Life History and Ecological Guide to the Coast Redwood by Save The Redwoods

Life History and Ecological Guide to the Coast Redwood, Sequoia sempervirens for

Natural History Instructors, Interpretive Specialists, and Docents Including

The Plant Communities, Biota, and Topography of the Mangels Ranch Area of the Forest of Nisene Marks State Park

Daniel J. Miller August, 2005

ENDORSEMENTS Heather Butler, Director of the Web of Life Field (WOLF) School, a K-8th grade environmental education outdoor school: “Dan Miller’s Redwood Guide is highly recommended for aspiring naturalists, teachers, and docents working in redwood regions. From basic terminology to updated figures (Which IS the tallest redwood?), the information in this Guide provides an excellent background in the natural history of the redwood even for instructors lacking a formal science background.” John Evarts, Publisher, Cachuma Press: “Dan Miller’s Life History and Ecological Guide to the Coast Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), contains a wealth of information about the world’s tallest tree. Mr. Miller has created this guide as an aid to teachers, docents, and others who are entrusted with the allimportant task of awakening appreciation for the redwood trees and ecosystems. Illustrated with clear and informative drawings, this Guide is a valuable educational resource. Reed Noss, David-Shine Professor of Conservation Biology, University of Central Florida: “Daniel Miller has produced an informative and enchanting guide to the life history and ecology of the coast redwood, the world’s tallest tree. The rich natural historical information contained in this book will be of interest to teachers, students of all ages, conservationists, and anyone else who stands in awe of these remarkable trees.” Thom Sutfin, Forest Manager of the Soquel Demonstration State Forest, California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection: “Dan Miller’s Guide is an amazing compilation of information on Coast Redwood. Nature lovers will find it fascinating.” Randy Widera, Executive Director, Friends of Santa Cruz State Parks: “In my 18 years of interpreting the Redwoods of the Santa Cruz Mountains I have never run across a guide to the Redwoods as comprehensive and regionally significant as Mr. Miller’s Life History and Ecological Guide to the Coast Redwood. This is not a guide to read through once and glean a few facts, it is a conversation with the reader and a challenge to look past myths of this grand tree to the even more amazing understandings that are being uncovered to this day. By focusing his skills as a scientist on a place that has literally been his back yard for over 40 years he brings to us in this guide a wonderful blend of individual passion and insightful first hand observations.” Copyright, © 2005 by Daniel J. Miller No part of this Guide can be reproduced without permission from the author. Copies can be made for and by natural history instructors, interpreters, docents, and students, but not sold for profit. Drawings are by the author. Contact: Dan Miller, 735 Cathedral Dr. Aptos CA 95003. The Guide was being formatted and edited for pdf down-loading by Heather Butler, Patricia Smith, Scott Miller, and Randy Widera: www.scparkfriends.org

CONTENTS Listing of Figures and Tables (iv) Acknowledgements (v) Why I Wrote the Guide (vi) California State Park Department Request (viii) Primary Value of the Guide (x) Changes in Cultural Values Regarding the Redwood 1 Scope and Format of the Guide 4 SECTION I. Defining the Ecosystem and Topography for the Mangels Ranch area 7 Plant Communities 7 Vegetative Climax and Seral Stages 8 Topography, Geology, and Climate 9 East and West Facing Slopes of the Mangels Ranch Area 10 Soil Types, Floods, Landslides, and Slump Jumbles 12 SECTION II. Summary of Redwood Structures and Adaptations 14 The Redwood as a “Superlative” Tree 14 Is the Official Common Name Redwood or Coast Redwood? 14 The Public’s Imagery of the Redwood 14 Official State Trees, and The Tallest Tree in the World 15 Maximum Diameters of the Redwood and Giant Sequoia 15 Maximum Ages of Redwood and Other Very Old Trees and Plants 16 Basic Redwood Structures and Adaptations 16-24 (Figures 4.1-4.17) Forests, Stands, and Groves 25 Treefall Gap, Root-pull Pit, and Rootwad 25 Harvesting Effects: Percent Remaining of Old-growth Redwood 26 Definition of an Old-growth Redwood Tree 27 Forestry Criteria of the Extent of Logging 28 Unlogged Old-growth Forests - First Generation Redwoods 28 Residual Old-growth and Residual Second Growth - 29 Second-growth Forest - Second Generation Trees 30 Third-growth Forest - Third Generation Trees 30 Redwood Distribution - Past and Present 31 Sea Salt Desiccation 31 Seed Germination 31 Survival of Seedlings 33 Tannins and Phenolics 33 Micorrhizae 33 Determining the Age of a Redwood 33 Official Size Classification of Redwood Trees Based on dbh Diameter 34 Nursery Logs, Nurse Trees, and Nurse Plants 34 Role of Fog Drip 37 (ii)

CONTENTS (continued) Role of Litter, Duff, and Humus 38 Role of Fire 39 Fire Scars Creating Changes in Growth Rings 39 Mean Fire Interval (MFI) 40 Lightning-Volcano Fire Regime - up to 11,000 years BP 41 Aboriginal Fire Regime - 11,000 years ago to 1792 41 Spanish-Mexican Fire Regime - 1792-1848 43 Anglo Fire Regime -1848-1929 44 Recent Fire Regime - 1929-present 45 Fire Scars, Fire Cavity, Chimney Tree, and Goosepens 46 How These Fire Data Relate to Redwoods in Mangels Ranch Area 46 Root and Trunk Functions 48 Albino Redwoods, Tumorigenesis, and Epiphytes 49 Structures Originating From Dormant Buds 50 Growth Regulators, Sprouts (clones) 50 Sprout Rings (Fairy Rings) 51 Tree Members Comprising a Redwood Sprout Ring May Not Be Sprouts From the Same “Mother” Tree 52 Corralitos, Christmas Tree, Stump Peeler 53 Reiteration 54 Piggyback Tree 54 Trunk Sprouts, Lignotubers, and Burls 55 Willis Jepson’s 1910 “Circle” 57 Types of Redwood Clusters 61 Slump Jumbles Are a Form of Creep Gravitational Erosion 62 Landslides 69 Slump Jumble Clusters 69 Slump Jumble Cluster Formation 69 Initial findings of Cluster Study in Happy Valley 70 Confirmation of Slump Jumble Cluster Process by Geologist 71 Self-pruning of Redwoods 72 Creosote Bush Expanding Circles in the Mohave Desert 72 Present Development of a Potential Cluster in Happy Valley 73 Summary of Slump Jumble Cluster Criteria 76 Slump Jumble Clusters in Adjacent Forest Stands 76 Dominant Plant Species in Slump Jumble Cluster Area 77 Wildlife Events and Listing of Plants and Animals in the Mangels Ranch Area 78 Appendix I - The Mill Valley Cluster (Jepson’s Circle) 89 (iii)

CONTENTS (continued) Appendix II - Examples of tree growth in response to light, ground water, rainfall, and injury to the cambium of a redwood downed in Mangels Ranch Area. 95 Glossary 99 Literature Cited 102 Book Reviews of Redwood Literature for Interpreters and Docents 106 Index 117 LISTING OF FIGURES Figure 1. Lower Area of the Forest of Nisene Marks State Park noting location of Mangels Ranch Area, Georgeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Flat, Buggy Trail, and the Pourroy Trail area. 5 Figure 2. Topography and vegetative classification of the Mangels Ranch Area. 6 Figure 3. Soil types in the lower area of Nisene Marks State Park, with emphasis on the highly erodable loam extending through Happy Valley. The loam is labeled #112, and is enhanced in this figure. Map from Bowman13, 1980. 13 Figure 4. Drawings of redwood growth forms, Figs. 4.1- 4.17. 17-24 Figure 5. Fifty-year coverage of wildfires in Lightning and Recent Regimes. Fires less than 10 acres are not mapped. Maps from Greenlee and Langenheim42. 42 Figure 6. Distribution and size of redwoods in Piggyback slump jumble cluster. 63 Figure 7. Distribution and size of redwoods in Tent slump jumble cluster. 65 Figure 8. Distribution and size of redwoods in Grand Cluster. 67 Figure 9. New cluster forming on level ground downwind of a large slump jumble cluster. 74 Figure 10. Distribution and size of redwoods in the Mill Valley Cluster in Old Mill Park, Mill Valley. 93 Figure 11. Photographs of redwood trees in a section of the perimeter trees of the Mill Valley Cluster. Note the enlarged buttresses and adjoining burl and lignotuber growths due to heavy use. 94 Figure 12. Annual rainfall from 1970-2004 compared with growth of annual rings of a 25 inch (avg. dbh) redwood downed in January, 2005 in Mangels Ranch Area (see also Figure 4.4). 98 LISTING of TABLES TABLE 1. Mammals Observed in the Mangels Ranch Area. 85 TABLE 2. Amphibians and Reptiles Observed in the Mangels Ranch Area. 85 TABLE 3. Birds Observed in the Mangels Ranch Area. 86 TABLE 4. Partial Listing of Common Native Plants in the Mangels Ranch Area. 87 TABLE 5. Listing of Introduced Invasive Plants in the Mangels Ranch Area. 88 (iv)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In 1996 I was active with “Friends of Nisene Marks State Park”, a group of Santa Cruz county residents (mostly Aptos) who were trying to prevent a small forest of uncut old-growth redwoods from being harvested in the Mangels Ranch Area. My contribution to their eventually successful effort was to engage in redwood research and ecological studies. Much thanks is offered to these community activists. Executive Director Margaret Eadington of The Trust for Public Land (TPL) asked me to show the property to an individual who later donated to the TPL to buy the property. Environmental counsel Keith Sugar ably assisted. My thanks to Margaret and Keith. In 1999, The Trust for Public Land donated the property to the California State Parks (CSP). The Life History and Ecological Guide to the Redwood arose out of my earlier action to protect the forest for educational and contemplative use. I received help from many sources while compiling the Guide. My wife Pat edited much of the text. Our son Steven and daughter Kitty took photographs, recorded data in the field, and assisted in laying out alternative proposed trails. Members of Friends of Nisene Marks State Park gave their enthusiastic assistance. Among them were Agnes Van Eck Reed and Karl Mertz, both of them members of the Mangels family as well. Other Friends of Nisene Marks State Park members who helped were Sandy Henn, Linda Sanguino, Jim and Peggy Crocker, Don Richards, and Diane Strickland. California State Park officials and personnel gave much encouragement and help. David Vincent, Superintendent of the Santa Cruz County Area, was always available for consulting, and to give me permission to gather information in the park. Retired Superintendent Ralph Fairfield gave me exceptional assistance in my studies. The personnel of The Forest Nisene Marks State Park were helpful, especially Supervisor Nedra Martinez and Barbi Barry (maintenance and trails). Park Rangers Chris Sanguino and Mike Romniger assisted, with Mike transporting me to the far ends of the park. I received greatly appreciated direction from Superintendent Kirk Lingenfelter, a recognized master of trail construction. It was Kirk who made the suggestion I submit a proposal for use of the Mangels Ranch Area when it is opened to the public. The ecology staff, George Gray, Chris Spohrer, and Tim Hyland helped in many ways to stress the ecological values of this area. Interpretive specialist Julie Sidel, after reading the draft of the Guide, invited me to a docent training session. Exceptional thanks is due to Thom Sutfin, Edgar Orre, and Denise Muir of the California Forestry and Fire Protection Department’s Soquel Demonstration State Forest office. Forestry Manager Thom Sutfin spent considerable time editing figures and some sections of the text, and secretary Denise Muir was very helpful as a line editor for some of the text. Randy Widera, Executive Director of the Friends of Santa Cruz State Parks, helped with the text and with advice. Heather Butler, Director of the Web of Life Field (WOLF) School environmental school for students, helped with the editing.

(v)

Dave Stockton of the Humboldt Redwoods State Park, and James Wheeler of the Redwoods National Park, gave up-to-date-information on which redwood is currently the tallest. Dr. Dean Taylor of the Jepson Herbarium at Berkeley gave valuable new information that the Interior Live Oak previously identified in Santa Cruz county (and south along the coast to near Santa Barbara), is actually the Shreve oak, Quercus parvula var shrevei. Dr. Richard Beidleman of the Jepson Herbarium searched Willis Jepson’s field notes and found important data collected in 1898 by Jepson on a circle of redwoods in Mill Valley. This information is important for present studies on redwood genetics and cluster formation. Dr. Peter Del Tredici of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University sent me information and publications on lignotubers and cluster formation. Extremely helpful with the “Jepson circle” research were Joyce Crews, History Room Librarian at the Mill Valley Public Library, and Peggy Chenoweth, Board of Directors of the Mill Valley Historical Society. Alan Kunze, geology graduate student at Fresno State University, substantiated that some redwood clusters in Happy Valley established themselves in areas where mineral soil was exposed by slump jumbles. Toward giving clear explanation in the Guide of cluster formation and redwood growth, I had correspondence and phone conversations with Reed Noss (The Redwood Forest, Lit. citation 5), and John Evarts (Coast Redwood, Lit. citation 24). Their interest in redwood growth patterns was very helpful. I am sure I have overlooked acknowledging many persons who have been generous with their help. I thank all of you not mentioned, and thank those persons who undertook action on their own to help develop the Mangels Ranch Area into an exceptional nature study park. - Daniel J. Miller, 2005

WHY I WROTE THIS GUIDE - Natural History Experiences and Education Over the past eleven years, I have been a volunteer Natural History speaker in 6-12th grade classes in Santa Cruz County and the three adjoining counties. Over 9600 students attended my presentation titled, The Environment and Population Growth. Part of my commitment to writing this Guide comes from the discussions I have had with these students and their teachers. I have also led nature study hikes for 4H members in Santa Cruz County for several years. I was encouraged to find that students were aware of the environmental movement. (vi)

But many of them did not realize that Recycle, Reduce, and Re-use are not the only actions needed. The teachers recognize this problem and contact me because I emphasize the basic principles of ecology which are needed to protect renewable resources. An ecological understanding leads to realizing the value of sustaining and protecting the life-supporting ecosystems for all animals, including humans. I explain in the classrooms why the remaining 50 percent of the world’s forests must be given much more attention not only for protection of the remaining flora and fauna in the forest, but mainly for the survival of human cultures. My reception in classes was enhanced not only by my profession as a marine biologist, but being able to anecdotally relate my naturalist experiences. As a child and since, I was always very close to nature and obsessively wanted to know about the plants and animals around me. These early experiences included moving in 1932 to Chicago Park, near Grass Valley, where my father bought five acres. The major plants on the property were grass, Ponderosa and gray pines, incense-cedar, and manzanita. My father cut down Ponderosa pines in a nearby forest, dragged them in by horse, and by himself built a small two-story log house. Our two-children family camped under the Incense-cedars for two summers, and spent one winter in the chicken house. We had to keep our milk goat near us at night while we were camping to protect her from the bands of coyotes. We saw coyotes regularly because of a large brush fire nearby several years before. Effects of the fire increased rodents which were probably the coyote’s main food. Witnessing the function of predator-prey relationships and watching the growth recovery of the original vegetation was a first-hand ecological education. Ecological concepts were not discussed in the family--we simply were aware of what was happening around us. I don’t remember being told not to run away from large predators, but possibly I had some basic instinct at age seven which told me not to. By myself, and in the forest some distance from home, I came upon several coyotes who were staring at me about 100 feet away. I froze in my tracks. They stared at me for a short while, then trotted away. In WWII, I was in Italy as a medical aid man with the infantry in the 10th Mountain Division. For the first time, I saw a land that was devoid of a wilderness feeling. The forest trees were mostly in rows and when a limb fell it was immediately picked up for fuel. Wild animals were vulnerable and scarce during wartime. When I returned from Europe, I went to UC Berkeley. I signed up for Aldo Starker Leopold’s ecologically oriented Wildlife Conservation major. Included were several courses in forestry, botany, ecology, paleontology, and geomorphology. One of my concerns was the over-exploitation of wildlife areas because of the expanding U.S. economy and exponential world population growth after the war. My California Department of Fish and Game (CDFG) experiences started in (vii)

1949 on a Klamath River salmon and steelhead survey near Oregon, near Mt. Shasta I conducting a summer creel census at a high mountain lake, then worked in game management in desert areas constructing watering devices for birds. My first hand field work gave me a broad ecological awareness. In 1951, I transferred to the Marine Fisheries Branch of the CDFG, where I conducted marine fish life histories, headed the state’s sea otter project, made a study of shark attacks on humans along the Pacific coast, and captured and tagged harbor seals at the mouth of the Klamath River. I also conducted marine sport fishery use and catch surveys from Oregon to Pt. Conception.

Introduction to Mangels Ranch Area When my wife, children, and I moved to Aptos in 1962, our property abutted the 95 acre Mangels Ranch Area. A new owner bought that property in 1986, and by 1996 the property was under chapter eleven of the federal bankruptcy court. The judge recommended that the owner obtain a Timber Harvest Plan to help pay the debts. With the owner’s permission, I conducted a timber cruise of the property, measuring the width of over 800 redwoods two inches or more in diameter. The study convinced the owner, the judge, and the three trustee holders that the forested property was more valuable uncut than cut. I and 30 local residents initiated action that led to The Trust for Public Land purchasing and then donating the Mangels Ranch Area to the California State Parks in March, 1999. More than 600 of the redwoods in the Mangels Ranch Area are in unique cluster formations. Over the past two years I have conducted a study on the process of this redwood cluster formation that has not been previously described. The study is still under way and some of the results are given in the cluster section of the text and in Appendix I.

California State Parks Department Request In August, 2003, Kirk Lingenfelter, Superintendent of the Central District of Santa Cruz County State Parks, asked me to present what I considered to be the most valuable use configuration for the Mangels Ranch Area before it is opened to the public. Mangels Ranch Area is a unique, nearly primeval area that is highly suitable for development of an outstandingly rich interpretative nature trail emphasizing redwood adaptations in the southern sector of its range. To justify the nature trail, I needed to conduct a thorough literature search on life histories of the three dominant unique plant species in the area: the redwood, the purple needlegrass, Nassella pulchra, and the newly accepted subspecies of oak, the Shreve oak, Quercus parvula var shrevei. Besides the importance of developing a nature trail for the MRA, this Guide will also supply instructors and docents with the redwood’s adaptations throughout its range. The instructors can use the Guide to develop their presentations and can find additional reference information. (viii)

A tremendous amount of research has been conducted on the redwood in recent years. Most of the basic life history studies were conducted in the Northern California heavy rain and fog. Consequently, there has been less research conducted in the drier part of the range south of San Francisco. There are adaptations of the redwood in this southern extension that may be valuable for the species survival as global warming continues. The Mangels Ranch Area not only has examples of all the adaptations of the northern area redwoods, but also has examples of redwood adaptations in its drier southern extension. I had not at first considered presenting this information as a guide, but after intensive study, it became evident that by including the Mangels Ranch Area redwood adaptations, a Guide could be constructed for interpretive specialists throughout the redwood’s range. At the turn of the century, the area now known as The Forest of Nisene Marks State Park was the southernmost region in the state yielding great quantities of redwood lumber. This Guide has many quotations and excerpts from the works of key redwood researchers. I have several reasons for this: (1) Even though I had Forestry research training, I am relying on many quotes and excerpts from the recent researchers to adequately relate the latest forestry information that is new to me. I have sufficient education to understand what they are saying, thus the many quotes and excerpts from the principal research contributors. When I paraphrase information from a publication, to be safe, I sometimes follow the paraphrase with the direct quote, (2) the reader does not have to take time to obtain the publication to question the meaning of a quote, and (3) some quotations present beautifully worded phrases and personal feelings. These thoughts cannot be transferred into someone else’s terminology, and should not be used unless quoted. Aldo Leopold’s (Aldo Starker Leopold’s father) description of the Land Ethic on pages 3-4 of this Guide, is an example of an elegant, lucid analysis of a philosophical truth. Several subjects are given a greater number of quotes in the Guide. These include the difficulty in understanding the differences between lignotubers and burls, the definition of an old-growth tree, and the fascinating discussions of the MFI (mean fire interval) Regimes by Greenlee and Langenheim. The Fire Regime data are as much for historical value as they are for scientific analysis. Because of the lignotuber’s importance, I have given it extensive quoting. Apparently most natural history writers and redwood researchers considered there are not enough physiological differences between burls and lignotubers to mention lignotubers to the general public, so they discuss burls only. These two redwood growths are complicated but are important physiological adaptations, and interpretive specialists should be aware of their importance. The Guide has a glossary which includes scientific subjects and terms in the quotations and excerpts, as well as from my text. Part of the Guide includes the tentative results of my continuing research on Slump Jumble Clusters. (ix)

I have also followed new wording of some redwood adaptations suggested by some of the authors, and have added a few of my own suggestions for uniform terminology. These include the unscientific and misleading use of the term “fairy rings” instead of sprout rings, the common correct use of sprouts instead of clones, and the meanings of nursery log, nurse tree, nurse plant, and reiteration. I use the name “Piggyback Tree” for a living downed redwood with tree-like reiterations growing on the dorsal surface. This uncommon growth adaptation has been mentioned in the literature, but has not been given a name.

