trends
Hop, M.E.C.M.
mei & juni 2011: jaargang 3 nr 6.
• Dak en Gevel Groen. Brochure Plant Publicity Holland, 2010.
Bouwmeester, H. • Groen Werkt Beter.
Hoyer, J., Dickhaut, W., Kronawitter, L. and Weber, B.
Den Haag: Sdu Uitgevers bv, 2010.
• Water Sensitive Urban Design. Jovis Verlag GmbH and Hofen City Universitat Hamburg, 2011.
CABE Space.
green oriented to buildings buildings blend into landscape green roofs green walls green indoors
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + +
• Community Green: using local spaces to tackle inequality and improve health.
InnovatieNetwerk and SIGN (Stichting Innovatie Glastuinbouw Nederland).
London: Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE), 2010.
• Bouwen met Groen en Glas. Boxtel: Aeneas Uitgeverij, 2011.
Dunnett, N. and Kingsbury, N. • Planting Green Roofs and Living Walls.
Koot, E.
Portland: Timber Press Inc., 2004.
• De bomenplanner. Utrecht: Bomenstichting, 2009.
92
93
Green +
Literature
Koot, E., Naber, F., Steggerda, R.
Plant Publicity Holland.
Rogers, K.
Trust for Public Land – Center for City Park Excellence.
• Hoera! Een Burgerinitiatief.
• Bomen voor Daken 2011 poster.
• “Who said money doesn’t grow on trees?”
• How Much Value Does the City of Philadelphia Receive from its Park
Bomenstichting, 2010.
2011.
Tree News journal,
and Recreation System?
Fall 2010.
Philadelphia: Trust for Public Land Center for City Park Excellence, 2008.
Kuypers, V.H.M., Vries, E.A. de and Peeters, R.J.G.M.
Plant Publicity Holland.
• Groen voor Klimaat.
• “Daktuinen verbeteren leefomgeving in de stad.”
Snep, R.P.H.
Vereniging Stadswerk Nederland.
Brochure Wageningen: Alterra, 2008.
De Groene Stad Nieuwsbrief
• Biodiversity conservation at business sites.
• Praktijkbrochure Bomensubstraten en hun toepassing.
Sept 2009, nummer 2.
Alterra Scientific Contributions 28. Wageningen: Alterra 2009.
2009.
• What Makes It Green?
Plant Publicity Holland.
Son, Ki-Cheol.
Vervoert, S., Bogaard, J. van den and Walda, I.
Vancouver Convention Centre West Brochure, 2010.
• “Gevelgroen maakt inhaalslag.”
• Horticultural Therapy: New Dimension of Plant,
• Rotterdam gezond groen, gewoon doen!
De Groene Stad Nieuwsbrief
People and Environment Relationship.
GGD Rotterdam-Rijnmond and DCMR Milieudienst Rijnmond, 2009.
Sept 2009, nummer 2.
Abstract and presentation to Healthy Life: Green Leisure and Horticulture
LMN Architects.
Maas, J. • Vitamine G: Green environments – healthy environments. Utrecht: NIVEL, 2008.
Therapy International Conference, Taipei 2010. Plant Publicity Holland.
Vries, S. de. • “Beweegvriendelijke wijken voor kinderen.”
• “In herstructureringsplannen is groen een sociale verbinder.”
• “The Green City Post 2011.”
Sportgericht
Middelkoop, M. van, Bruls, E.J. and Golen, A.J. van.
De Groene Stad Nieuwsbrief
Flora Culture International
2010: nr.6.
• Rood en Groen in Balans: Een verkenning van groennormen en
April 2010, nummer 1.
July/August 2011.
Plant Publicity Holland.
Tonneijck, A.E.G. and Leest, K. van der.
and Hopman-Rock, M.
• “Integrale beplantingsmethode levert geslaagd Prins Bernhardbos op.”
• De Levende Tuin.
• Kinderen in prioriteitswijken: Lichaamlijke (in)activiteit en overgewicht.
Natural England. Technical information note TIN 055
Brochure Prins Bernhardbos,
Branchevereniging VHG, 2009.
TNO Kwaliteit van Leven, 2005.
• “An estimate of the economic and health value effectiveness of
2011.
alternatieve benaderingen. Stichting Recreatie, Kennis- en Innovatiecentrum, 2001.
Vries, S.I. de, Bakker, I., Overbeek, K. van, Boer, N.D.
the expanded Walking Health Initiative scheme.” 2009.
Tonneijck, A.E.G., Vries, B. de, Kuypers, V.H.M. and DRO Amsterdam.
Vreke, J., Salverda, I.E. and Langers, F.
Raad Landelijk Gebied.
• Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen.