Primary Value of the Guide The Guide is punched for binders so users can enter new items or replace old data. The binder can be carried by the instructor, and when encountering a difficult question in the field, the Guide may include the answer, and the name of an author or book for more information. Book reviews are included for users to develop their own redwood life history library. The Guide includes mention, and often extended descriptions, of most of the redwood’s adaptations to survive from the coastal Northern California rain forest to the chaparral and Northern Scrub plant communities of central California. The Guide would be of value to CSP interpretive specialists and docents in all redwood parks. New information of the formation of redwood clusters that is not in the literature is elaborated. I expect this comprehensive collection of redwood life history data would attract potential docents and trail volunteers. Before describing the attributes of the Mangels Ranch Area, I am thanking the Van Eck and Mangels families for their foresight in preservation of a unique valley in this area that Agnes and Jan Carel Van Eck named Happy Valley. In about 1918, they joined the Save-theRedwoods League, and kept this nearly primeval valley protected. The 2005 revised General Plan for the Forest of Nisene Marks State Park proposes that the trails in the MRA to not be multiuse, thus enabling the future development of an exceptional Nature Study trail system for educators as well as for hikers and runners.

(x)

1 Changes in Cultural Values Regarding the Redwood The redwood is one of the world’s most esteemed and desired trees for forest silviculture. Concurrently, ecologists and other concerned persons seek to insure the survival of the redwood as a major feature of California’s terrestrial vegetation. Virtually uncontrolled harvesting occurred during the ecologically disastrous days of Manifest Destiny and industrial growth of the late 1800’s. Far too late, laws were passed to curb unsustainable harvesting practices, and to protect both the remaining five percent of old-growth redwoods, and secondgrowth redwood stands nearing harvesting size. These days, where second-growth forests are harvested on private land, the forests are sometimes replaced by plantations - masses of single-aged trees that of themselves do not constitute natural forests with their associated abutting and understory plants, birds, and animals. Such artificial plantations do not form natural ecotones with natural plant communities, but are part of management to supply redwood lumber and products. I do not know the present status of this harvesting practice. Many environmental activists, either through private efforts or through organizations, have been effective in altering societal values and restructuring public policy concerning redwood harvesting to maintain sustainable harvest yields. They have also brought attention to the esthetical and educational values of maintaining totally protected areas for wilderness experiences and contemplative enjoyment. . In 1971, natural history writer Elna Bakker1 in AN ISLAND CALLED CALIFORNIA described the disappearance throughout the world of most species of Sequoia over the ages, due to climate changes. Bakker urged that attention be given to retaining the few nearly primeval forests remaining, and reported the attitudes of some of the harvesters: 1* Foresters have referred to them as ‘disaster climax forests,’ meaning that if totally protected from the rejuvenating effects of near calamity the species would sooner or later suffer the consequences of its vigorous nature and degenerate under the decadence of soft living.

Harvesters wish to increase tree growth by harvesting the larger trees so that smaller ones, freed from the shade cast by the older ones, can grow more rapidly. The board-feet yield of a forest often increases with remaining younger trees. Harvesters also wish to remove trees that they deem unmarketable - “cull” and “trash” trees. In contrast to this commercial stance, increasing numbers of ecologically aware persons are at last demanding preservation of all remaining old-growth trees, and more protection of second-growth forests. * Throughout the Guide, superscript numbers refer to the author in the literature Cited section.

2 The ecological trend of considering the redwood as part of a plant community rather than only as a harvestable rapidly growing tree appeared in 1977 in the following quotation from one of the prominent redwood researchers, Paul Zinke2: There needs to be more study of the autecological requirements of the various species that comprise its forest vegetation. For example, most of the coniferous forest species are at the southern limit of their ranges in this portion of California, representing the southern limit of the great coniferous forest of the Northwest. Presumably this is related to the greater aridity and warmer temperatures that occur at this transition to oak woodlands and grasslands to the south and to the interior. Are these limits due to occasional extremes of drought, or to gradients of increasingly limiting average moisture? At what points in the life cycles of the species concerned are the factors limiting: is it seedling survival that is critical, or overall growth in relation to competitive advantage?

The Conference on Coast Redwood Forest Ecology and Management was held at Humboldt State University in 1996. W. J. Libbyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s keynote address, expressing the abiding concerns of ecologists about redwood preservation, called for increased ethical choices. He expressed the concern about redwood protection, and discussed the value of the lumber industry to conduct a sustainable yield concept which includes recognition and respect for other values: Management of our forests should serve various and carefully considered human goals, ideally these goals will have ethical underpinnings. Some of these goals will be to a degree, mutually exclusive. One goal is to grow and harvest redwood as a renewable alternative to non-renewable, environmentally more harmful resources. A second goal is to maintain any of the other species that inhabit redwood ecosystems and particularly to husband those that have been negatively impacted by human activities.

W. J. Libby3 also asked â&#x20AC;&#x153;Is sustaining biodiversity a human goal?â&#x20AC;?

3 The answer is, apparently, yes. Today, more organizations than ever, and more individual activists direct their efforts toward protection of the environment and ecosystems. At the Humboldt State conference, Fredrica Bowcutt of the Society for Ecological Restoration in Mendocino County presented a paper describing interviews conducted with timber workers, resource ecologists, and reinhabitors (back-to-landers). On the topic of ecological approach of management, Bowcutt reports: The reinhabitors and resource ecologists placed high on the priority list controlling invasive exotic species, landform restoration (recontouring of abandoned roads), and stream restoration…. Timber workers are split 50/50 on whether nonnative species should be managed. Part of this can be explained by the relatively high percentage of timber workers who do not support any ecological restoration efforts.4

In 2000, Conservation Biologist Reed Noss5 stated: The reader is aware by now that saving the redwoods means much more than saving big trees. It means protecting the forest ecosystem in its natural condition wherever such opportunities exist…. Because some species require management practices are still unknown…. Sustainability is appropriately interpreted as a landscape or regional-scale property. It depends on protected areas (reserves) as well as areas where redwoods are harvested.

In the July, 2000 issue of the Journal of Forestry6, the publication of the Society of American Foresters, several articles and comments appear about the updated Code of Ethics for Society members, demonstrating encouraging changes in societal attitudes on ecology. In the year 2000 Code revision, the preamble included additional concepts to be considered including Common Morality, Land Ethic, Land Health, Commitment for the Larger Goals of Society, and Ecocentrism. Included in the year 2000 Preamble were comments referring to Aldo Leopold’s term “Land Ethic.” I quote from Leopold’s 1949 book, A SAND COUNTY 7 (pages 202-207) ALMANAC. The extension of ethics, so far studied only by philosophers, is actually a process in ecological evolution. Its sequences may be described by ecological as well as in philosophical terms. An ethic, ecologically, is a limitation on freedom of action in the struggle for existence. An ethic, philosophically, is a differentiation

4 of social from anti-social conduct. These are two definitions of one thing. -- The land ethic simply enlarges the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants, and animals or collectively: the land…. In short, a land ethic changes the role of Homo sapiens from conqueror of the land community to plain member and citizen of it. It implies respect for his fellow-members, and also respect for the community as such.

In his book ROUND RIVER printed four years later in 1953, Aldo Leopold gives this disquieting reminder to budding ecologists8 (page 165): One of the penalties of an ecological education is that one lives alone in a world of wounds. Much of the damage inflicted on land is quite invisible to laymen. An ecologist must either harden his shell and make believe that the consequences of science are none of his business, or he must be the doctor who sees the marks of death in a community that believes itself well and does not want to be told otherwise.

Besides Aldo Leopold’s discussion of Land Ethic, other recently coined terms are appearing in today’s expanded ecological lexicon --- for example, Leslie Reid’s14 “ecoscape” can be used instead of “landscape” for vistas of plant communities.

Scope and Format of the Guide The Guide emphasizes redwood functions as part of an intricate mosaic of plant communities existing near the southern limit of the redwood’s range. Redwoods in this area may be key to the survival of the redwood as global warming continues. Its interaction with other species in the southern limit may reveal physiological adaptations to more relatively dry and warm climates. Several of the associated plant species may also be near the limits of their habitat requirements and distribution. This discussion of the redwood covers all of its range. Examples of certain adaptive structures are emphasized when they exist in the Mangels Ranch Area (MRA) (Figures 1 and 2). These adaptations will be demonstrated in a proposed nature trail series of interpretive sites in MRA. The citation for each publication or paper in the literature-cited section is given in the text in small superscript numbers at the beginning or end of each quotation (or

Figure 1. Lower Area of the Forest of Nisene Marks State Park Noting the Location of the Mangels Ranch Area, the Pourroy Trail Area, and the Flat Understory Area of Georgeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Picnic Area.

Figure 2. Topography and vegetative classification of the Mangels Ranch Area in the Forest of Nisene Marks State Park.

7 authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s name) each time it appears. To facilitate gathering additional information, a review section of the key books and research papers is included.

SECTION I - DEFINING THE ECOSYSTEMS AND TOPOGRAPHY FOR THE MANGELS RANCH AREA (MRA) Plant Communities A plant community is an aggregation of living organisms having mutual relationships among themselves and to their environment. Munz and Keck 9

Competition in a particular area for the basic needs of plants - nutrients, space, and light, - results in the plant community for that area. Plant community studies are necessary for the evaluation of Proper Use trail and nature study sites I will propose for the Mangels Ranch Area (MRA) and in the Lower Area (Figure 1) of the Forest of Nisene Marks State Park (FNMSP). In the Guide, I sometimes refer to these proposed sites in discussing and demonstrating local plant communities. California ecologists and botanists over the past 30 years have created plant classifications according to their particular needs. This Guide uses classifications adopted by the California Native Plant Society, whose project started in 1977 (Terrestrial Vegetation of California, edited by Michael Barbour and Jack Major, 1988).10 Other naturalist writers with similar but varying vegetative criteria are Elna Bakker1, Philip A. Munz9, Verna R. Johnston11, and Allan A. Schoenherr12. Schoenherr listed the large scale California biomes: desert, scrub, grassland, forests, temperate rain forest, temperate deciduous forest, and tundra. He also listed most of the vegetative types presented by Munz with some changes. Munz9 listed the vegetative types as: Strand, Salt Marsh, Freshwater Marsh, Scrub, Coniferous Forest, Mixed Evergreen Forest, Woodland-Savanna, Chaparral, Grassland, Alpine, and Desert Woodland. Subsequent to the Munz outline the California Native Plant Society formulated its system, which includes most of the Munz criteria with minor changes. In Barbour and Major10, the broader categories are called Floristic Provinces. These provinces are: Californian, Sierran, Pacific Northwest, Great Basin, Hot Desert, and Southern California Islands. These six Floristic Provinces contain 20 vegetation types or plant communities. The Floristic Provinces in MRA and Lower Area of the FNMSP are the Californian Floristic Province and the Pacific Northwest Floristic Province. The plant communities of the Californian Province in MRA are Mixed Evergreen Forest, and Oak Woodland. The plant communities of the Pacific Northwest Province in MRA are Redwood Forest, Coastal Prairie, and Northern Coastal Scrub.

8 The species composition of each of these floristic provinces and plant communities has a basic continuity, with species varying in number and abundance by region. A partial list of the dominant plant species in the above plant communities for MRA, and the lower area, is given in the Wildlife Section, pages 78-88. .

Vegetative Climax and Seral Stages The Climax Another criterion for analyzing a forest is to consider how long ago the forest was logged or burned by a forest fire, and at what stage of climax it is presently in (Schoenherr12). The climax concept is used to define plant communities that have existed for centuries or longer in a climax condition, that is, when the vegetation has achieved stability and changes are gradual. Whenever natural catastrophes occur such as fires, landslides, and floods, a climax area becomes sub-climax for a long period. After a heavy logging, hundreds of years may pass before a redwood forest begins to regain its classic forest appearance, and hundreds of years or thousands, to return to climax. A. A. Schoenherr12 relates the importance ecologists place on the concept of climax communities: The varied mixture of trees and plants of all sizes and ages represents â&#x20AC;&#x153;climax community,â&#x20AC;? the natural balance of plant species that has been attained over centuries. If left without intervention or natural catastrophe, such complex ecosystems will sustain their healthy composition indefinitely. Examples of climax communities are rare, particularly in such populous places as California; thus, protection for them is all the more important, for they are easily accessible displays of nature in its purest form.

Much of the discussion in this Guide will be about ecosystems and plant communities and their climax status. To understand the formation process of plant aggregations arriving at a climax plant community, a review of PLANT ECOLOGY by Weaver and Clements13 is instructive. The following information was derived from their textbook. The Sere. A sere is the long-term process of reaching vegetative climax from the first stage of habitat conditions and plants to a potential climax status. The climax plant aggregation is the product of species competition in an area controlled by topography, soil conditions, and climate.

9 At the beginning, the status is early-seral, and near climax becomes late-seral. These are terms that appear in Timber Harvest Plans. If the sere process starts in a pond or lake it is called a hydrosere. The stages in sere sequence in a hydrosere leading to a forest climax are: submerged, floating, reed-swamp, sedge-meadow, woodland, ending with climax forest. The climax process is not completed until those tree species present which are best suited to the local conditions become dominant or co-dominant . If the sere is forming a climax on rockbed, such as a new lava flow, it is called a xerosere. The successional stages are: crustose-lichen, foliose-lichen, moss, herbaceous, shrub, ending in a climax forest. Within a plant community or ecosystem there may be several seral stages of plants due to minor disturbances of fire, floods, treefalls, land movements, and human activity. The time scale may be different due to the severity of the disturbance, but each sere contains its own process to climax. Weaver and Clements explain: Beginning slowly, increasing to a maximum, and then gradually receding, the plant populations of each have made conditions fit for the next community but often less fit for their own continuation. 13 (page 71)

In the Mangels Ranch Area, the upper canopy dominance is primarily Shreve oak, Quercus parvula var shrevei, and/or redwood. Other tree species are present, but do not become dominant. These are: coast live oak, Quercus agrifolia, Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Pacific madrone, Arbutus menziesii, California bay, Umbellularia californica, and a scattering of western sycamore, Platanus racemosa, arroyo willow, Salix lasiolepis, and bigleaf maple, Acer macrophyllum. The tanoak, Lithocarpus densifolia, occurs only in the riparian area of the MRA, apparently the Happy Valley area of MRA (Figure 2) is too dry for this more mesic plant. The riparian corridor along Mangels Creek does not contain red alder, Alnus rubra, which is the co-dominant species with big-leaf maple in the riparian area of Aptos Creek.

Topography, Geology, and Climate Vegetation in a given area is the result of topography, soil conditions, and climate. In the MRA, the transcending climate conditions for redwoods are coolness and high air humidity, and deep valley protection from strong drying winds. In this southern extension of redwood distribution in California, drought becomes a major factor of survival. The redwood can survive in areas of occasional light snowfall.

10 If one were reconstructing climate from stand characteristics one might infer that drought is more ‘normal’ than the average is. (L. Reid 14)

Slope dynamics is strongly operative not only in redwood distribution, but for all plant communities in California coastal ranges where Mediterranean climate prevails. Edaphic slope orientation to the sun interacts strongly with temperature, humidity, and storms. Vegetation in a Mediterranean climate, with its long, hot summer, is restricted, especially on the southward facing slopes which are cloaked with drought-resistant vegetation. In the MRA’s Happy Valley, the same factors are present, but are at a 90 degree directional difference because the ridges forming the valley run in a north-south direction. The sun’s rays increase the drought species on the west-facing slopes which receive the afternoon’s drier air (fog usually is dissipated by noon) and stronger winds and sun’s rays. The greater dryness of the west-facing slope in MRA is adverse to most west-facing slope conditions elsewhere in the redwood range. The following discussion of the slopes in the MRA demonstrates the strong influence exerted by local climates and topography upon the redwood and associated plant communities. . East- and West-facing Slopes of The Mangels Ranch Area The area consists of two virtually north-south oriented ridges - Hawk Point Ridge and Monte Toyon Ridge (Figure 2). Certain basic climatological and topographical factors have created three divergent mosaics of plant communities in spite of the fact that they each have the same rainfall, similar soil conditions, and steepness of slope. The floor of Happy Valley lies about 200 feet below the ridges. The two steep slopes forming Happy Valley are the westfacing slope of Monte Toyon Ridge, and the east-facing slope of Hawk Point Ridge (Figure 2). East-facing Slope of Hawk Point Ridge Plant growth on the Hawk Point Ridge east-facing slope is dominantly redwood clusters intermixed with Shreve oak, Douglas-fir, big-leaf maple, California bay, and patches of Northern Coastal Scrub. During morning hours until about 10 am to 1 pm, the usual fog concentration blocks the direct rays of the sun rising over Monte Toyon Ridge, allowing the Hawk Point Ridge east-facing slope to remain cool. In the afternoon, the sun’s rays do not directly hit this slope. Therefore, the slope remains cool and moist throughout most of the days of the year because of the topography, and also because of the presence of over 600 redwood trees which enhance their own cool and moist micro-environment.14,15

11 The redwoods on this slope form clusters in which there is little or no vegetation between the peripheral old-growth trees (see details of cluster formation on pages 62-78). West-facing Slope of Monte Toyon Ridge The west facing slope of Monte Toyon Ridge does not receive the sun’s rays until late morning, and when foggy, is even more cooled. When there is no fog in the afternoon, the slope receives the afternoon’s direct sun on clear days. The afternoon climate also includes the drying northwest winds which increase excessive transpiration of all vegetation. This is most likely why there are no clusters of redwoods on this slope, but only a few scattered redwoods along with big-leaf maples, both needing to be cool and moist. This west-facing slope has an almost contiguous canopy of Shreve oak. When large trees fall, seeds of the other plants in the area can take advantage of the mineral soil exposed in the gaps to receive more sky light and sun. Southwest-facing Slope of Hawk Point Ridge Hawk Point Ridge’s southwest-facing slope is steep near the ridge top, but becomes a more gradual slope when nearing Aptos Creek road (Figure 2). It receives more direct sun and wind than the slopes inside Happy Valley. The southwest-faced slope on Hawk Point Ridge is not shadowed in the late afternoon by another close high ridge to the west and receives nearly full afternoon sunlight and stronger drying north-west winds. The climate conditions on this more exposed slope favor prairie and scrub plant communities. Coastal Prairie and Northern Coastal Scrub occupy the lower part of the slope along with an Oak Woodland of mixed Shreve oak and coast live oak on the upper slope. In the oak woodland, an almost evenly mixed canopy of oaks is formed, with a few Douglas-firs mixed in on the upper reaches of this dryer slope. Scrub species border and mix in the ecotones with the oak woodland and purple needlegrass forming a diverse plant mosaic. The more common grass and scrub species are purple needlegrass, Nassella pulchra; Coyote brush, Baccharis pilularis; sticky monkeyflower, Mimulus aurantiacus; California sagebrush, Artemisia californica; California blackberry, Rubus ursinus; poison oak, Toxicodendron diversilobum; and bracken, Pteridium equilum. Several clusters of redwoods on this slope are in east-west oriented gullies having north-facing slopes. These clusters are redwood stand clusters (see page 62) that do not create a vacuity of non-growth in the center as in slump jumble clusters in Happy Valley (see below and 69-71). One stand cluster (Figure 2 E) is in a gully that supports 150 trees. There are two more stand clusters on the borderline between MRA and state property obtained before the MRA addition (Figure 2 D).

12 Soil Types Soils are the product of the bedrock acted upon by chemical and physical erosion and vegetation. There are two government soils publications for Santa Cruz County.16,17 Both show what is evident to the eye, that Happy Valley soils are different than other soils in MRA and the Lower park area of the FNMSP. On a map in a soils publication (Raymond Storie, et. al, 1944 16), the Happy Valley area is distinctly outlined, with the soil borders located directly along the Hawk Point and Monte Toyon ridges. The soil type is Steep Hugo Loam which appears in FNMSP in the Happy Valley area, partly in the Pourroy acquisition (Figure 1), and one small area in the upper park. It is a highly erodable soil found on steep slopes. The 1980 publication (Roy Bowman et. al, 17) is more definitive for commercial and recreational uses. The soil type in Happy Valley follows the same ridge lines of Hawk Point and Monte Toyon ridges as in the 1944 study, but is labeled “112” which is not present elsewhere in the park (Figure 3). They call “112,” a form of Ben Lomond loam on which: 17 Runoff is rapid to very rapid, and the hazard of erosion is high to very high.

The 1980 publication reported that this soil type is suited for redwood and Douglas-fir harvesting, but is not good for camping and picnicking because of its “severe steep” soil category. This publication reported slopes up to 75% in Happy Valley. Some areas on the east-facing slope of Hawk Point ridge are sheer cliffs, dripping with water.

Floods, Landslides, and Slump Jumbles Floods,5,14,18 landslides5 (including slump jumbles), and washouts are important for plant reproduction of a climax woodland area. Because of the narrow steep sided canyons of the FNMSP there are no flat alluvial stands that are common in the northern California redwood area. Fires can clear away vegetation and dying material over mineral soil which most seedlings need for the tender roots to become established. Fires are rare in MRA, and seedling reproduction of redwoods and a few other trees species is almost non-existent without exposed soil from a landslide scar, slump jumble, or root-pull pits and rootwads formed by uprooted downed trees. As will be described below, redwoods can reproduce without seedlings by dormant buds sprouting from stump roots, lignotubers, burls, buried branches, and cuttings.

Figure 3. Soil types in the lower area of Nisene Marks State Park, with emphasis on the highly erodable Ben Lomond loam extending through Happy Valley to near the Mangels-Van Eck Redwood in the Mangels Ranch Area. The loam is labeled #112, and is enhanced in this copy. Map from Bowman, 1980. 13

14 SECTION II SUMMARY OF REDWOOD STRUCTURES AND ADAPTATIONS The Redwood as a Superlative Tree First, let’s settle three potential problems: the height of a downed Eucalyptus tree in Australia that was taller than any redwood has not been verified19, and, the Redwood’s Sierra Nevada foothills cousin, Sequoiadendron giganteum, is uniformly called the Giant Sequoia, but Sequoia sempervirens may have two common names. Is the Official Common Name REDWOOD or COAST REDWOOD? If one follows the taxonomists and field identification authors, the common name is Redwood for Sequoia sempervirens. The following publications using redwood only are: Jepson’s original MANUAL OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS OF CALIFORNIA, 1923, Hickman’s18 revision of Jepson’s Manual, 1993, Barbour and Major,10 1988, and Lanner,19 1999. Natural History writer Verna Johnston,11 1994 also uses redwood throughout, except to say one place in the book that the redwood is also called the Coast Redwood, and does not include the Giant Sequoia. Most natural history writers and some researchers use both Coast Redwood and Redwood, These include Noss5, 2000, Evarts and Popper24, 2001, Richard Rasp54, 1989, and John LeBlanc, editor of the Proceedings of the 1996 Conference on Coast Redwood Forest Ecology & Management at Humboldt State University. Of the participants in the 1996 conference at Humboldt State University who submitted papers giving the common name, 30 used redwood only, and 14 used both coast redwood and redwood. In the natural history and research publications, coast redwood is often used in titles and some headings, but the tree is referred to as the redwood throughout the rest of the text. I am following this style in the Guide. To call it “coast redwood” at all times would be a burden to the reader and writer. I picked 20 pages of text at random in Reed Noss’s book, and computed that redwood by itself appeared about 1800 times in this publication. In this Guide, the official common name of “Coastal Redwood” is used in the title, but “Redwood” is used throughout the text. The Public’s Imagery of the Redwood W. J. Libby3 points out that to many people the redwood has an inspirational imagery: ... the substantial volume of poetry about redwoods tends to be reverential, even mystical.

What creates some of the inspirational imagery, is that the redwood self- prunes

15 its lower branches when shaded by an upper canopy layer. In a mature redwood forest, self pruning reveals to the viewer the bottom 50 to 150 feet of huge old-growth trees with bare trunks and deeply rutted outer bark topped with a thick mass of blue-green needles. The branches of the oldest redwoods are typically strongly drooping or recurvate, hanging nearly vertical on some giants (Figure 4.7). Often only a scattering of understory plants grows in the densely canopied old-growth areas. These relatively small plants enhance the unique imagery of the over-powering appearance of the bared lower trunks of the redwood giants. Official State Trees The legislature, in separate bills, has listed two official trees for California: the Giant Sequoia in the Sierra Nevada, and the Coast Redwood (Schoenherr59). The Tallest Tree in the World In most of the literature, the tallest tree in the world is the National Geographic Tree redwood which measured 367.8 feet 12,19,54 in 1963. It is on the wind protected alluvial plane of Redwood Creek in Redwood National Park. But, there is confusion and uncertainty which redwood tree is tallest tree in recent literature. I contacted interpretive specialist James Wheeler of the Redwood National Park and Dave Stockton at the Humboldt Redwoods State Park natural history center. In August 2004, they reported there are several redwoods in excess of 369 feet. Two giants are near 370 ft. in Redwood National Park, and two also nearing 370 ft. in Humboldt Redwoods State Park, 60 miles to the south. Each tree is growing at a different rate, resulting in occasional changes of the tallest tree. To complicate matters, a giant tree in Redwoods National Park is nearing the height race, increasing at a rate of about five feet per year. The tallest redwood in August, 2005, is the Stratosphere Giant, in Humboldt Redwoods State Park at 370.2 feet (Preston64-p225). In August 2004, measurements determined that the Federation Tree in the Humboldt Redwoods State Park, in Founders Grove, was at 369.2 feet. Founders Grove is where the 360 foot Dyerville Giant fell in 1991.55 The National Geographic Tree in Redwood National Park was at 369.0 feet, and the Mendocino Tree in Humboldt Redwoods State Park was 368.0 feet tall. The heights are measured by climbing the trees by Dr. Steve Sillett and crew from Humboldt State University.24, 64 Maximum Diameters of the Redwood and Giant Sequoia Reed Noss5 includes a table listing the heights and diameters of 40 large redwoods on public property throughout the range of the redwood. Twenty-six of the trees were over 325 feet in height, and 15 trees had diameters over 20 feet. The redwood is the second widest tree at 25.8 feet5 dbh (diameter-at-breast-height), surpassed only by the Giant Sequoia at 37.5 feet20 dbh.

16 The redwood is the fastest growing tree22, and is among the highest for yield of wood in the world. The redwood has shown good growth in many places in the world, but extensive redwood forests have not been established in other countries.23 Maximum Ages of the Redwood and Other Very Old Trees and Plants The redwood reaches at least 2200 years of age. It is surpassed in longevity by the Giant Sequoia at near 3300 years (Lanner19), the western bristlecone pine, Pinus longaeva at 4862 years (Lanner19), and the desert dwelling creosote bush, Larrea tridentata, 18,000 years (Schoenherr12). Other superlatives are that (1), the redwood’s bark is thick and contains only a trace of oils, making the large trees almost fireproof (2), redwoods reproduce by both seedlings and sprouts (3), a large percentage of the redwood’s annual water supply in some areas comes from fog drip off its branchlets falling to the ground to be absorbed by the roots, and (4), Viers21 mentions that redwood killing diseases are rare, and appear to not die of old age. The redwood is also genetically unique. Noss:5 Redwood is unusual among conifers in being hexaploid…. It has 66 chromosomes ... whereas most conifers have from 20 to 24. Because redwood is hexaploid, it is possible to have much allelic variation within a single individual (i.e. alleles are alternative forms of the same gene.) ... In short, redwoods have enormous within-family genetic variability, and we now have the tools to find and characterize it.

Basic Redwood Structures and Adaptations Ecologists need to identify the physical structures of the redwood which have survived many catastrophes of severe climate and wildland fire changes along our coast. Redwood concentrations had already changed considerably under prehistoric conditions, and, because of its high economic value, the survival of healthy stands of old-growth forest has been constantly threatened by human activity. The structures and adaptations the redwood has developed will be described in the text below and depicted in Figures 4.1 - 4.17, and in Appendix II. These drawings, not always in sequence as they appeared in the text, are grouped together here to facilitate finding them when reading the text.

Figure 4.1 Seeds and needles of the redwood, Sequoia sempervirens

Figure 4.2. THE OMEGA REDWOOD. This Residual Old-Growth redwood is one of the few remaining old-growth trees that were not harvested in the Georgeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Flat area. It is called THE OMEGA REDWOOD because nearly all the possible growth structures of a redwood are present on and around this tree.

Figure 4.3 The Piggyback Redwood Nurse Tree in One of the Clusters (Figure 6, p. 63). A dying tree (A) near the center of the cluster is probably from a dormant bud in a lignotuber in the rootwad (B). Sprouts or seedlings are not growing in the root-pull pit (C). The reiterations on the fallen trunk receive their energy and water from its remaining viable roots (D). These roots are also contributing energy for the continuing increased size on the treefall trunk as evidenced by the sharp decline in trunk diameter after each reiteration. The trunk is embedded slightly into the soil in two sections (E and F), but no roots are entering the ground from the trunk in those areas. In tree species that have piggyback growth, the trunks must have a viable root system to supply water and energy to reiterations. The plants in the foreground (G) are bracken, wood fern, and coffeeberry. The understory area is covered with redwood branchlet litter, and is within the shading influence of surrounding trees. The large tree (H) is the second largest tree (46 inches dbh) in the cluster. It and the other 13 oldgrowth redwoods in the cluster are strongly influencing the growth of the reiterations through competition for direct sun and sky light, food, and water. This slump jumble cluster (Figure 6) was formed around 400 to 500 years ago.

20 CAMBIUM The cambium layer is one cell thick. Cambium cells continually divide, but at higher rates in summer for reproductive energy and tree growth. Each cambium cell forms daughter cells that create the vascular and cork cambium layers. CORK CAMBIUM Outer Bark. As in the heartwood, tannins and other phenolics resist pathogenic fungus and bacteria that enter through fire scars, injury, and insect damage. Cork cells dominate, forming rings of alternate growth with other types of cells. Alternate rings of cork cells and other cells are laid down annually, but cannot be used in growth studies. This section of bark has only eight rings in an area with 50 rings in the xylem. As in the phloem, the redwood outer bark has dense fibers. Resinous and volatile compounds are minimal in the outer bark, giving fire protection to the tree. Phloem or Inner Bark. The cells in this layer are not wood cells. They are living fibrous cells that transport sugars and other organic compounds to all parts of the tree for growth and sustenance. Annual rings are not made in this layer. The fluid movement is down the trunk as well as laterally along the limbs and branchlets. The fibers are highly distinctive in a cross section of the trunk. VASCULAR CAMBIUM Xylem or Sapwood. These living wood cells give strength to the bole and transport water and minerals from the roots to the entire tree by osmosis. Storage of water also occurs in this layer. Annual growth rings are formed in the xylem. The early fast growth occurs in early spring, and an annual ring is formed at the end of the late growth period in fall and winter. Heartwood. The heartwood is dark red due to concentrations of tannins that are a type of phenol. The cells are dead sapwood cells that become hardened and change in color and form when carbohydrates are no longer available to the cells abutting the xylem. The heartwood and roots can succumb to fungal infections when the bark is removed by injury or fires, often resulting in fire scars and chimney trees. Figure 4.4. Cross section of a 25-inch dbh redwood at 8.4 feet above the ground describing the functions of cells in the cork and vascular cambium layers. (Results of further study of this treeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s growth reveals possible reactions of the tree due to increased rainfall, groundwater quality, and light. See Appendix II.)

Figure 4.15. Key identification features of the Coast Live Oak and Shreve oak. Leaves and acorns are 50% of actual size. The above differences are not always definite, but if at least five acorns or leaves are inspected from a tree, identification would be reliable. (A hybrid of these species may not be identified by these criteria).

Figure

4.16.

Nursery Log. This is a 22 foot section of an over 100 feet long decomposed Douglas-fir nursery log. It lies mostly under the canopy of a large big-leaf maple. California coffeeberry is the dominant plant on the log. The redwood seedlings appeared about 12 years ago. Other species on the log are big-leaf maple seedlings, common chickweed, narrow leaf minerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lettuce, California figwort, bitter-cress, the fern Polypodium calirhiza, and mosses. The chain fern is rooted under the log.

Figure 4.17. The healing process is shown of a redwood buttress injury in 1982 when the tree was 23 years old and had a diameter of 7.3 inches of vascular cambium. The deposition of vascular and cork layers are shown at six heights of the bole. The tree was 61 years of age, with a height of over 80 feet.

25 Forests, Stands, and Groves A redwood forest is forest in which redwoods are the dominant canopy species. Treefall gaps and occasional landslides and slump jumble scars, fires, etc., appear in climax forests creating sites where seedlings of all species present can grow and compete, thus sustaining a diverse forest structure. Redwoods usually form abrupt mixed ecosystem mosaics when abutting other distinct plant communities. In an uneven-aged old-growth stand, redwoods are distributed throughout the stand with varying degrees of isolation and spacing. This somewhat random and uneven spacing is caused by varying topographic and geological structures and competitive plant dominance for space and sun. The redwoods with self-pruned lower bare trunks often have nearly contiguous canopies including an occasional sub-dominant tree species. Considerable variation in understory species and abundance occurs in different local physical habitats, and also by latitude. A thick forest of giants is the public’s stereotype of a redwood forest. Splendid photographs of these old-growth giants are given in an oversized publication Redwoods by Jeremy Joan Hewes20, and in Evarts and Popper’s24 Coast Redwood. In deeply shaded areas, redwood seedlings have an advantage over the seedlings of other tree species. Tanoaks (and to a lesser degree Shreve oaks) are also shade tolerant and may be dominant over young redwood trees for a short time, inhibiting redwood reproduction. Eventually, the much faster growing post-sapling redwoods prevail over tanoak competition. In the silvicultural harvesting method of small-area clearcut plantations, tanoaks are thinned out, or poisoned.33 A stand is a concentration of trees in a particular location, such as stands of redwoods on a slope may be different than redwood stands in flat areas. “Stand” is often used in silviculture discussions. The term grove of redwoods is usually applied to a special concentration of trees such as the famed Richardson Grove along Hwy 101 in Humboldt County. In the Lower Area of FNMSP are the Tillman Memorial Grove and the Jan Carel and Agnes Van Eck Memorial Grove. Treefall Gap, Root-pull Pit, and Rootwad11, 25 (Figs. 6 and 7) A treefall gap occurs when a treefall creates an opening in a forest canopy. Treefalls are also called windfalls, blowdowns, and wind-throw, fallen, and downed trees. “Treefall” is the name used by most writers because not all trees are downed by winds. A tree can also be dislodged by undercutting erosion by floods and landslides. Locally, oak trees have been weighted down by climbing English Ivy, Hedera helix.

26 In the Mangels Ranch Area, this ivy has been removed from nearly all the trees, including redwoods in the MRA. If a treefall gap is formed by a tree that broke off and the roots are not affected, soil may not become accessible for seedling reproduction. However, growth of previously shaded trees may be enhanced if increased light is available to them. Canopy gaps are part of the redwood reproduction process. Changes in shading and wind protection will present opportunities for all the species present to compete. When the mineral soil has been exposed by an uprooted downed tree, seedlings can take hold either in the root-pull pit25 or the rootwad24 soil. Exposed soil for seed reproduction is necessary for vegetation which does not reproduce from sprouting after a fire or other disturbance. In this area, redwood, tanoaks, California bay and many of the understory shrubs sprout from dormant buds. Sugihara25 reveals the importance of the treefall gap in forest ecology: Fallen trees form an important structural part of the stand due to the great size and longevity of the logs. Through gap dynamics the redwood forest continuously renews itself while maintaining massive tree size, high density, and structural and biological complexity.25

At first, the process of sere development resulting from a catastrophic event is competition of the pioneer species26 which can be an assemblage of native species. In the FNMSP area, aggressive introduced species18 such as Australian fireweed, Erechtites minima; English ivy; Cape Ivy, Delairea odorata; French broom, Genista monspessulana; and prickly clover, Trifolium angustifolium are highly invasive. Some introduced species do not need a treefall gap to establish themselves. Dirt road or trail construction almost always results in invasive plant establishment in MRA, especially by the four species mentioned above, along with the forget-me-not, Myosotis latifolia, and several species of annual grasses introduced from the Mediterranean area. Harvesting Effects - Percent Remaining of Old-growth Redwoods Lawrence Fox III27 reported on the degree of removal of old-growth forests: In 1989, old-growth forest comprised ten percent (207,000 acres) of the land area. The largest and most dense old-growth redwood occurred on four percent of the natural range. Secondgrowth redwood forest classes occurred on 63 percent of the natural range. Second-growth forests dominated by Douglas-fir and hardwood species comprised 13 percent of the natural range.

27 In 2000, Noss5 reported that 93-95 percent of the existing redwood forest on the west coast is second-growth and third-growth. Definition of an Old-growth Redwood Tree In 1998 when attending Timber Harvest Plan hearings, the definition was quite simple in discussions with timber harvesters and foresters. The definitions of old growth were those of the California Department of Forestry (CDF) rangers and timber workers who were complying with the restrictions of the Zâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;berg-Nejedly Forest Practice Act of 1973. Most of the research on redwoods has been conducted in the Pacific Northwest coastal area, and at times the growth patterns and associated species of the redwoods in the northern part of the state are not the same as in the southern zones, including some areas in Santa Cruz County. A large old-growth redwood has diagnostic shapes including long strongly drooping branches, mostly bare lower trunks from self-pruning, and thick coarsely grooved bark. The main requirement in the northwest heavily logged areas has been for a tree to be around 200 years old. The average size at that age is around 40 inches dbh (see next page) in that area. Todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s definitions are much more complex and subject to describing the forest, not just isolated stems. Noss5 (page 87) suggests: For conservationists to evaluate the ability of management options to meet the needs of species associated with old-growth redwoods, some understanding of the specific habitat requirements of the species is desirable, as well as a general understanding of the characteristics of the old-growth forest. There is no generally accepted or universally applicable definition of old-growth ... specifying exact age ranges for late-successional and old-growth forests is impossible because of variations in climate, soil quality, disturbances, and numerous other factors.

28 The USDA Northwest Forest Plan perpetuates the confusion. Tuchman et. al.28 suggested that: ... as a general rule, late-successional (late-seral) forest as those with trees at least 80 years old and old-growth forest as a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;subset of late-successional forest with trees 200 years or older.