• Niet bij rood alleen: buurtgroen en sociale cohesie.
Nijland, R.
• Recht op Groen, Advies over de groene kwaliteit van de openbare ruimte,
Gemeente Amsterdam, 2008.
Alterra-rapport 2070. Wageningen: Alterra, 2011.
• “Bedrijventerreinen kan bijdragen aan behoud biodiversiteit”
Deel II Analyse.
De Levende Natuur:
2005.
Tonneijck, A.E.G.
Wetten, J. van et. al.
2008, nummer 2.
• “Over Bomen en Buien.”
• Een Groene Gezonde Wijk: Inspiratie voor de praktijk.
Reuler, H. van and Hoffman, M.
Bomennieuws:
EMG+O Instituut, GGD Werkgroep Groen en Gezondheid,
Orange Olive, Triple E, Yannick Joye and BYTR Bouwt Beter.
• Vegetation in relation to air quality in Shanghai.
lente 2008.
• Greenspots Reloaded.
2010.
Gemeente Eindhoven, 2010.
Kenniscentrum Recreatie, Ministerie van Landbouw, Natuur en Voedselkwaliteit and Plant Publicity Holland, 2010.
Tonneijck, A.E.G. and Kuypers, V.H.M. RIVM.
• “Stadsbomen voor een goede luchtkwaliteit.”
Zweers, E., Kuypers, V.H.M. and Vries, E.A. de.
Plant Publicity Holland.
• Effecten van groen op de luchtkwaliteit.
Bomennieuws:
• Meetproef Groen: flora-vegetatie voor een betere luchtkwaliteit?
• “Alle extra groen helpt de luchtkwaliteit verbeteren.”
Status 2008.
lente 2006.
Eureka, 2010.
De Groene Stad Nieuwsbrief April 2009, nummer 1.
94
95
Green + Websites:
96
Expert team participants
Photo credits
• Applied Plant Research – Wageningen UR | www.ppo.wur.nl
• Niek Roozen bv landscape architects | www.niekroozen.com
Niek Roozen
p. 2, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 22, 23, 24, 25,
Marco Hoffman, DLO Researcher
Niek Roozen, Landscape Architect
30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45,
• www.ahta.org
Henk van Reuler, DLO Researcher
Michelle de Roo, Landscape and Urban Designer
58, 62, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 72, 73, 78, 81, 82, 84
• www.bomenstichting.nl
Jelle Hiemstra, Senior Researcher
• Olympic Delivery Authority | www.london2012.com
Wolbert van Dijk
p. 4, 32, 46
• www.eva-lanxmeer.nl
• Alterra – Wageningen University & Research Centre | www.alterra.wur.nl
John Hopkins, Project Director
Trees for Cities
p. 4, 33
• www.forumforthefuture.org/greenfutures/articles/
Vincent Kuypers, DLO Researcher
• Plant Publicity Holland | www.pph.nl
Groene Meters II
p. 5
gardens-hidden-capital-revealed
Barry de Vries, DLO HBO Researcher
Jan Habets, Director
Jeroen Musch & city of Madrid
p. 10, 18, 58
• www.functioneelgroen.nl
Sjerp de Vries, Senior Scientific Researcher
Roel van Dijk, Project Leader Public Green and The Green City
Center for City Park Excellence, The Trust for Public Land
• www.groeneschoolpleinen.nl
Irini Salverda, DLO Researcher
• Sensory Trust | www.sensorytrust.org.uk
Robert ten Elsen
p. 18, 31, 39, 49, 51, 51, 78, 81, 85
• www.impala-eu.org
Robbert Snep, Researcher Urban Ecology and Green Businessparks
Jane Stoneham, Director
Plant Publicity Holland
p. 2, 18, 20, 38, 59, 62, 66, 70
• www.landscapeinstitute.org/PDF/Contribute/PressRelease-
• BELW Advies bv | www.belw.nl
• Soontiëns Stadsnatuur | www.soontiënsstadsnatuur.nl
Stichting Open Boek
p. 19, 51, 64, 65
LandscapeInstituteEcobuildFringeSeminarstacklethecaseforinvestment
Pauline de Koning, Landscape Architect
• Stache Architects bna | www.stache-architect.nl
Gemeente Amsterdam
p. 21, 34
inlandscapean.pdf
Peter Schildwacht, Air Specialist, Biologist
Eva Stache, Architect
WVTTK Architects
p. 22
• www.park2020.com
Elma Schoenmaker-van der Bijl, Director, Biologist
• TNO Innovation for Life | www.tno.nl
Philomene van der Vliet and David Kloet
p. 22
• www.straatbomen.nl
• Bouwend Nederland | www.bouwendnederland.nl
Filip Fraga, Project Manager
Alterra – Wageningen UR
p. 28
• www.stroom.nl