One of the more clear forest harvesting conditions for determining an old-growth tree is a forest area which has never been logged. The trees represent a large range of sizes because of the differences in growth rates in response to topography, soil fertility, light, and atmospheric and soil water content. In the Mangels Ranch Area, the average size of a 200 year old tree is around 32 inches dbh, with a wide range of sizes at that age. One can utilize the official size/age criteria for a mature redwood, and state that all trees in the MRA over 24 inches in dbh are old-growth. But, in a residual forest (one that has been logged but with large old-growth trees remaining) it is difficult to determine whether 30 or 40 year old tree is a slow growing old-growth tree or a fast-growing second-growth tree. A fast growing second-growth tree could be as large as a slow growing old-growth tree. The shape of the tree is significant because redwoods change branch structure with age. On a young tree, the branches extend outward, sometimes bending upward at the tips (Fig. 4.6). On very old trees, the branches droop strongly downward (Fig. 4.7). For more information, Noss5 has a detailed account of the criteria for an old-growth tree.

Forestry Criteria by Extent of Logging Unlogged Old-growth Forests - (First Generation Redwoods) From 1883 to 1923, nearly all the old-growth FNMSP forest redwoods were harvested. The only unlogged old-growth forest in FNMSP is in Happy Valley where there are more than 600 unlogged redwoods over two inches in diameter, covering about 60 acres. Except for 30 isolated redwoods, the redwoods in Happy Valley are concentrated in 33 clusters on the east-facing slope of Hawk Point Ridge. Each cluster has a contiguous canopy of redwood branches and needles with very little or no understory vegetation in the center. About 60 percent of the trees are old-growth using old-growth limb shape and bark features, and an approximate age of 200+ years using dbh trunk diameters over 31 inches in diameter. Diameter-at-breast-height (dbh) is 4.5 feet from the ground level. It is measured by using calipers, electronic instruments, or by dividing the circumference by pi (3.14159) for diameter (girth or width).

29 The distance of 4.5 feet from the ground for a dbh measurement is to avoid the expanding buttress of a redwood (Figs. 4.2 and 4.17) which may vary considerably by size and age of the tree. Also, if the tree has developed a large thick burl at the base near the ground, the burl would exaggerate the volume of the tree when calculating the board feet of lumber. The east-facing slope of Hawk Point Ridge (Figure 2), is a Redwood-Mixed Evergreen29 climax forest dominated by redwood in clusters. Except for two clusters that were logged, the redwood cluster areas and associated plants are at late seral and climax. No recent natural changes in the vegetation due to fires and land movement have been observed. Treefalls of two Douglas-firs, four redwoods, twelve Shreve oaks, and one Pacific madrone were recorded in the past six years on this slope. Residual Forests30,31,32,33 Residual is used to identify a stand of redwoods that has been logged but has oldgrowth trees remaining. The number of old-growth trees contributing to the remaining canopy determines whether it is called a residual old growth or residual second growth forest. Residual Old-growth Forest This term applies to a forest in which there was a minimal selective cut of trees, leaving a predominantly old-growth canopy. Marcel’s Forest in the Pourroy property acquisition is an example of a residual oldgrowth forest. This stand of forest was logged many years ago but later than the Loma Prieta period. About 300 redwoods remain, many of them old-growth. The Pourroy acquisition could be classified as mostly mid-seral with areas approaching late-seral where old-growth trees dominate the canopy. The Advocate Tree is in Marcels Forest near Aptos Creek. It has the greatest diameter of redwoods in the park with 11.6 feet dbh. However, the official definition of dbh possibly becomes too restrictive in describing the totality of this tree for purposes other than harvesting. The dbh is officially measured from the uphill or “topside”. If the measurement of The Advocate Tree circumference is made on the topside or uphill side, the dbh is 11.6 feet. If the diameter could be measured at dbh from the lower or downhill side, it’s width would be 13.2 feet. The latter measurement gives a more realistic size of the tree, but it cannot be used to compare its diameter with another tree. If measured at the ground, it is over 14 feet in diameter. The second widest tree in the Lower Area of FNMSP is the Mangels-Van Eck Redwood at 11.2 feet dbh (Figure 2).

30 Residual Second-growth Redwood Forest If the cut was heavy, leaving only scattered old-growth trees, and their canopy is not contiguous over much of the stand, the forest becomes residual second-growth. It is residual because a few old-growth trees are present. A residual second-growth forest stand with a few old-growth trees is along the Mangels creek riparian trail in the MRA (Figure 2). This area contains the Mangels-Van Eck Redwood. Most of this area is probably early-seral because there was a timber harvesting about 60-80 years later than the Loma Prieta cutting. Other possible residual second-growth clusters in MRA are on the border with previously owned state property (Figure 2, D). These are logged stand clusters, but there may be a few old-growth trees to call them residual second-growth stands. Second-Growth Forest - (Second Generation Redwoods) Nearly all the areas logged during the Loma Prieta lumbering period from 1880-1930 in what is now the FNMSP, were clearcut. Massive sprouting with some seedling reproduction has resulted in an almost even-aged second-growth forest. With additional young trees entering the stand each year, the logged areas of the forest are tending slowly toward an uneven-aged forest. The Loma Prieta clearcut operation also entailed removal of non-harvestable redwoods (termed trash or culls), and most of the broadleaf evergreens such as Pacific madrone, tanoak, coast live oak, and Shreve oak. Today, if the harvest is a clearcut, the returning trees at first form an even-aged forest. After a clearcut operation, when two-year old nursery redwoods are planted and competitive trees such as tanoak are removed or killed by spraying, the stand is called a plantation, or tree farm.34 A second-growth redwood stand in MRA of about 150 redwoods that has been logged is on the west-facing slope of Hawk Point ridge (Figure 2, E). It is on the north-facing side of a gully. Two of the clusters on the top of Hawk Point ridge were clearcut and are now secondgrowth. Third-growth Forest - (Third Generation Redwoods) Second-growth harvesting has taken place in the Lower Area of the park. A large zone of second-growth in the Lower Area from the steel bridge to the kiosk, was cut again in the early 1960â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, resulting in a third-growth forest. The owners of the Lower Area harvested second-growth redwoods west of Aptos Creek from the steel bridge (Figure 1) to about the southern trail head of the Terrace trail at Aptos creek, and on the east side of the creek near the kiosk.

31 Many young redwood clones are sprouting on and around the newer stumps that are intermixed with highly degenerated at least 80-100 year old stumps of the Loma Prieta period. Since many of the Loma Prieta second-growth trees were not cut and with more third-growth young sprouts surviving, the present forest is uneven-aged.

Redwood Distribution - Past and Present Redwoods originated during the Age of Dinosaurs: Johnston11 relates: Fossils indicate that one hundred million years ago Redwoods of a dozen species spread widely over western North America, Europe, and Asia in a climate much milder than today’s. Ice ages, volcanic eruptions, uplifts of mountain ranges, continental drift, and drastic climate changes all took their toll on population survival over the millennia.11

In all the world, only three Genera and species of “redwoods” remain: the Dawn Redwood, Metasequoia glyptostroboides of Asia, the Coast Redwood, Sequoia sempervirens, and Giant Sequoia, Sequoiadendron giganteum.5, 9,11, 20 The climatic conditions for the redwood restricts it to the moist maritime climate of the central and northern California coast. The redwood’s range extends 15 miles into Oregon, in the Chetco River drainage, Curry County, and south to Salmon Creek in Monterey County near the San Luis Obispo county line.35 It extends east up to 45 miles from the coast in the northern section, forming a band of redwoods from 6 to 30 miles wide.3 Due to warmer and drier climate to the south, the redwood remains primarily in deep canyons south of Monterey. There are pockets of large redwood trees in the Big Sur canyon areas south of Monterey.

Sea Salt Desiccation Needle desiccation and tree mortality can occur to redwoods by ocean winds near the shore. Dehydration of the needles is caused by sea salt aerosol containing sodium, magnesium, sulfur, and boron.2, 36 FNMSP is apparently beyond the negative influence of this aerosol. Viers also points out that sea salts can dehydrate and kill redwood seedlings.21 Seed Germination Viers21 concludes that Pleistocene climate changes have “ended seed production”. This may not be entirely so, but without sprouts from dormant basal buds, the redwood is at a great disadvantage in competition with other plants unless floods, landslides, treefall gaps, and low intensity fires occur creating areas where redwood seedlings can survive.

32 The branchlets (Figure 4.1) contain rows of needles on the sides. There are two forms of needles, the flat spreading needles of the lower branches, and the short stiff pointed needles near the crown. The crown needles, which can be seen on the ground after a strong wind, are exposed to full sun and drying winds, and are structured to reduce transpiration. The reproductive branchlets remain on the limbs for three to five years until they become shaded by new branchlet growth. However, in full sunlight with little shading, individual branchlets can remain on a limb for up to 15-20 years.24 In autumn, these bright yellow-orange branchlets make up the colorful surface litter of the redwood forest floor. Evarts and Popper24 explain the reproductive structures. The: ...redwood is monoecious, which means that male and female reproductive parts are present on the same plant. Pollen cones (male) and ovulate cones (female) are borne on the tips of different branches. (During) ... October-March the male conelets release streams of pollen. As the pollen grains drift and descend through the canopy, some settle in female conelets. ... Fertilization takes place about four to eight weeks later.

Redwood female cones mature through the summer, and by mid-winter start shedding their seeds as the next generation of female cones are being fertilized (Figure 4.1). Becking37 studied a mature redwood tree which produced 1000-1500 cones annually, each conelet containing from 16-26 scales totaling 60-180 seeds (Figure 4.1). This calculates to at least 1,000,000 seeds for this large mature tree. This sounds very impressive and seems to represent a high reproductive rate, but redwoods have a very low germination rate because of pathogenic fungi present in the seed cones. In Mendocino County, there was an average of only 13% of sound (able to be fertilized) seeds, and in Humboldt county, mature trees averaged only about 20% sound seeds. Nevertheless, Ronald Lanner19, muses: If trees could think, redwood would probably be described as having an un-quenchable will to live. Even relatively young trees bear abundant crops of tiny, pollen-bearing male cones, and small, semi-woody seed cones.

33 Survival of Seedlings Fertilization is initiated in December-January on warmer clear days between storms. Nevertheless, pollen grains will rupture and be destroyed upon contact with moisture. Pollen shedding is repeated several times during the winter. Dropped conelets often have sprouting seeds within the scales.37 When the tree is under physiological stress it will produce large quantities of heavy seed. After the heavy flooding in 1964, a high survival of seedlings occurred, with germination rates increasing from a normal of 1.01% to 8.95%.37 After the 1964 flood, masses of seedlings appeared which in places resembled a “lawn” surface, but very few of them survived due to poor light conditions, root com-petition, and soil moisture stress. Where there is deep duff, pathogenic fungi contributes to mortality of seedlings called damping-off. Noss5 lists 319 species and subspecies of fungi associated with the redwood, twenty of which are pathogenic. Here is Becking’s conclusion on the success of seedling reproduction: From the millions of established seedlings only one might become a giant tree upon severe selection, by luck and chance.37

Tannins and Phenolics Tannins are a higher molecular form of phenol. Several of these anti-pathogen substances protect the wood of the redwood from fungal and insect attacks. At the time of the development of the archegonia, in an attempt to counter destruction of seeds by pathogens, the tree will produce higher levels of phenolic crystals that kill the pathogens.24

Mycorrhizae Mycorrhizae are of different forms of fungi in the duff, humus, and soil that are essential to the redwood and other plants.5 Strands of these fungi invade the radical or growing tip of the root, assisting the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil. Redwood root radicals do not have root hairs.

Determining the Age of a Redwood Aging is done by counting annual rings on stumps or harvest logs (Figure 12). However, Paul Zinke36 reminds us that there may be discontinuous rings in trunks. From the work of Fritz and Averall, 1924,38 decades are accurate enough for annual ring counts for redwoods. Hewes20 tells us why a growth ring may not appear:

34 In very old trees, ... the number of growth rings can be misleading. In some instances an annual ring may not have reached the level of the stump, because the rings begin at the tree’s crown. In other instances, the pattern of growth rings may be distorted owing to a fire scar or buttress on one side of the trunk.

The implication in Hewes’ report is that the annual growth initiates at the crown of the tree. However, as can be plainly seen each spring, the onset of new needle growth of redwood starts with bright light-green soft needles, not only at the crown but simultaneously at the tips of each branch along the entire trunk. This growth pattern is explained by plant physiologist Katherine Esau39 in her text PLANT ANATOMY: The primary growth, initiated in the apical meristems, expands the plant body, increases its surface and its area of contact with air and soil, and eventually produces the reproductive organs.

One reason why a tree would stop growing during this new growth time would be the physiological stress of fire damage. Many naturalists like to compare the Coast redwood with the Giant Sequoia. Redwood conelets produce seeds in one year, but Verna Johnston11 reminds us that Giant Sequoia cones can mature in two years, and that the cones can remain green and attached to the Giant Sequoia tree for as many as 20 years. Age of the Giant Sequoia tree female cones is determined by counting annual growth rings on the cone.11

Official Size Classification of Redwoods Based on dbh Diameter Lawrence Fox III27 lists the size range classifications for redwoods: 1-6 inches are saplings, 7-11 inches dbh are small trees, 12-24 inches dbh are medium trees, and greater than 24 inches dbh are large trees. It is assumed that seedlings and sprouts are under one inch in diameter.

Nursery Logs, Nurse Trees, and Nurse Plants Of all the life history descriptions of the redwood, the most confusing and uncertain terminology concerns “nursery logs”, “nurse trees”, nurse plants”, and reiterations. Descriptive words of these behaviors are not uniform among researchers. In this Guide, I use the following brief definitions followed by more complete descriptions below:

35 A Treefall is a downed tree. It can be either dead or alive. For the tree to be alive requires that a portion of its roots must remain in the ground and be viable. A Nursery Log is a dead treefall which has deteriorated sufficiently to expose the inner bark and xylem wood layers, and has seedlings of any species on it. A Nurse Tree or Nurse Plant is living, and can be standing or be a living treefall on the ground with viable roots that gives support or protection to another plant. A Snag is a dead standing tree or a part of a dead standing trunk (Figure 4.13).

Nursery Log A deteriorating log can become a nursery log. Nursery is used here instead of nurse because a nursery is where plants are grown from seeds, cuttings, and clones. As the nursery log deteriorates, plants and many organisms continue to thrive and compete for nutrients and space for possibly hundreds of years. During this time, ecosystems are evolving in and on the log, supplying energy and contributing to the biological complexity of the redwood forest. Sugihara25 states: Fallen trees form an important structural part of the stand due to the great size and longevity of the logs. Through gap dynamics, the redwood forest continuously renews itself while maintaining massive tree size, high density, and structural and biological complexity.

Noss5 and others40 report that seedlings of many plants, including redwood, can sprout on deteriorating downed logs. However, Sugihara25 agrees with other researchers that redwoods, unlike western hemlock, Tsuga heterophylla, and Sitka spruce, Picea stichensis, have little success of a seedling reaching tree size if it is growing on a nursery log, because the roots will not establish in rotten wood - mineral soil is necessary: Fallen trees do not act directly as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;nurse logsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, and no canopy trees appeared to have originated on logs. Redwood seedlings do germinate and grow on logs, and it is likely that individuals growing on logs that were buried by sediment deposits would be in good position to develop a root system at the new soil surface.25

Floods in the thick alluvial forests along the northern California rivers add new layers of soil about every 30-40 years.

36 The redwoods then grow a new layer of roots in the new soil.5,11,36 Verna Johnston11 describes other plant growths and competition on a nursery log: The Spruce-Hemlock Nature Trail at Patrick’s Point State Park, leads to some of the much touted ‘Octopus Trees’ that form a regular part of the North Coastal Forests. When a tree falls in a spruce-hemlock forest, its prostrate trunk offers a sudden new available surface upon which plants can grow - a bonanza to whatever can get there first. The competition in this moist environment is fierce, with mosses, liverworts, ferns, wild flowers, shrubs, and spruce and hemlock seedlings all in the running.

Note that Evarts and Popper24 and Verna Johnston11 do not use “nurse” or “nursery” reference in their descriptions above. Sugihara25 mentioned “nurse log” for downed deteriorating trees, but I have not read this elsewhere except in L. Eifert’s booklet THE 56 DISTINCTIVE QUALITIES OF REDWOODS. An Octopus Tree is a Sitka spruce which extends its roots down through the weak areas of the rotting nursery log, reaching the ground on swollen strong roots. When the nursery log disappears, the spruce is left standing on its “octopus” shaped roots. A large amount of Sitka spruce reproduction is on dead nursery logs. Seedlings on redwood nursery logs rarely become standing trees with roots. In the MRA, a decomposing Douglas-fir nursery log (4.5 feet in diameter) is near Cluster # 21 (Figures 2 and 4.16). On the dorsal surface are three redwoods (54, 32, and 30 inches in height), nine large and 12 small coffeeberry bushes, and, in damp weather in winter, a profusion of the fern Polypodium on the sides. I have not encountered in the literature a downed deteriorating redwood called a nurse tree except for the 1971 following statement by Bakker: 1 (page 110) So-called nurse trees are downed logs which are fertile substitutes for seedlings growing like well-behaved school children in line on the upper surface of a decaying trunk.

Nurse Tree and Nurse Plant The foregoing discussion on nursery logs does not mean to suggest that nurse tree or nurse plant are not a valid descriptive phrases.

37 Noss5 in his glossary describes a nurse tree as a tree “That provides support, shade, or other benefits to another plant.”

Examples of Reed Noss’s general title of nurse trees and nurse plants appear in Schoenherr:12(page 454) Germination of Joshua Tree seeds occurs in association with abundant winter precipitation, but young Joshua Trees are usually gnawed off by rodents. It seems that the only Joshua Trees that escape predation are those that germinate under protective cover of shrubs known as nurse plants, which include a variety of species. After three to four years the Joshua Tree emerges from the canopy of its host and eventually replaces it. ... As in Joshua Trees, the rare seedlings of Desert Agave require a nurse plant. In this case, the seeds that germinate are usually under the desert bunch-grass known as Galleta Grass, Hilaria rigida. It has been determined that Galleta Grass provides necessary shade and increased soil nitrogen for the Desert Agave seedlings.12(pages 461-462)

Considering the large number of growth forms of sprouting redwoods and their interaction with other species, “nurse” tree is too inclusive. In the Mangels Ranch Area, California bay, arroyo willow, and oaks including the Shreve oak often are competing for light and nutrients and affecting each other when abutting the redwood clusters. There are several unique redwood growth patterns including the Piggyback Tree (Figures 4.3 and 6).

Role of Fog Drip Todd Dawson41, noted that fog drip from redwood foliage could be as much as two inches or more a day. In his study in northern California, fog is heaviest from 0700 to 1000 hours, and is at a minimum in mid-afternoon at 1500 hours. Fog concentration follows the same hourly pattern in MRA, but fog drip is not as abundant in the MRA. It can be determined from the stable hydrogen isotope methodology whether the water in the plant was from rain, ground water, or fog drip. The total annual moisture input from fog drip was between 22-58 % in Humboldt County, 26-44% in Mendocino County, and 12-18% in southern areas. Fog drip is uncommon in the Happy Valley redwoods and may be negligible for cluster use.

38 Lack of fog drip may be a major limiting factor for redwoods in Happy Valley. Dawson41 summarizes: It is also possible that both redwood seedlings and understory plant species which require forest conditions to regenerate including fog drip and cool temperatures could disappear if the integrity of the redwood forest is disrupted.

Fog moisture can be directly absorbed through redwood needles, but it is apparently of lesser importance. Looking at all effects of fog, Dawson concludes from several studies that:41 Hydrological studies have shown that moisture input to the redwood forests from fog can constitute between 30-75% of the annual water budget, and claims were made that fog may serve as a potential source of water for plants.

Role of Litter, Duff, and Humus The accumulation of leaves and forest debris on the forest floor develops into three distinct zones. The top layer of new leaves without deterioration is litter. The next layer where decomposition is taking place but the leaves can be identified as to species is duff, and when the bottom material is decayed to the point that the original species source is not recognizable, it becomes humus (Figure 4.12). In redwood literature, the entire deposition of fresh and decomposing vegetative material is often called “litter”, except when a particular layer is being discussed. “Litter” over several feet thick has been noted, but in the Aptos area it is rarely more than 6 inches thick. There are up to 20 fungal pathogens in the duff which attack the roots and kill seedlings. This is called damping-off. Redwood seedlings can establish in duff, on logs, in debris, and in low light intensity as long as adequate water and light are available. It is necessary for seedlings to sprout and survive on mineral soil. This occurs primarily after a low intensity fire, on a landslide or slump jumble scar, on flood alluvium, or on soil exposed in a treefall gap either in the rootpull pit or on the rootwad.25,37

39 Evarts and Popper24 report: ... coarse, woody litter does not retain moisture as efficiently as the underlying soil, and seedling roots can quickly dry out if they are not well established in mineral earth ... for redwoods ... lack root hairs.

If the seedlings live through these conditions, they may be consumed by banana slugs, brush rabbits, parasitic nematodes, gray millipedes, deer, woodrats, and mice. Too little or too much sunlight are problems for redwood growth. The redwood is shade tolerant, and the seedlings can subsist in medium light levels under a canopy layer of 60-80 percent.24 But, under full dense canopies of old-growth, especially inside slump jumble clusters (see pages 69-71), seedlings may not survive. Evarts and Popper show how too much bright sun can be lethal for redwoods: In a full-sun location, a redwood will develop slowly because it must contend with moisture loss from high rates of transpiration.24

In spite of all this extremely poor seed production, the redwood has thrived throughout most of its range under natural conditions. The mature uncut forests are stable, because once a large redwood stand becomes established, it has a long life as reported by Viers:21 Because of their longevity, only 2.5 trees per acre must reach canopy status each century in order to maintain the less severely disturbed stand on mesic sites in the northern part of their range. (emphasis mine)

Role of Fire Fire is beneficial to redwoods because seedling reproduction can be enhanced by low intensity fires. Evarts and Popper24 describe the process: A low intensity fire, prior to seed fall is especially beneficial: it removes forest floor duff and kills soil pathogens, but does not leave the hard soil surface that typically forms after a hot sustained fire.24

Fire Scars Creating Changes in Growth Rings If a fire is strong enough or there is repeated erosion of the bark from low intensity fires, the cork cambium layer can be damaged leaving a fire scar that will be evident in a disruption of the growth ring pattern.

40 Repeated burning can initiate heartrot, and with each additional fire, the burning of the accumulated dead wood may create larger fire cavities. Sometimes these fire scars may extend up through the middle of a tree for over a hundred feet forming a chimney tree (Figure 4.10). After a fire has removed or diminished the canopy, the increased light available to the remaining redwoods may increase growth, resulting in widening of the annual growth rings (Figure 12). This annual increase in xylem growth may last for many years until there is returning competition for light from adjacent trees. The annual rings will then narrow with increased shading. Mean Fire Interval (MFI) Fire is a common subject for discussions of the redwood among naturalists and students. The debate whether to suppress fires is a major problem in our spreading population, because many people move into fire prone areas of the state, and then want the vegetation removed. Or, if the scrub had been thinned from past fires and has grown to be dangerously thick, the need for removal or thinning may become necessary. But, ecologists are concerned about the health of ecosystems under repeated controlled burns in a vegetative community which had achieved climax status in an area of few fires. If the Mean Fire Interval (MFI) is lowered in an area, it would mean the fires became more frequent, i.e., a 500 year average interval is a high MFI average frequency, and a 20 year mean interval of occurrence would be a low MFI frequency. To clarify, a lower MFI means fires are closer together and more numerous - 20 years is a lower number, but with five times as many fires than when the fires are 100 years apart with a high MFI. These data are from a valuable publication available to forest managers and ecologists written by Jason Greenlee and Jean Langenheim in 1990.42 Greenlee received his Doctorate at UCSC43 on this subject working primarily in Big Basin State Park. The following is a combination of paraphrasing and quoting the essential criteria and findings for this Guide. As throughout this Guide, the quotes are indented and in a different font than the paraphrasing. One of the biggest problems confronting plant ecologists has been to separate the effects of climatic and edaphic influences on vegetative patterns. Now, especially in Californiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s coastal ranges, Greenlee and Langenheim supply empirical data about the frequency and effects of fire. I am presenting their contribution by describing the five Fire Regimes: Lightning-volcanic, Aboriginal, Spanish-Mexican, Anglo, and Recent. The MFI in these Regimes trends from a high MFI in the Lightning-Volcanic Regime to the lower MFI and more fires in the more recent regimes.

41 Lightning-Volcanic Fire Regime - up to 11,000 years BP The native plant species evolved with fires caused only by lightning and volcanic action. The occurrence of these factors at any point on earth over millions of years has changed radically. Changes in topography, humidity, temperature, and climate affect the intensity of lightning strikes and their ability to start fires. All of the fire regimes sustained shortened fire frequency subsequent to the Lightning Regime. The lightning period in this area lasted up to 11,000 BP, when Aboriginal fire effects began in California: ... lightning fires covered approximately 37% of the redwood forest,(20% of the land surface) of Santa Cruz County in a 50 yr. period (1929-1979). ... Santa Cruz County has one of the lowest recorded incidents of lightning fires in California. ... From 1893 to 1979, only 101 lightning storms were recorded in Santa Cruz County, igniting 34 fires. Ninety-one of these occurred during the moist winter season, with only one fire resulting, and the remaining 10 storms started 33 fires. ... Some of these ignitions show little potential for becoming large fires.42

There were fewer large lightning fires in the Aptos area compared to the higher and drier zones near Big Basin (Figure 5). Aboriginal Fire Regime - 11,000 BP to 1792 A.D This regime started in 11,000 BP and ended when the Spanish arrived in 1792: In contrast to lightning fires, Aboriginal burning was more frequent and occurred in the lowlands rather than the upper slopes of the mountain ranges. Lightning fires were still occurring in the Aboriginal regime but natural MFI was decreased in coastal areas by the spread of accidental and deliberate human fires.

Only selected areas were purposely burned by Aborigines, and it appears that redwood forests were spared from this stress in the northern areas, not only during the Lightning regime, but also during the Aboriginal Fire Regime: Because of the presence of grizzly bears and the lack of important food resources they often did not venture into the redwood or mixed evergreen forests. Estimates of the

Figure 5. Number and distribution of wildfires in Santa Cruz County between 1929 and 1979. The data for the Lightning and Recent Fire Regimes shows the location of fires over 10 acres in area. Recent Fire Regime fires were more scattered throughout the county, and of smaller average size compared to the Lightning Fire Regime fires. Figure from Greelee and Langenheim. 43 1983

43 frequency of Aboriginal burning in California very widely, but annual burning of prairies has been documented for the Monterey Bay area. (They relate)... evidence of an 82-yr MFI in a southern redwood drainage during the Aboriginal regime, and Aboriginal fires, like lightning fires occurred in the autumn, but some spring burning could have taken place.42

There are many reasons why Aborigines set wild fires, and accidental fires occurred with them as it does in all human regimes:42 ... at the time of first European contact, fire was being used in California to cook, cremate the dead, burn fleas out of infested shelters, remove vegetation to make travel easier and to prevent surprise attack, flush wildlife, harass enemies, provide building materials, encourage certain plants such as the hazel(Corylus californica)(now C.cornuta)and reduce potential fire hazard around villages. Circumstantial evidence supports aboriginal burning in the oak woodlands; early travelers reported that these woodlands were free of chaparral shrubs and other understory, and this effect was most likely produced by burning. Because the Spaniards found prairies along the coast we can assume an MFI of less than 15 yr existed here during the Aboriginal regime.

Grass was dominant along the coastal plateaus because grass burns rapidly, suppressing further woody plant invasion by killing regeneration of some scrub plants. Trees are usually little affected by grass fires. Spanish-Mexican Fire Regime - 1792 to 1848 Although documentation of Spanish and Mexican burning is negligible, a new regime certainly began shortly after Portolaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s exploration in 1769. Aboriginal burning declined because of cultural changes. The Spanish increased burning in some areas to clear land for grazing, while preventing fires in agricultural areas. While the aborigines were free, the government made regulations against burning to protect the summer and autumn standing hay crop, which was required for cattle. Despite these sanctions, Spanish rancheros began to burn chaparral and oak woodland to expand pastures. ...

44 In the prairie overgrazing, a change in the kind of grazing animals and grazing patterns, cultivation, and fire suppression gradually led to the replacement in most areas of native perennial grasses by exotic annual species. The Spanish regime is best represented by frequent human ignitions occurring within the boundaries of ranchos.42

Anglo Fire Regime - 1848 to 1929 The 100 year “winning” of the West was a grand ecological “loser.” The Manifest Destiny exploitation of the vast natural resources of the West happened extremely fast and thoroughly. We witnessed the demise of millions of buffalo, extinction of the passenger pigeon, and the extermination of the beaver in many areas. These disasters were accompanied by changing the prairie grasslands to include cattle grazing, wheat, hay fields, and the economic frenzy to cut timber for lumber and hardwoods for fuel for the rapidly expanding economy and population. The average size of the American family during this time was around five children per family. It is now a little over two. Uncontrolled forest management was without consideration of continued future supplies of lumber. Greenlee and Langenheim42 continue: As Anglos moved into the Santa Cruz Mountains, logging became a dominant activity; by 1880 fifty logging mills were operating in the area. To aid removal of logs, logging slash was burned in place. Since control lines were not used, fires frequently escaped. Where these human-caused fires burned under extreme weather conditions in heavy fuels, they were not usually stopped by a change in weather or by minor barriers. Newspapers from this time described these as large intense conflagrations which frequently became crown fires. Fires often escaped control; by 1888 the State Forester considered escaped logging fires to be a major problem. Simultaneously, Anglo stockmen in the south and on the coast continued the practice of burning chaparral. The southern ranges had little timber, but burning was used extensively in attempts to convert chaparral into pasture and farmland. Fire scars dating from the Anglo regime support our scenario in indicating that the entire logged inland portion of the county was burned over at least once and in many places two or three times during this regime.

45 In contrast to the Aboriginal and Spanish eras, these fires generally occurred in the inland rather than costal zone, and were larger, more frequent, and more intense than previous lightning fires.

Recent Fire Regime - 1929 to present The year 1929 ushered in a new America. Not only did the near laissez faire economic binge reach a breaking point with the Depression, but because of the damage to the environment, all governments - national, state, and county - enacted protective restrictions to resource extraction, with emphasis on the forests. Greenlee and Langenheim42 relate what happened in Santa Cruz County: In the Recent regime, the MFI in the redwood vegetation type is trending back to 130 yr in the Santa Cruz Mountains. Because of efficient fire suppression, prairies also are not burning at previous rates in the Recent fire regime. In Recent Fire Regime, MFI in chaparral may be as great as 155 yr in the Santa Cruz Mountains, and we observed in Big Basin that Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) is invading chaparral as a result. Based on these observations and on our estimates of prehuman fire occurrence, we propose that chaparral and prairies are now much smaller than in the early part of this century, when human burning must have greatly expanded these two vegetation types to their peak coverage. This increasing MFI also suggests that we can expect more intense fires in the future.42

The demands today to protect redwood forest ecosystems include basic research of the environment and autecology of many species such as the spotted owl, Strix occidentalis; marbled murrelet, Brachyramphus marmoratus; tailed frog, Ascaphus truei; northern goshawk, Accipiter gentilis; and the possibly extinct Humboldt marten, Martes americana humboldtenis. Silvicultural practices today establish sustainable yield forest management, which includes protection for threatened and endangered species. Ecologically sound fire control programs also need attention. In the Recent Fire Regime in Santa Cruz County, there were more widely scattered but smaller human caused fires compared to lightning fires (Figure 5).

46 Fire Scars, Fire Cavity, Chimney Tree, and Goosepens The most visual evidence of ground fires in a redwood forest is burned bark near ground level of big trees. Fires may initiate or increase the effect of heartrot fungi to form a fire cavity or goosepen45. In the northern part of the state, a large fire cavity was called a goosepen when it was used to pen geese (Figure 4.2). A fire cavity is usually on the upper hillside of a tree because of the accumulation of woody debris on the uphill side of the tree: Evarts and Popper24 relate: When a ground fire travels uphill, it usually transfers more heat to the uphill face of a redwood. A greater accumulation of fuel, also with the fire’s reflected heat, intensifies the fire’s effect of the tree’s upper side. As a result, most fire scars are located on a redwood’s uphill side.

Most of the downed large redwoods in MRA have a large burn cavity. The old snag in MRA (The Spire, Figure 4.13) extends upward about 25 feet on one side that had a large fire cavity. A chimney tree may start as a cavity but continues to burn out the dead center wood, sometimes up for over 100 feet (Figure 4.10). How These Fire Data Relate to the Mangels Ranch Area Wildfires are becoming an ecosystem protection problem due to the fires in the chaparral, brush, and oak woodland plant communities of Southern California in 2003. In fact, throughout the United States forest and woodland areas, ecologists have a growing concern about thinning understory growth and diseased trees to prevent devastating fires. There is some justification for the concern about uncontrollable fires in dry brush and tree areas. Ecologists realize that some plant communities need occasional low intensity fires for reproduction and space, whereas other ecosystems have evolved without high intensity fires. Some of these ecosystems could possibly be endangered by burning too often. Most of the fires in Santa Cruz county were in the Big Basin area where Greenlee and Langenheim did their basic work. On page 42 is a map of the Santa Cruz area where the incidences of lightning fires were presented. Note the lack of major lightning fires in the FNMSP area (Figure 5). I have not seen evidence of lightning damage to trees in the MRA.

47 My wife and I have seen and heard hundreds of lighting flashes in and near the MRA, and have yet to see where they have struck. Possibly some of these lightning strikes were cloudto-cloud. For ecological and esthetic reasons, deliberately set fires should be prevented in the MRA. If a fire is caused by humans, quick suppression should be considered. Crown fires are rare in redwoods, and fires â&#x20AC;&#x153;may occur at intervals of more than 500 yearsâ&#x20AC;?21 in the northern part of its range. The redwoods in Happy Valley younger than about 400 years do not have fire scars on their bark or fire cavities. The last known fire in FNMSP was in 1922 (pers. comm. Sandy Lydon, Aptos). This 1922 fire, moving through a recently clearcut logged forest area, came down the Aptos Creek drainage from the northeast and stopped at the steel bridge. The Lower Area, including the MRA, was not burned at that time. On Monte Toyon ridge, manzanita seedlings do not occur around the few remaining mostly dying old manzanitas. This may be from shading by Shreve oaks that form thick contiguous canopies. However, since there have been infrequent fires in the MRA area in recorded times, possibly scrub species have not had sufficient fires for reproduction. Lack of seedlings may not be from fire suppression, but possibly from the absence of Aboriginal deliberate or accidental fires. If this is the case, it is possible that fire conditions in MRA may be returning to a climax Lightning Fire Regime in which fires may have been negligible. Note from page 45 the reported invasion of chaparral areas by Douglas-fir in Big Basin State Park because of lack of fires in chaparral areas. Douglas-fir saplings are present on both Hawk Point and Monte Toyon ridges abutting the scrub and prairie areas. As will be noted in the Wildlife Section (pages 78-88), there have been changes in floristic concentrations almost throughout the MRA. Occasional rapid changes of bird species due to drought have been noted. However, evidence is not at hand to accurately relate what has happened to create rapid changes in plant distribution in some areas, and stability in other areas. In studies on the lignotubers in the chaparral area of southern California, Susanne James 44 reports that the sprouting scrub species evolved to not only withstand fires and survive, but require repeated fires: Many perennial species on both the coastal sage scrub and chaparral in the sub-humid area of Coastal California may be evolutionarily adapted to the ecological effects of fires. According to a hypothesis proposed by Mutch (1970), the characteristics of chaparral which enhance its flammability have been evolutionarily selected.44(page 228)

Fire is assumed to have been an important selective influence on the evolution of many chaparral species. For example, chaparral community dominated by manzanita (Arctostaphylos) is dependent upon fire for long term persistence at any one locality because fire induces manzanita seed germination. Fire also â&#x20AC;&#x153;preparesâ&#x20AC;? a soil environment conducive to manzanita seedling growth by increasing both the ash layer and soil PH, and destroying allelopathic soil chemicals. Fire may be a necessary environmental component for perpetuation of chamise (Adenostoma)chaparral and Ceanothus chaparral for similar reasons. Most chaparral species not only tolerate burning but are dependent upon fire for recycled nutrients and ultimately for regeneration and reproduction either by sprouting or seed germination. 44 (page 229)

Root and Trunk Functions The redwood does not have a taproot. Its strength is assured by the massive root formation which can spread more than 50 feet laterally, and the larger roots extending from two to six feet below the surface. Barbour and Majors 10 note that the roots of the nearby redwoods often mesh yielding strong protection. The feeder roots are the mass of small almost fibrous rootlets which impact the mineral soil extending downward for several feet, with some close to the surface just under the humus layer, The trunk structure (Figures 4.4 and 4.17) is basically like other conifers. The cambium is a single-celled layer between the inner bark (phloem) and the xylem (sapwood). The bark (dead cells) and inner bark (living cells) together make up the cork cambium. The living cells of the xylem together with the dead cells of the heartwood make up the vascular cambium. The inner bark or phloem transports the carbohydrate and protein compounds made in the leaves. This energy flows downward through the phloem to other structures, mainly to the vascular cambium and roots where it is stored and later used to maintain the health and growth of the plant.

49 The red heartwood consists of dead cells enriched with tannins and other phenolics which protect it from insect invasion, but it is still susceptible to heartrot fungi when the protective bark at the base is repeatedly damaged by fires. Repeated burning can initiate the development of a fire cavity (Mark Finney45). The sapwood cells primarily store and transport water from the roots to all of the tree. A large redwood can transpire as much as 200 gallons of water each day (Evarts and Popper24). The bark has very little oils, and large trees can withstand low intensity fires. The bark on the largest of redwoods is reported to be a foot thick. Some of the bark fissures of a 7 feet dbh twisted redwood (Figure 4.2) in Georgeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Flat are about 13 inches deep, but bark thickness in the FNMSP is rarely more than 6 inches.

Albino Redwoods This mutation of a redwood tree from the lignotuber, burl or roots, is rare. The leaves lack chlorophyll, the green pigment necessary for photosynthesis to produce sugars and proteins, giving energy to the plant for growth. The albino growth gets all its food source from the parent plant. The leaves are ivory to creamy white, and waxy appearing. The largest albino redwood on record is 80 feet high.24 Two clumps of sprouts are near the Mangles Ranch Area, one in the lower area of FNMSP, and another in a nearby private redwood stand. The sprouts in the private clump are from damaged lignotuber growths at the edge of a road. The patch contains over 100 sprouts and extends out to nine feet from the 5.5 foot dbh parent the tallest sprouts are 7 feet high. The stem part of a new branchlet is completely white, but in older wood, the stem is mottled or completely covered with reddish bark. Tumorigenesis The crown gall is a non-pathogenic gall that does not kill the tree. It may be on the trunk or in the crown. In the Berkeley area there is an incidence of three percent of tumorigenic individuals infected. Scher and Wilson46 report tumorigenesis has been found in Alameda, Humboldt, Marin, Santa Cruz, and Sonoma counties. This gall has not been found in the Lower Area and MRA of FNMSP. Epiphytes Epiphytes grow in the canopies of large heavy-limbed redwoods, mostly in the northern part of the range. Evarts and Popper24 (page 35) report: Sillett found 13 species of vascular plants growing as epiphytes in the canopy: one spike-moss, three ferns, four shrubs, and five trees. ...Sillett encountered a diminutive California bay growing within a knothole 322 feet up the trunk of the Redwood Creek Giant; in its lofty perch this California bay is the highest recorded epiphytic tree in the world.