Peter Fraanje, Manager Sustainability
Joram Nauta, Project Manager
Groen voor Klimaat
p. 30
• www.tno.nl/downloads/IB_URBAN_STRATEGY_EN.pdf
• Chamber of Commerce The Hague | www.kvk.nl
• Trees for Cities | www.treesforcities.org
Sensory Trust
p. 32,47
• http://vroegevogels.vara.nl
Bastiaan de Roo, Director Leiden
Sharon Johnson, Chief Executive
Mark Long
p. 37
• www.west8.nl
• Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten | www.copijn.nl
• Triple E | www.tripleee.nl
Soontiëns Stadsnatuur
p. 39, 40, 52, 53
Arda van Helsdingen, Director
Knooppunt Innovatief Groen | www.knooppuntinnovatiefgroen.nl
Brechtje Horsten
p. 41
• CROW | www.crow.nl
Fred Tonneijck, Senior Advisor/Researcher
Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten
p. 43, 44, 48, 80, 82, 86
Ceciel van Iperen, Project Manager Living Environment
• De Tussentuin | www.detussentuin.nl
Biodiversity conservation at business sites p. 44
• Cyber Adviseurs | www.cyber-adviseurs.nl
(www.wolbertvandijk.eu) (www.jokevanderzwaard.eu)
Griffin Felski
Frans Bouwman, Director
Wolbert van Dijk, Garden & Landscape Architect, Urban Designer
Gemeente Rotterdam, afdeling Stadsontwikkeling
• EMGO Institute, VU Medical Center | www.emgo.nl
Joke van der Zwaard, Urban Sociologist
Iwan Baan
p. 54, 55
Jolanda Maas, Senior Researcher
• UK Green Forum | www.thegreencity.co.uk
BELW Advies bv
p. 60, 61
• ES Consulting | www.es-consulting.nl
Mark Long, Director
Leidraad Luchtzuiverend Groen
p. 62
• FARO Architecten | www.faro.nl
• Urhahn Urban Design | www.urhahn.com
Fred Tonneijck
p. 63
Axel Möltgen, Architect
Robert ten Elsen, Urban Designer
Cyber Adviseurs
p. 72
• Friends of the Highline | www.thehighline.org
• Wageningen University & Research Centre | www.lar.wur.nl
London 2012
p. 74, 75
Robert Hammond, Co-Founder
Sanda Lenzholzer, Assistant Professor Landscape Architecture
NEXIT Architecten
p. 79, 84
p. 13
p. 46 p. 48
• Drost Landscape | www.drostlandscape.com
Urhahn Urban Design
p. 80
Griffin Felski, Landscape Architect
Heijmans Sport en Groen
p. 83
• Kenniscentrum Recreatie | www.kenniscentrumrecreatie.nl
Axel Möltgen
p. 87
Martine van Loon, Project Officer
DA Architects + Planners (courtesy of LMN Architects) p. 88
• LMN Architects | www.lmnarchitects.com
LMN Architects
p. 89
Mark Hinshaw, Director of Urban Design
KopArt reclamebureau
p. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 25, 27, 55, 57, 75, 77, 89, 91,
93, 95, 97, 98 & cover
97
Green +
Colophon
www.thegreencity.com
www.aiph.org
www.degroenestad.nl
www.rijksoverheid.nl/ministeries/eleni
www.pph.nl
www.niekroozen.com
Author
Michelle de Roo
landscape & urban designer
Associate editor
Mark Long
Niek Roozen bv landscape architects
UK Green Forum
Special thanks
A special thanks to Jan Habets, Roel van Dijk and Jaap Spros of Plant Publicity Holland for all their commitment during the process
of this book. And thank you to all the experts who contributed time, information, advice and images.
Additional support
Niek Roozen
Niek Roozen bv landscape architects
Vincent Kuypers
Alterra - Wageningen UR
Doeke Faber & Sjaak Langeslag
AIPH
Marcel Vernooij & Arno Rohde
Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture & Innovation
Graphic design
KopArt reclamebureau, Amstelveen
Printer
Zwaan Printmedia, Wormerveer
Year
September 2011
ISBN number
978-94-91127-00-7
NUR 100
© The Green City No part of this publication may be reproduced and / or published by print, photocopy, or any other means without prior written permission of the publisher.
Photo’s Front Cover
Photo’s Back Cover
WVTTK Architects
Gemeente Amsterdam
De Tussentuin
Niek Roozen bv
PPH
Stichting Open Boek
NEXIT Architecten
Copijn Tuin- en Landschapsarchitecten Sketch: BELW Advies bv
98
99