50 Structures Originating From Dormant Buds Growth Regulators. When there is an injury to the tree, dormant buds become active24, developing into the forms listed above. Dormant buds sprout when the production of growth regulators is reduced: Growth regulators produced by the redwood normally keep its buds from sprouting. When the stem tip of a seedling or tree is killed or severely damaged by fire, browsing, or other injury, many of the buds are released from dormancy. ---Stump-sprouted suckers are exceptionally vigorous and can greatly outpace the growth of comparably aged redwood seedlings.24

Evarts and Popper24 continue: Although a redwood contains dormant buds at a very early age, its peak potential for prolific sprouting occurs when the tree is about 200 to 400 years old. After that age, the ability to sprout appears to decline. An old redwood uprooted by high winds or killed by a fire will not necessarily send out new, life-renewing shoots.

Sprouts (Clones) Sprouts around the base of a stump can form a sprout ring, sometimes called a fairy ring (see fairy ring discussion on next page). Most loggers and researchers use the term sprouts instead of clones. Sprouts (Figure 4.2) are an important form of redwood reproduction: Redwoods, tanoaks, and most redwood forest shrubs re-sprout from underground buds protected by the soil from the fireâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s heat. ... Sprout origin trees are more common in drier, warmer sites where fires are more damaging and seedling regeneration is less likely... Fewer than ten percent of trees in northern stands are of sprout (Stephen Viers21).

Noss5 adds a few facts to sprouting behavior:

51 Because their basal burls are small, seedlings and saplings produce few sprouts. Redwood may be propagated by cuttings with no special treatment. Rooting in excess of 90 percent is obtained routinely when using cuttings from young plants.

Rudolph Becking37 gives another view (copied from Viers paper): Under intense management redwood naturally regenerates predominantly by sprout growth as clones from stumps rather than by genetically diverse seedlings.21

Sprout Rings (Fairy Rings) A sprout ring is a circle of redwood sprouts from dormant basal buds around the stump of a logged or naturally deteriorated redwood. The trees in a sprout ring can grow successfully into mature trees. Many stumps of the trees logged in FNMSP have several of these young trees surrounding and occasionally touching the deteriorating stump. Eventually, some of them may fuse to each other near the base to form a tighter enclosure. Others members of the sprout ring may die from nutrient competition or shading as the surrounding canopy closes in. As the stump rots away, the area between the sprouts may be covered with deep duff and humus. Fairy Rings. Many authors and interpretive specialists prefer to call sprout rings fairy rings. The term “fairy-ring” has been used for centuries to describe this growth behavior by species of mushrooms. Mushroom experts Robert and Dorothy Orr relate: The Fairy-ring Mushroom grows on lawns or pastures, especially where it is cool and foggy during spring, summer and early autumn. It very frequently grows in a circle called fairy rings. These yearly widening circles were once believed to enclose the space where fairies danced at night. A more scientific but less poetic version is that a fairy ring results from the mycelium utilizing so much of the organic material within the ring that it is forced to expand outwardly. The fruiting bodies, consequently, appear above ground in ever widening circles, year after year. Many other kinds of fleshy fungi besides Marasmius oreades form fairy rings.47

The fairy ring concept can be applied to the redwood in that the redwood sprout rings are clones which may make a circular pattern. However, the “widening” concept for the ring

52 does not appear in research literature. I have found no account of this redwood ring continually expanding, and I have not witnessed this behavior in the sprout rings in FNMSP. However, Schoenherr12 -p440 describes the circular expanding growth pattern of the creosote bush, Larrea tridentata over flat land from a solitary plant: Aerial photographs show that in old stands of Creosote Bush, circles of shrubs are apparent. Subsequent study shows that the bushes involved in a circle contain the same generic material; that is, they are clones. There may be two to nine shrubs in these rings, outside of the crown, and the oldest stems are in the center. Eventually the central stems die, but the shrub continues to expand until the living stems form a ring. As the ring enlarges, it breaks up into bundles of stems, each representing a different plant. Actually, the different components of the circle originated from a single root stem. The original plant had a taproot, but the different members of the clone do not have taproots.

Even though the creosote growth is similar to that of mushroom fairy ring, the term has not been used here as it has with the redwood (see more on creosote bush, pages 72-73). The creosote bush expanding clonal growth is not the same process as for the redwood clusters in Mangels Ranch Area. MRA clusters are formed when a slump jumble appears on a hillside (Figure 4.14 and pp 62-70). The exposed mineral soil on this land scar presents a patch of duff and humus-free dirt needed for redwood seedling growth. The seedlings may proliferate throughout the land scar, and after hundreds of years, the surviving large redwood trees form the cluster (Figures 6-8). The peripheral redwoods forming the MRA clusters are mostly large mature trees, uneven-aged, and spaced in a roundish pattern. The ground area between the peripheral trees is of deep duff and humus that does not contain understory of plants, although an occasional living small redwood tree may be present.

Tree Members Comprising a Redwood Sprout Ring May Not Be Sprouts From The Same “Mother” Tree In discussing redwood clusters with interpretive personnel and educators, the concept of a cluster being a clonal “fairy ring” was often stated. However, not all the tree members of a sprout ring around a stump or in the circular cluster peripheral trees are genetically the same, that is, not all originated from a single “mother” tree. The following report by W. J. Libby sheds light on the genetics of the sprout ring, but also discusses the redwood cluster phenomenon from his study in Humboldt Redwoods State Park48:

53 Clusters of redwood in natural stands sometimes called “fairy rings”, are usually thought to be clonal. However, the “fairy rings”, within these four stands often proved to have other seedlings or clones sharing the ring with the resident clone. One might expect that unusually well-adapted clones would be occupying large areas, but no extensive clones were located in the four stands studied.

The following statement by Verna Johnston suggests that most of the replacement in logged areas are from sprout rings: Over the centuries a ring of trees may stand around long-gone ancestors. This sprouting ability explains why there are still Redwoods growing on logged-over forests that have failed to regenerate new seedlings.11

Corralitos Locally, the redwood sprout rings surrounding logging stumps are called “corralitos” which means ”small corrals” in Spanish. The Spaniards were reported to pen their horses by placing branches between the trees where there was an open space in the sprout ring allowing a horse to enter. A natural (not due to logging) corralita is located in Cluster #21 (Figure 2). The parent tree material is completely gone from inside the ring, leaving eight encircling trees, some of which are fused to each other at the base. The corralita is at least 250 years old. Another such natural sprout ring is in George’s Flat. The sprout ring in cluster #21 appears to have formed around the edge of the root-pull pit from a treefall or death of a redwood on the periphery of the cluster. The ground was not dug in the center of the sprout trees to locate evidence of burning. The corralita sprouts most likely originated from lignotuber growth remaining in the soil at the perimeter of the rootwad or burned stump. However, the sprouts may have also been seedlings. The redwoods in this cluster have two types of bark formation, the normal vertical grooves, and an extreme twisted or spiral form (Figure 4.2). The eight corralita trees do not have twisted or spiral outer bark. Christmas Tree When redwood limbs on a living trunk are burned by a fire, there can be a prolific sprouting of buds at the base of the injured limbs, forming a mass of trunk growth which resembles a tightly branched shaped Christmas tree (Figure 4.8.). A splendid photograph of redwood Christmas trees appears in Evarts and Popper.24 Stump Peeler If sprouts develop into small trees on the top outer rim of a cut redwood stump, local foresters call them peelers (Figure 4.11).

54 If the new trees do not attain their own structural root systems in the ground, they may eventually become detached from the outer surface of the high edge of the stump. Reiteration A reiteration is a tree-like growth that originates from an injury that stimulates dorsal buds to become active on the main trunk or on a large broken limb (Figure 4.2; and Noss 5 (p 96)). Several reiterations appear on redwoods in MRA. The Mangels-Van Eck Redwood has two large reiterated growths from a large broken branch about 50 feet up the bole. This abnormal growth is probably why the 11.2 foot dbh diameter Mangels-Van Eck Redwood was not harvested. In the literature, standing trees producing reiterations have not been referred to as nurse trees although I suggest that fallen living trees with dorsal reiterations called piggyback trees (see next paragraph), could be called a form of nurse tree.

Piggyback Tree A Redwood Piggyback Nurse Tree (Figures 4.3 and 6) is a living tree having viable roots in the ground with reiterations growing on the dorsal surface in the form of trees. In this nomenclature, Redwood is the species, and the Piggyback is the living Nurse Tree. The treelike reiterations are formed by emerging previously dormant buds on the dorsal surface of the downed trunk. The remaining root system of the downed tree supplies the nutrients and stores energy for the piggyback reiterations. Evarts and Popper24 include a detailed section on dormant bud formation and function. Here is a brief account of this process: A fallen tree, for example, may send up a row of shoots that emerge from buds along the length of the bole.24 When visiting the Olympic National Park about 40 years ago, downed decaying Douglas-firs with small trees growing on top surface were referred to by Park personnel as â&#x20AC;&#x153;piggyback treesâ&#x20AC;? . The piggyback tree in Cluster #7, (Figure 6) is a treefall with part of its viable root system in the ground. The treefall occurred about 60-70 years ago. It is still alive with six upright reiterations growing from the trunk. The largest reiteration is 21 inches in diameter at its junction with the trunk. The diameter of the downed trunk is 19 inches under the largest 21 inches dbh reiteration (Figure 6). This cluster and the piggyback

55 tree are protected from strong winds from any direction, but as these reiterations grow taller, they will catch more wind stress and may topple. A strong earthquake may also topple them as they grow larger.

Negative Geotropism The dormant bud growths on a piggyback nurse tree are the result of what plant physiologists call negative geotropism. The derivation of the words in this structure tells us that: the reiterations are growing (tropism) upward against (negative) the pull of the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s gravity (geo). Roots have a positive geotropism and grow downward, whereas standing trees are the result of negative geotropism. The six tree-like growths on the piggyback tree have temporarily filled the canopy gap and are now self-pruning in the shade from the taller redwood trees of the cluster and from nearby California bay and Shreve oak trees. All the horizontal limbs on the treefall have died except one (Figure 4.3). A redwood tree about 30 feet high is growing off the rootwad of the treefall in the center of the cluster. It is unhealthy and appears to be dying. No redwood seedlings or sprouts are on the ground near the piggyback tree, and roots are not growing out of the trunk into the soil where the trunk is touching the ground under the reiterations. Trunk Sprouts, Lignotubers, and Burls Different interpretations of sprouting behavior are common, and considerable space is given here. For example, most texts state that the redwood is the only conifer that sprouts after a fire. However, the bigcone Douglas-fir, Pseudsotsuga macrocarpa of southern California also sprouts on the trunk.11,19,49 Verna Johnston11 reveals that: ... Bigcone Douglas-fir is the only southern California conifer capable of sprouting from large branches and from the trunk after defoliation by flames.

Gause, 196649 discovered that the sprouting is from the trunk only. The big-cone Douglas-fir tree does not produce sprouts from the ground around the stump because it does not have lignotubers in the ground or burls at the base of the trunk.

The dormant buds are laid down during the formation of the seedling in the aerial parts of the trunk. The redwood is the only conifer which sprouts from a stump or lignotuber. Many plants in other families in the chaparral community and the Ginko and Eucalyptus sprout from stump and ground structures after a fire. Peter Del Tredici of the Harvard University Arnold Arboretum is one of the prominent authors on lignotubers for the redwood. He reveals the complexity of these structures: 50 One must keep in mind, however, that the lignotuber formed at the cotyledonary node is under strict genetic control while those that develop elsewhere on the trunk are under environmental control. In this regard Sequoia is similar to Ginkgo biloba which produces positively geotropic lignotubers from axillary cotyledonary buds (basal chichi), as well as induced lignotubers (aerial chichi) on its trunk and branches.

Susanne James of UC Riverside who has researched lignotubers and burls on chaparral species, discussed these structures and differentiates between lignotubers and burls. The differences and similarities are found in cell origin and structure: The similarities between lignotubers and burls of ontogenetic development, and functional and ecological significance are sufficient to categorize all these structures as lignotubers. The term ‘burl’ can be used to describe swellings induced by tissue injury.44 (page 251) The term ‘burl’ is now generally used to describe any wood which has an unusual and irregular ‘grain’ with swirled patterns (typical of wood with many bud traces).44 (page 259)

Peter Del Tredici also discusses the burl:50 -p 258 Large, lignotuber-like structures often can project out from the trunk 50 cm or more. If these burls come in contact with the ground, which they often do, they will develop both roots and shoots.

57 None of the 46 papers presented at the 1996 Proceedings (page 102) of the Humboldt Redwood Conference and none the natural history books cited in the Guide except for Reed Noss’5 book mentioned the lignotuber. However, all of the other natural history books I reviewed11,12, 19, 24, gave considerable attention to burls and the other dormant bud structures mentioned above. Since the burl is associated very closely in function and structure to the lignotuber, it seems to be sufficient to some educators to refer to these structures as “burls.” The lignotuber is of primary importance to ecologists, and the following paragraphs include a few paraphrased and quoted comments from Peter Del Tredici50 and Susanne James.44 In 1899, lignotubers were mentioned in Eucalyptus research, and the first comprehensive treatment of lignotubers was printed in 1925. The term burl was used in the description of the subterranean woody structure by Jepson (1916)51 who referred to its appearance and development in manzanitas. Del Tredici summarizes the following three basic functions of the lignotuber: (1) for production and storage of sprout buds, (2), to store carbohydrate and mineral nutrients, and (3), as anchor organs on steep slopes. In her discussion of lignotubers and sprouts on woody plants, Susanne James44 says: Sprouting can begin from stem, root, lignotuber, or burl tissue within ten days of injury or total destruction to the aerial canopy. Sprouting potential may be enhanced by the formation of ontogenetically produced lignotubers which serve as a source of dormant buds and may serve in carbohydrates nutrient, and water storage. Repeated sprouting may result in a tissue called a burl.

“Willis Jepson’s Circle” in Mill Valley - a Possible Misinterpretation of Circle Cluster (“Fairy Ring”) Formation Because of its harvesting value and superlative life history attributes for public viewing, the redwood has been researched extensively. However there is some con-fusion on the importance and interaction of burls, lignotubers, sprout rings (“fairy rings”), and seedling reproduction. The following pages 58 to 60 include a discussion of suggested functions of the lignotuber in the formation of redwood sprout rings (“fairy rings”), and possibly in the formation of “circles” or “clusters”. This discussion is expanded in Appendix I (pages 89-94). Sprout rings are very common in all cut redwood forests but they also occur in uncut areas. This single layer of sprouts that makes large trees around trunks are commonly called “fairy rings.” Since this term is merely a poetic good sounding analogy

58 to the rings formed by certain fungi, it is acceptable to describe the new sprout ring around a stump. However, it has not been scientifically described that, like the mushroom ring, the sprout rings of redwoods continue to expand forming large open clusters in a redwood stand, or in the case of the Mangels Ranch Area, large isolated clusters amid scrub and oak woodland plant communities. An important redwood behavior needing clarification for interpreters and docents is to question the accepted belief that an expanding “fairy ring” formation around a “mother tree” can form large “circles” or clusters. The following is what I have encountered in the literature and in discussion with researchers and editors involved in this subject. Three researchers who have given “circles” and “fairy ring” attention are Willis Jepson (1910), Peter Del Tredici, (1998 and 1999), and Reed Noss, (2000). It may appear that I am being highly critical of some of the wording of professional researchers and editors, but it has been important to all redwood researchers and educators for them to have explored the many possible functions of burls lignotubers, and sprouts. And, to determine if the term ”fairy ring” can be used as a valid analogy for a ring of sprouts around a mother tree that continues to grow outward forming a large cluster. So far the validity of an expanding “fairy ring” has yet to be established. This Jepson circle of trees is the only description on the literature of what is now called by some as a “fairy ring” cluster. I made an extensive study of a distinct nearly true circle of redwoods that Mill Valley historians, City Park officials, and myself consider to be the “circle” Jepson studied (Appendix I, Figure 10, Jepson’s field notes copied by Dr. Richard Beidleman, and Misuraca, Rick.199257, in Lit. Cit. p102). Here are, in time sequence, the comments by three authors and a popular writer who have given us some valuable information to further explore these concepts: 1. In 1898 Willis Jepson was surveying redwoods stands along the coast. In 1910, he published his account of the redwood in THE SILVA OF CALIFORNIA.52 This is what Jepson wrote (note the 1-3 underlined areas commented upon below): The tree has no taproot but a large number of huge lateral roots which lie near the surface of the ground at their point of origin, a most advantageous position (1) to generate by adventitious buds a circle of sprouts about the stump. The sprouts are usually numerous, sometimes a hundred or more. (2) These form a second generation which reduced in number by competition, are eventually represented by a circle of trees. In some instances these trees have been cut and a third generation is now near to merchantable timber.

59 Such “circles” may be seen in Mill Valley at the southeastern base of Mt. Tamalpais. One of these “circles” is fifty-one feet in one direction, forty-five feet in the other direction, and contains forty-five large trees, not counting the small ones. The girth of the trunks ranges from less than two feet to six feet while the crowns rise fifty to seventy feet. (3) In the centre once stood the parent; the stumps represent the second generation, while the living trees are of the third generation at least. ... In most cases the original stump has wholly disappeared as result of repeated fires.52 (emphasis mine)

Comments (1): “To generate by adventitious buds” is the well known development of sprouts originating from roots or lignotubers around a cut stump. This commonly referred to as a “fairy ring.” Jepson was interested in lignotubers with his work on manzanita51 published 1916. At this point there is still no reference to an expansion of these sprouts to form a larger circle away from a stump, or as he considered in the Mill Valley circle, a “parent” tree. (2) and (3): The “second generation” term here confuses a reader who knows about “second-growth” in lumbering lingo and academic analysis (and throughout the literature). A first generation redwood is a large tree that has been there for hundreds of years, and the following generations, second, third, etc, follow each successive cutting. The old stumps in the “Jepson circle” under study here are the same size and deterioration as all the other first generation stumps in the quarter-mile previously uncut redwoods along a creek in Mill Valley. Jepson mistakenly considered the trees from these stumps were second-growth, with the first generation being a parent tree that was assumed to have been in the center of the circle. However, this is not a serious problem. What is important and revealing is that he stated that the sprouts became “reduced in number by competition”. Regardless if the next generation were sprouts or seedlings, it was known then that following a catastrophic event such as a fire, flood, or landslide that the new reproduction in the exposed mineral soil would undergo a constant competition between the redwoods for nutrients and light. The slump jumble clusters in the MRA are of this type. In Jepson’s case, he preferred to call them sprouts instead of seedlings. Except for this one event, evidence of a spreading sprout circle has not been described, but evidence of competitive seedlings forming circles and stand clusters has been reported. The slump jumble clusters of MRA have added more information on cluster formation.

60 Genetic testing is needed to determine if a circle was of seedlings or sprouts since the original crop of young reproduction was not witnessed. 2. In my readings, the earliest mention of “fairy circles” is in Jack London’s THE VALLEY OF THE MOON, 1913: More leaping tree squirrels, more ruddy madronos and majestic oaks, more fairy circles of redwoods, ...

Is this the original source of the “fairy ring” concept now in common use? 3. In 1998, Peter Del Tredici published an article in Madrono51 about redwood lignotubers mentioning the Jepson 1910 article: Jepson (1910) described one colony of 45 large redwoods that formed a third generation “fairy ring”, 17 m by 15 m 51 across. Jepson did not use the term “fairy ring” in his article. The largest of these second

generation trees now, after over 160 years of growth, are up to 37 inches dbh which is the expected size of second generation trees of this age. In 1999, Del Tredici presented the same information from Jepson in Arnoldia: The potential dimensions of the redwood lignotuber were first suggested by W.L. Jepson, who described a clump of 45 large redwoods that formed a third generation “fairy ring” fifty feet by fifty six feet across. The photos on page 19 show a giant lignotuber that has been exposed by erosion near the city of Eureka, California.

Peter Del Tredici is now suggesting that Jepson’s “fairy ring” had “The potential dimensions of the redwood lignotuber...”. Jepson had not used the term lignotuber. Does Del Tredici’s mentioning the 525 ton lignotuber in the discussion of the Jepson circle indicate that he thinks the Jepson circle could have been formed by such an abnormality? The juxtaposition of these two reports - a large “sprout ring” circle, and the huge lignotuber - has given future researchers more important facts for additional research to determine empirically how important these factors are in the survival of the redwood in a world of rapidly changing physical parameters. 4. The last literary source of “fairy ring” information is from Reed Noss in THE 5 p.114 REDWOOD FOREST. Chapter 4. Redwood Trees, Communities, and Ecosystems was written by 11 authors including Peter Del Tredici who contributed the lignotuber and “fairy ring” discussion: One report describes a colony of forty-five redwood trunks that formed a third-generation fairy ring 17 m by 15 m across, whereas another illustrates a lignotuber exposed by erosion that was 12.5 m across and weighed 475,000 kg.

61 How Do the Mill Valley Clusters Compare with FNMSP Sprout Rings? Many hundreds of sprout rings are in the FNMSP, and after around 100 years none of these trees are forming another row of third-generation trees outside of them, unless they have been logged as second-growth. Tiny sprouts have grown immediately next to the stumps of the cut second-growth trees. After 100 years, the first generation stump sprout rings (secondgrowth) are about 10-15 feet outside diameter.

Types of Redwood Clusters The distribution of individual trees in a given area varies considerably because the redwood lives in a matrix of extreme differences in topography, soil chemistry and fertility, climate changes, plant competition, and human degradation. The stability of each concentration of trees depends upon landslides, fragility of the soil causing uprooting, exposure to strong winds, exposed to salt aerosols of ocean winds, and undercutting on stream banks. Within stands of redwoods, areas that do not contain redwoods are common. These may range up to several hundred feet across. Distribution of individual redwoods is the basis of silvicultural practices. Clear cutting of old-growth forests as in the old days is not allowed on government property, but some clearcutting may be included in private plantation harvesting methods for other tree species. Other methods include combinations of leaving seed trees, getting the greatest growth out of trees by selective cutting, thinning of saplings, removal of other competing tree species, and planting thousands of two-year nursery raised trees after a cut (Noss5 pp 236-245). Research on isolated redwood stands and clusters has been minimal. This void in understanding the formation of an isolated cluster or circle has apparently resulted in accepting the poetic concepts of “fairy rings” as expanding “mother tree” circles by State Park interpreters, natural history writers, and CDF officials. Natural sprout rings are uncommon. Sprout rings around a stump of a tree that has been logged are obvious and prevalent throughout harvested redwood areas. However, in the uncut redwood clusters in Happy Valley, only one sprout ring exists, the corralita in Cluster #21 - and there is another natural sprout ring in George’s Flat. The sprout ring in Cluster #21 was apparently formed when a large peripheral redwood of the slump jumble cluster uprooted creating a root-pull pit in which the residual lignotubers produced the ring of trees. One can imagine many reasons why a 20 feet or more diameter vacuity of trees can appear amid a thick forest. On level ground some causes could be soil quality and too much or too little water. A flat cleared area frequented for hundreds of years annually by Aborigines collecting tanoak acorns during the summer may still exist.

62 Stand Cluster I have suggested for my cluster study to differentiate two kinds of redwood clusters, “stand clusters”, and “slump jumble clusters.” This terminology is not in the redwood literature. A stand cluster is a group of trees isolated from the contiguous canopy of a redwood forest. It has a similar surrounding tree spacing and understory composition as between the trees of the forest, but altering in plant abundance and species as canopy shading varies. The mature redwoods in the stand clusters are somewhat widely spaced as in a forest, with occasional close contact to others in the cluster. In a stand cluster, there is no wide ground area between the peripheral trees without trees, and most often understory plants are present (see D and E in Figure 2). Slump Jumbles Are a Form of Gravitational Creep Erosion Creep erosion is the slow movement of soil down the slope. A clumped mass movement of soil and possibly rocks is called a slump jumble (also called earthflow jumble), described by Norman Hinds, Professor of Geology, U.C. Berkeley: Where the fine textured rock mantle is waterlogged, gradual or sudden sliding of masses of various sizes is common. More or less prominent gashes are left in the hillsides and slump jumbles form lower down the slopes or at the base. Some of these slumps are very large. In populated regions, houses and other buildings built on such unstable rock mantle have been destroyed, property has been invaded by the advancing masses, sections of streets and roads have been carried away, or have been blocked each year or several times a year by the slides. Creep is retarded where there is an abundant plant cover whose roots bind the loose particles together for several feet below the surface. However, if the mantle is thick or if rocks are poorly consolidated, masses slide when they are waterlogged in spite of the root mat.53

Where bare mineral soil has been exposed in a land scar left by a slump jumble (Figure 4.14), redwood seedlings may become established. The surviving seedlings then outgrow competitive species for space and light, and decrease in numbers over many years due to shading by the faster growing redwoods.

Figure 6. Distribution and size of redwood trees in slump jumble cluster #7. See page 64 for sizes and comments for each tree.

64 Description of Trees - Cluster No. 7, Piggyback Cluster, March 2004

No.

Avg. dbh Diameter in inches

Comments

1 2 3 4 5 6

41 46 45 9 14 12

7 8 9 10 11

43 31 19 63 45

12 13 14

29 33 29

17 18

5 13

Near center of cluster, on edge of jumble. Marked On lower edge with leaves touching ground. Marked. Next to nurse tree. Sprout on root wad, probably from lignotuber Source of tree # 6. Connected on ground surface to #5, but continued outward, had breakage, and the tree parallels the ground. Main peripheral tree to the north. Near root-pull pit of piggyback tree. Largest tree in cluster, dominates the canopy. Marked. Below upper edge of jumble scar. This area is shadowed by large trees in another cluster about 150 ft. uphill and to the southwest. Marked. On eastern edge of cluster, limbs on ground. Marked On the southern periphery of jumble. The treefall took place about 80 -100 years ago. No. 4 tree sprouted off the rootwad, and trees numbers 15-20 were reiterations which grew off the dorsal surface. Note the abrupt reduction in diameter of the treefall (#14) after each reiteration growth. Root system of #14 remains viable for all trees. #15 =10” in diameter on trunk of #14. Diameter of #14 at upper edge of #15 = 28”. #16 = 19” diameter at attachment on #14 trunk. #14 diameter at lower edge of #16 = 18 “ Small, 3 “ in diameter (newly dead) # 18 = 13” at base. #14 diameter at upper edge of #18 = 17” - at lower edge of #18 = 13”. # 19 = 9” Nurse tree #14 becoming deteriorated and rotting at end.#14 diameter at upper edge of #19 = 12” :#14 at lower edge of #19 = 8.” # 20 = 3” at base. #14 becoming more deteriorated. and dead near end. #20 weak, diameter of #14 = 5.”

There is no sign of fire in the cluster. Marked=was marked for cutting on THP

Figure 7 Distribution and size of redwood trees in slump jumble cluster #10. See other side for sizes and comments for each tree.

66 Description of Trees - Cluster No. 10, The Tent Cluster, March 2004 No.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27, 28, 29 30

Avg. dbh Diameter in inches

Comments

16 40 43 26 22 7 10 25 35 5 19 54 52 7 20 46 3 2 11 About 6 ft. 8 7 5 30 8 2 1 - 1.8 2

Small tree on trail entering cluster. Center of treefall action and woodrat nest. Marked. Inside perimeter of cluster. Marked. Abuts #8, fused at bottom with #5. Marked. Small injured tree resulting in #30 and #30a. Small tree in center, not healthy. Fused with #5 at base with #8. Marked. On east downhill border of jumble. Small tree near deteriorating objects in center. Largest tree in cluster, shading much ground. Marked. Near base of #13. Fused with larger #16 near upper edge of land scar. Young tree in root-pull pit of downed tree (#24). Healthy tree growing in treefall gap. Young tree in root-pull of nursery log (#20). Old tree with bark mostly gone at base. Nursery log with some grass and small herbs on upper surface. Small healthy trees in treefall gap. Tree inside periphery. Broken, with #26 as reiteration. Downed treefall inside cluster. Small tree behind #16 on edge of slump area. Reiteration off #23 broken area. Three small trees growing in brush outside influence of litter and shading of cluster. Reiterations on #6 with branches and branchlets growing horizontally toward light.

There is some evidence of burned material on cluster floor along with deteriorating very old remnants of either burls or lignotubers scattered in center. Only #22 has a small area of burn on the trunk near the ground. Marked = Was marked for cutting on THP.

Figure 8. Distribution of redwood trees in slump jumble cluster #24.

68 Description of Trees - Cluster No. 24, The Grand Cluster, March 2004 No.

Avg. dbh Diameter in inches

Comments

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2 60 2 41 8 46 30 5 43

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

1 1+ 1+ 38 29 35 17 2 2242 3 5 22

24 25 26

8 12 30

Largest tree in cluster. Marked. Small unhealthy sapling sprout.

Marked. Slump jumble drops off suddenly as if jumble ended here. Marked. Next to #7, probably sprout. In area where cluster bottom is with least slope between here and #4. Probably jumble deposit here. Marked. Numbers 10 - 12 form a line of small growth. #11 adjacent to #9.

One of nine trees, #13 - #21, forming the southern end of the cluster. Marked.

Marked. Dead, leaning - next to #23. This tree fell during the first week of March, 2004. It was near death - the rootwad was almost non-existent with roots weak and rotten. Dead, standing, rotted with no limbs. Next to Douglas-firs (DF). Not healthy. Dead. Douglas-fir attached at base to larger living #27 DF. #26 is leaning strongly with top resting on redwood canopy. Marked. Only living DF in clusters. Marked.

Marked = Was marked for cutting on THP.

69 Landslides contain more of the bedrock structure than slump jumbles, are large, and usually move rapidly - referred to by Hinds at times to be a rock avalanche. There have been several of these in the MRA area, one of which has closed one of the trails. An earth or land scar left by landslides could also support seedling growth of redwoods. This has happened in the neighboring redwood forest in Monte Toyon Conference Grounds where four saplings are growing on a landslide.

Slump Jumble Clusters When I began studying clusters in 1996, I referred to them as circular clusters because they each formed a roughly circular pattern. I found no description in the literature of the process of their formation other than, as stated above, they were so-called “fairy rings” or expanding sprout rings around the stump of a “mother” tree. Vegetation of any species and redwood saplings in the understory area are rare under the canopy in these clusters (Figures 68). Redwood seedlings in the shadow of the peripheral trees usually perish due to lack of water in the duff, from pathogenic fungi living in the deep and long-time accumulation of duff and humus, by intense shading, or being eaten by many forest vegetarians. After I had written the first draft of this Guide, I conducted a more comprehensive research of geomorphological and local climate parameters. I mapped three slump jumble clusters recording the size and distribution of the trees, the ground area in the cluster where understory plants do not grow, and the areas inside the cluster that had a minimal understory. The thick scrub growth and Shreve oak abutting the peripheral trees were also noted. The edges of the slump jumble land scars were entered on the maps along with the slope percentage of the sides of the slump jumble scar. Slump Jumble Cluster Formation When first seeing the clusters in MRA 43 years ago, I was reminded from a course called Forest Influences (J. Kittredge15) that trees can enhance their own habitat and affect surrounding plant communities. These adaptations became important at the public hearing at the Felton CDF office on the Hetzer Timber Harvest Plan. Dave Hope, planning assistant for the County of Santa Cruz, stated that these clusters were rare and he had not seen them when living in Mendocino County. As mentioned before at the same THP hearing, the presiding CDF Forester commented that these clusters were expansions from “a mother tree”. From my Forest Influences course, I assumed that micro-climate enhancement was at least part of the process of why these clusters could persist on a xeric hillside covered with scrub and other evergreen trees, mostly Shreve oak.

70 Survival parameters measured in the Forest Influences course were the increase of relative humidity inside the stand, a decrease in temperature compared to the area immediately abutting the cluster, the litter and duff was considerably deeper than in the surrounding coyote brush/blueblossom shrub, and a marked increase in water absorption and retention into the soil inside the stand area. Since the over 600 redwood trees in Happy Valley are mostly in clusters, and only 30 are isolated (mostly in the lower creek-influenced riparian area), there appeared to be a survival benefit of cluster grouping. There is little or no competition for nutrients inside the cluster from other plants, and the ground water and the minimal volume of fog drip in the cluster could be used almost entirely by the redwoods. When reviewing the redwood literature, care was taken to note if there was any information which would pertain to clusters. Growth patterns similar to the slump jumble cluster were not presented, but several papers substantiated the possible enhancement of redwood habitat by clustering that could form a beneficial micro-environment. Ecologist Leslie Reid14 discussed growth and survival of redwood: ... the forest modifies its own environment as it grows .., At the smallest scale, the forest creates it own microenvironment. ... Only as the stands matured did they produce the conditions with which we are familiar.

Not all clusters in MRA are formed on slump jumbles. All thirty of the clusters have not been revisited to record evidence of slump jumbles, and whether they had fire damage. I remember there was evidence of some land movement in nearly all the clusters, but I did not record or measure the observations. Coverage of all the clusters may be completed in a continuing study. Initial Findings of Cluster Study in Happy Valley Ten of the 30 clusters have been revisited to record their structure origin, and six were formed inside the perimeters of slump jumbles. One cluster not from a slump jumble consisted of two over 5 foot dbh trees which had been burned or damaged, each with sprout growths of several 3 foot diameter dbh trees. This cluster was near the crest of Hawk Point ridge. Another cluster was a group of nine trees in the bottom of the seasonal creek which could be called a stand cluster. It may have been a slump jumble cluster, but the road cut above the cluster removed evidence of the edges of any land slump. The redwoods in the clusters are slow growing, almost â&#x20AC;&#x153;pygmyâ&#x20AC;? status for some.

71 But, it is not known how much of each of the following conditions are restricting or enhancing growth by cluster formation. These include the basic nutrients including soil water, air moisture and temperature affecting evapotranspiration, competition for light involving shading, and competition with other species for seedling occupation of exposed mineral soil. These factors come into play after a major change in the habitat takes place that exposes the mineral soil for reproduction for the redwood and associated plant species. Fires may have been another factor on the Happy Valley slopes. Confirmation of Slump Jumble Process by Geologist In March, 2004, geology graduate student Alan Kunze of Fresno State University observed the Happy Valley Area and confirmed that the clusters in Figures 6-8 were restricted to within the perimeters of slump jumble land scars. The redwood clusters in Happy Valley did not show any outward expansion over the at least 500 year span of most of these clusters. Note in Figures 6-8 that new growth was not outside of the peripheral trees into the dense scrub cover except for three small redwoods (Figure 7). These would most likely have to be from lignotubers because there has not been a recent low intensity fire in the area in their age. This was the only cluster of the three mapped which had fire scars on a few of the largest trees on the periphery. However, it is possible these three small trees may be seedlings from some minor disturbance in the brush cover. In Figure 7, a treefall gap occurred, allowing light to penetrate the inner circle. New growth appears in root-pull pits (trees #17 and 19), and farther toward the center there are healthy saplings and small trees (trees #22-24). Except for the small trees mentioned above which are outside the jumble land scar edges (trees #27-29), there is no new growth extending outward from the edges of the slump jumble land scars in any of the clusters studied. As mentioned above, the growth of redwoods in Figures 6-8 remains almost entirely within edge of the slump jumble land scar. Note the sharp steep slopes below the clearly delineated upper slippage zone. Large peripheral trees formed at the lower edge of the jumble debris that piled up at this juncture. The slope below the lower- most trees is usually a steeper continuation of the original slope. There is a plethora of very small sprouts at the base of many of the peripheral trees in all these clusters, but there is little evidence of seedlings. However, several researchers noted that it is difficult to distinguish between seedling production and sprouts. I did not pursue this because it would most likely involve digging around each young growth, or by genetic analysis.

72 Self-Pruning of Cluster Redwoods Self-pruning is mostly on the inside surface of the trunk (toward the center) on most of the peripheral trees. Self-pruning is also on the outside surfaces where there is shading from nearby redwoods or Douglas-firs. These outer branches are strongly drooping, many of them touching the ground. At a distance, the cluster resembles the shape of an umbrella or tent (Figure 7) because of the long pendulous branches. Second-growth redwood forests do not attain the typical redwood “old-growth forest” imagery until well after 200 years from cutting.27 The vegetation outside and abutting the cluster periphery are shrubs and herbs of the Northern Coastal Scrub plant community, and sub-dominant broadleaf evergreen trees are mostly the Shreve oak with an occasional California bay, Pacific madrone, or Douglas-fir. Of the 53 standing dead trees and deteriorating redwood logs around and in the 29 unlogged clusters, 43 were under 40 inches (9 to 37 inches dbh), while the larger 10 were up to 7.3 feet dbh without bark in diameter. Most of the dead trees and logs under 20 inches in diameter were trees which had died inside the cluster circle. The peripheral living trees are uneven-aged as in an old-growth forest.

Creosote Bush Expanding Circles in the Mojave Desert The creosote bush circles were discovered in 1972 by aerial photographs. On the ground these widely spaced plants which make up the circle do not readily appear to be in a circle. This is shown in the picture in Schoenherr12 p.441 which depicts several widely spaced and variable sized bushes. This circular expanding growth of the creosote bush was not called a “fairy ring.” I was interested in learning about these creosote circles because in 1950, before joining the Marine Research Branch of the CDFG, I was installing Gallinaceous Guzzlers in the Mojave Desert. Water would drain into a buried 500 gallon tank from a water-proof tar apron uphill to fill in the winter and supply water to birds (primarily Gambel’s quail) throughout the dry period. After a guzzler was installed, we would uproot creosote bushes to form a pile of brush on a 7-10 foot area over the underground tank for protection of quail and other birds from raptors. I did not notice the circular pattern of these bushes and did not know about it. At least we did not eliminate a creosote circle because the bushes we chose to uproot (with a cable and winch on a truck) were well apart from each other to not disturb the general concentration of vegetation, especially near the guzzler. The creosote bush has very tough roots, and with the stems, made good protective cover.

73 The 18,000 year old creosote bush circle mentioned above (page 16) was in a circular clone near Yuma Arizona. The largest creosote clone circle reported is 70 feet in diameter, but they are usually much smaller, consisting usually of from two to nine clones. The new sprout growth occurs on the outside of the creosote bushes because sprouts do not grow from the inside roots.

Present Development In Happy Valley of a Potential Redwood Cluster Occupying an Area Cleared in 1970 In 1970, Emmett Reed, who lived on the property and representing the owner Agnes Van Eck, had an area about 50 x 70 feet cleared of brush on a gradual sloping moist area downhill from Cluster # 21 (Figures 2 and 9). This was the only grading in Happy Valley besides the old dirt access roads. There were two springs, a seasonal one bordering the clearing, and a perennial spring immediately below on the road edge. They both dried up after the 1989 earthquake. The ground is not boggy and appears to have ample water for redwoods and other mesic vegetation such as big-leaf maples, creek dogwood, and Polypodium and Woodwardia ferns. In this forming cluster, there are 68 living redwood stems, 18 dead standing redwood stems, three stems of coffeeberry (two living and one dead), one big-leaf maple, and two Shreve oaks (Figure 9). The area covered by trees is 30 by 50 feet. Had I realized the significance of this growth of new trees from seedlings 30 years ago, vital information could have been gathered in cluster formation. Anyhow, the development process can now be recorded. It is a now a stand cluster with the trees spaced almost randomly except for high mortality and slower growth on the northern more shaded side. The growth is mostly redwoods ranging from a one-quarter inch to 19.7 inches dbh. Self-pruning of limbs on the inside trees occurs up to about 10-14 feet, and understory plants are absent because of redwood canopy shading. The litter-duff-humus layer ranges from one to two inches in depth. Two coffeeberry â&#x20AC;&#x153;treesâ&#x20AC;? are present in the most concentrated redwood areas. This single trunk growth of a coffeeberry tree has not been noted anywhere on this hillside. Coffeeberries usually form widespread several-limbed bushes with a maximum height of 16 feet.18 The coffeeberry trees in this new cluster are 21 and 26 feet in height, and about three inches dbh. There are no side branches off the trunks until near the canopy top of the redwoods. Eventually the redwoods will win the height competition, being the fastest growing and with dense evergreen branchlets. A big-leaf maple about four inches dbh and around 30 feet height is in the forming cluster. The maple also has a thin single trunk without branches until near the top of the redwood canopy. At the cluster periphery on the north side are 2 one-inch diameter Shreve oaks reaching heights of 5.0 and 8.5 feet.

74a

Figure 9a. New cluster forming on graded land downwind of a large slump jumble redwood cluster. Grading was done about 30 years ago. See other side for sizes and comments for each tree.

74b

Figure 9b. New cluster forming on graded land downwind of a large slump jumble redwood cluster. Grading was done about 30 years ago. See other side for sizes and comments for each tree.

75a Description of Trees in New Forming Cluster in Figure 9. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

dbh 7.0 3.7 2.0

2.7 6.7 4.5

2.0 6.8

2.0

2.2

11.1 9.2 8.6 8.0

Diameter 4” from ground 0.25 0.40 0.30 0.50 0.25 0.40 0.75 0.25 1.5 1.8 1.6 1.0 1.0 and 1/2 0.50 0.25 0.50 0.40 0.75 1.75 1.90 1.30 0.25 0.25 0.50 1.0 0.25 -

Comments

Trailing along ground toward light to side - 40° Healthy new tree near edge. On edge of cluster - healthy Trailing along ground for 48° toward edge Erect - 26” Dead and attached at bottom to other sprout 20” high In a small mass of young growth 4.5 ft. high Near center 9 ft. high Actually two small dying stems - highest 13” Coffeeberry in thick redwoods - 26 ft. tall Sapling near coffeeberry Largest tree in this section At edge of cluster toward nursery log Sapling Near base of #18 - 8 ft. - dying. Coffeeberry - 21 ht. High. Attached. One 5.5 ft. high - other 3.0 ft. Dead 9,5 ft. high - part of a mass of young plants Dead - no leaves on twigs Dead 4.0 ft. high

7.5 ft. growing thin and high in center of cluster Dead - 20” high Dead - 6 ft. high Dying - rotting at base - 54” high Largest tree in this mass of young growth At edge of cluster toward the nursery log

75b No. 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

dbh

7.3 11.5

10.0

2.0

1.6 7.7 1.75 9.4 10.3 19.7 14.0 10.8 1.75 12.4 10.9 7.4 2.0

3.5 2.0

6.3 1.8 9.9 1.3 1.5 3.0 1.1 4.4 3.2 5.1 1.5

Diameter 4” from ground 0.25 0.75 0.75 1.6 0.30 0.75 0.50 0.20 0.50 1.75 1.0 1.20 1.0 0.75 0.83 0.25 0.50 -

Comments Dead - 52” high Dead - 8 ft. high One of three larger trees near edge 8 ft. high - sick tree Not healthy Long and spindly - 7.0 ft. high Dead Dead - 60” high Dead - 34” high

Fused at bottom with #57 Largest tree in new cluster, and on the edge At end of cluster by itself, second largest tree Small sapling near #53 By itself at end of cluster near spindly Shreve oak Shreve oak striving to keep up height Fused at bottom with #63 Fused with #62 Coffeeberry - dead and deteriorated Dead - 24” high Dead 18” high Maple - about 30 ft. high Dead - rotten at base - totally dried Dead - 10 ft. high (very dead with no leaves present) Dead - broken and decaying Dead Shreve oak spindly and trying to grow laterally On edge of cluster facing northeast

Dead - badly deteriorated

On edge of north side of cluster (outside of coffeeberry bush)

76 The seedling and sapling redwoods were able to outgrow the invading abutting understory herb and scrub species. After about 30 years, herbs and grasses are not growing inside the periphery of the cluster. The process from now on is how fast the redwood trees will grow in competition with each other. For the first 8-10 years several mature pampas grass clumps were scattered among the seedlings. Also, several blueblossom, Ceanothus thrysiflorus, were competing with the young redwoods. Four years ago when revisited, the only evidence of the pampas grass were two old clump remnants with of 2-4 inches remaining of several dead pampas grass seed stalks. The blueblossom bushes are not present. Summary of Slump Jumble Cluster Criteria 1. All the largest mature redwoods are inside or directly on the periphery of the land scar caused by the movement of the slump jumble. 2. The peripheral trees, and the few growing near the center, are uneven-aged with a high degree of reproductive potential from sprouts, and possibly by seedlings on disturbed edge areas. New reproduction has not increased the circumference of the cluster. 3. When a treefall gap appears on the periphery, the new growth could be sprouts or seedlings. Saplings occupy the soil exposed by the treefall in the root-pull pit and rootwad. When increased light reaches into the cluster center area, redwood sprouts and pioneer understory plants may appear near the edge. 4. On the southern exposure of the cluster the limbs of the peripheral trees reaching to or near the ground form a barrier to light entering the cluster floor. On the opposite northern side, the limbs may not reach the ground because the trunks are often highly selfpruned. In Cluster #7, (the Piggyback Tree, Figure 6), a nearby redwood cluster uphill blocks skylight resulting in self-prunings of the peripheral trees on the outside. Loss of afternoon sun and skylight creates a shade limitation zone for the peripheral trees on the northern side. 5. Another growth behavior that further limits light from entering the cluster is that the peripheral crowns grow inward, meeting over the center. In an established old cluster, very little sky light enters the cluster from either the sides or top center. Slump Jumble Clusters on Adjacent Forest Stands The Monte Toyon Conference Grounds is adjacent to MRA. The crest of Monte Toyon Ridge is the property line. The conference grounds trail worker, Steven Miller, noted clusters similar to those in Happy Valley.

77 Nearly all were slump jumble clusters, except for a small landslide which ended up at the bottom of the ridge about five years ago. In this narrow landslide scar are four young redwoods, apparently from seedlings that are growing amid brush and California blackberry. The slope is east-facing as is the slope with clusters in Happy Valley. The “Twisted Grove” on the Pourroy area of the lower area of FNMSP has been an enigma to researchers. There appears to be a genetic and/or land disturbance effect causing extreme twisted trunk formation in all the larger trees. After determining that slump jumbles can create new redwood stands in the form of clusters, I returned to the twisted grove to find that it also is on a large slump jumble. Some of the lower part of the jumble may have slid over a high cliff into Aptos Creek. The size of the trees in the twisted grove cluster indicates the twisted trees are at least several hundred years of age. However, it is not similar to the Happy Valley circular clusters that have a central area where understory vegetation cannot grow. In this twisted forest, there is substantial light entering the litter area from the sunny side of the cluster, and understory plants are present. All the young redwood trees in these clusters are not twisted, indicating that land movement was a factor. Dominant Plant Species in the Slump Jumble Cluster Area When a treefall gap occurs in this canopy circle through which additional light can penetrate, some plants such as western hound’s tongue, Cynoglossum grande, an occasional California blackberry vine, coffeeberry seedlings, and wood fern, may appear just inside the cluster perimeter. Redwood sprouts are frequent around the bases of the slump jumble cluster trees, but if there is no treefall gap, they die from shading by the time they are about six feet tall. A few dead small redwoods up to 20 feet high are sometimes found nearer the center of a cluster. They may have grown there when a gap appeared in the canopy, then died when the gap closed. They may also be the slow growing trees in the center of the original seedling cover following the slump jumble. Douglas-fir is scattered, mostly in the higher portions of the ridge. In one of the larger clusters, one of the largest peripheral members is a Douglas-fir (Figure 8). Tanoak does not grow on this slope, and there are no other tree species found in a redwood cluster peripheral circle except for the above Douglas-fir. Few ecotones occur where the cluster trees abut the scrub and broad-leaf evergreens - the change is very abrupt. Near the summit of Hawk Point ridge, coast live oaks are mixed with Shreve oak canopies. The most prevalent shrub species is the California coffeeberry. In drier areas, blueblossom, blue elderberry, and pink-flowering currant, Ribes sanguineum, are the main shrub species. Near creek bottom areas, creek (Western) dogwood, Cornus sericea, is often mixed with California coffeeberry.

78 The most prevalent scrub species are the California blackberry and the California coffeeberry. These species are the primary shade tolerant pioneer species in a treefall gap. Poison oak, Toxicodendron diversilobum is another dominant scrub species, and coyote brush, Baccharis pilularis, sticky monkey flower, Mimulus aurantiacus, and oso berry shrubs, Oemleria cerasiformis are scattered in the area. One of the major species associated with a typical redwood understory is the redwood sorrel, Oxalis oregana. This species is not present in Happy Valley, but is present almost throughout the remainder of the redwood growth areas in FNMSP and in the riparian area of MRA. Western sword fern, Polystichum munitum, bracken, Pteridium eguilinum, and wood fern, Dryopteris arguta occur throughout the area.

WILDLIFE EVENTS AND LISTING OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN THE MANGELS RANCH AREA These species listings (Tables 1-4) are not checklists that were conducted by experts in each division and class. These are a collection of our familyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s and naturalist friendsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; observations over 42 years. The scientific names of these species are not given in the text below, but appear after the common name of each species in the tables. Botanist Dean Taylor of the U.C. Berkeley Jepson Herbarium lives in the area. In 2002, he made public his checklist of plants for the entire Aptos Creek watershed, which includes the MRA. His checklist included 344 native and 189 introduced plants for a total of 533 plant species. My listing of the common plants in MRA includes 64 native species, and 29 introduced plants, 18 of which are invasive (Table 5). Nearly all the exotic species are in or along the edge of the dirt roads and trails. Wild oats and rattlesnake grass appeared in the purple needlegrass fields about five years ago. Advice from Director Janet Bridges (pers. comm.) of the California Native Grass Association, is to eliminate the exotic annual grass species before they can seed, but it may be too late to remove wild oats, ripgut and prickly clover. The listings for mammal, amphibians, and reptiles are representative of the species for MRA. Instructors for the Web of Life Field (WOLF) School environmental education school have reported their observations in comparable redwood habitat in the adjoining Monte Toyon forest reserve. There has been a continuing apparent reduction in diversity of species, except for plants, in the MRA. Fires have not been recorded for over a hundred years, but the overall continuing change in MRA of vegetation and animal species and fire scars on old redwood buttresses, indicates there was at least one intense fire in the MRA within the past 400-500 years. Other reasons for diversity and abundance change may be due to global warming, and some migratory species may be losing their winter habitat in Central and South America. There may be local negative wildlife effects in the riparian area of MRA, such as the increase of homes nearby that has eliminated hunting, the removal of native habitat, and an increase in house pets. Conversely, some species in areas adjacent to

79 suburban development may be enhanced by increases of food, water, and nesting habitat in gardens. Dense redwood forest areas are typically low in species diversity for birds and animals. The Mangels Ranch Area has an admixture of six plant communities. In the near primeval Happy Valley area of about 60 acres, there is a diverse mosaic of ecotones where several plant communities overlap. The MRA is high in species diversity because of the habitat changes from the high ridge wind-blown plant communities of grass and scrub, descending down into Happy Valley with its thick growths of Shreve oak and redwood clusters, and then into the Mangels Gulch riparian vegetation with its shade tolerant plants, including tanoak, clintonia, and redwood sorrel. Road kills over the past 40 years on Cathedral Drive along one-half mile of the eastern border of MRA were a few squirrels, raccoons, and in earlier years about an annual kill of a striped skunk. Occasionally we see a dead acorn woodpecker or Steller’s jay that was killed by cars while foraging on the road. Since the County’s loose dog ordinance was passed, the isolated Happy Valley biota is beyond the influence of the road and homes along Cathedral Drive. Discussion by Species Group Mammals (Table 1) When hiking in nearly all the redwood parks in California, do not expect to see many of the mammals present. Mule deer and brush rabbits are the only commonly seen mammals in MRA. This listing includes only sight records, and does not represent a comprehensive study of all mammalian species that would have been collected by systematic rodent live trapping and from sooted track plates. Mule deer are common and are seen about one out of five times when visiting the MRA. They forage during day and night, and have been found bedding down in daytime inside redwood clusters near the ridge line of Hawk Point. Deer foraging in MRA is mostly in the needlegrass fields on the west slope of Hawk Point ridge. Animal trails pass through Happy Valley as the deer move between the lower area of the park and the Monte Toyon forested area and gardens. Bobcats are rarely seen on the trails, but their segmented feces reveal steady use of the area. Coyotes were not present from when we arrived in 1962 until about 1972. When coyotes were not present, there was a buildup of deer, brush rabbits, and dusky-footed woodrats. Coyotes finally found this food bonanza, and their population increased, changing from observing an occasional coyote, to observing the formation of small coyote bands or family groups. Coyotes could be heard throughout Happy Valley when a coyote family harmonized together like wolves, or when a single coyote was announcing its presence for up to a half hour with sharp yaps spaced a half-minute or so apart. When coyotes became more numerous, they communicated more with their stereotypic “howl” followed by several rapid yips, then followed by silence, awaiting a reply. As the coyote’s food became scarce, we saw and heard fewer and fewer each year. Now we don’t hear them, but a few coyotes are around as evidenced by their scats. One year, a coyote den was located in Happy Valley on Monte Toyon ridge. Pet cats in nearby home areas were consumed by coyotes - cat flea collars were occasionally seen on MRA trails.

80 The longtail weasel has not been seen for over 20 years. Other mammals that were common but are seldom seen now are the mostly nocturnal opossum and striped skunk. Raccoons are commonly seen at nighttime. The western gray squirrel, eastern fox squirrel, and Merriam chipmunk are occasionally seen. Grass, garden, and crop habitats are sometimes invaded by an exponential increase of California voles. They behave in MRA as elsewhere by suddenly appearing in large numbers, sometimes scampering about in daytime in unprotected areas as well as in our kitchen when the door is open on warm days. Each invasion lasts from one to three years. A small population explosion of voles occurred in 2002 in and near the riparian area of MRA. Gophers and ground squirrels occur only in the more open areas outside of redwood concentrations. We have seen only one ground squirrel in the riparian area, and only two infestations of gophers over the 42 years. Very few gophers and ground squirrels live in needlegrass fields, possibly because few forbs and biennial plants are present for food. Feral pigs appeared in MRA four years ago, with at least two sows with nine young and possibly several single animals. Feral pigs had been sighted elsewhere in the higher mountainous areas in FNMSP for many years. Pig damage in 2002 to the vegetation in MRA was the uprooting of about 1/8 acre of needlegrass perennial clumps. After the first rain of 2003, they “nosed” the needlegrass field but did not do much damage. I use the term “nosed,” because when trapping feral pigs for the CDFG while we lived in Carmel Valley, I observed some of their foraging strategies. When searching for food they dig into the upper layer of soil, humus, or grass field with one or two short thrusts with the snout, then they move on, periodically nosing into the ground until they find food. Their forage could be acorns or dead animals on the ground surface. In forest litter and in grassland soil, the food items could be sprouting acorns, roots, bulbs, worms, and fungi possibly including truffles. During early dawn in Carmel Valley I observed a sow with little ones foraging in a wet alfalfa field. The sow made frequent downhill furrows one snout wide for 3-8 feet at a time. Her eager young followed, picking out the goodies from the loose soil. I saw evidence in July, 2004 in MRA that a pig had rooted up and eaten on the roots of a cow parsnip. After the first rains in 2004, the pigs used three clay wallowing areas in MRA almost every day, one on Hawk Point and the others to the west and downhill in a clay formation below the needlegrass field. After they wallow on Hawk Point, they often rub their sides and backs on a nearby large sturdy redwood bench that was built for use when the area is opened to the public. We occasionally scrape off the mud. In winter 2005, tracks of only two pigs were seen at the wallowing area on Hawk Point. Pigs have not been seen in MRA since January, 2005. There were several rare observations of other animals worthy of mentioning. A Merriam chipmunk was seen running between wood piles with a writhing baby garter snake in its mouth. Two male brush rabbits were fighting in the road to town in early morning. We stopped the car and watched because they would not stop their intense sparring. The physically helpless opossum has a method of survival when attacked by excreting cadaverine and putrescine on its skin making it impossible for a predatory mammal to bite it. The neighbor’s German shepherd was barking fiercely some 100 yards into forest.

81 I went to find an opossum lying â&#x20AC;&#x153;deadâ&#x20AC;? on the ground. The dog would attempt to bite the animal, but was repulsed each time by the putrid odor. I got a shovel and carried the animal (with the shovel pointing to the side) to a safe place. The odor was nauseating. Amphibians and Reptiles (Table 2) These classes of animals are common in MRA, with 15 species observed. Our property spans Mangels Gulch Creek, and a red-legged frog from the nearby Mangels Gulch creek appeared in our fish pond where it remained for several days. I did not know the significance of this event at that time. Several years ago a Santa Cruz county environmental officer inquired if we had seen red-legged frogs in the Mangels Gulch creek. Fortunately we had taken a picture of the frog in the fish pond. I showed him the picture which was clear enough for positive identification. We were familiar with the yellow-legged frog which was not present in this creek. The red-legged frogs were present in Mangels Gulch creek for only a few years after we arrived. The California newt also disappeared in Mangels Gulch at this same time. In their land wanderings, California newts would occasionally appear in our fish pond. The creek was running year-long at that time. From about 1967 to 1985, water did not flow in the creek during summer. However, there has been a year-long flow since about 1985, probably from the increase in septic tank drains throughout the Mangels Gulch watershed far upstream from the MRA and our home. The Pacific tree frog is the most common amphibian in MRA. It is found in the woods where it can be heard vocalizing in spring. When water was flowing year-long, giant salamanders were observed swimming in the creek, most likely for spawning. After spawning they return to damp areas on land. I found one on the foundation of our house which is about 40 feet from the creek. Another was found crawling over our brick patio after a rain. The most common salamanders in MRA are the California slender salamander, and the Ensatina. They frequent deteriorating logs and rocky areas in the forest floor debris, and in and around woodratsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; nests. Arboreal salamanders frequent limb holes on oak trees were water can accumulate in winter, and are scattered among the damp forest debris of logs and limbs and dead brush piles. They favor cracks in rock and brick work. Rattlesnakes have not been seen or reported in the MRA. The MRA area is either too cold and/or there is not sufficient food for this species in the deep forested areas. During the first about 10 years, the ring-neck snake was common in our garden and in several Happy Valley brush pile areas. The ring-necked snake has not been seen for many years. Gopher snakes are rarely seen now, but sharp-tailed snakes are more frequently observed in brush and litter piles. The aquatic and western terrestrial garter snakes are the most common snakes in the riparian area. Snakes have not been seen in the deep-shaded slump jumble clusters, in the needlegrass fields, or in the heavily shaded areas under Shreve oak canopies. However, there has not been a habitat search for snakes so as to not disturb the redwood cluster habitat.

82 Birds (Table 3) The Mangels Ranch Area does not have a great abundance of birds compared to wetland and Wildlife Refuge wintering populations. However, the six plant communities in MRA yield a high diversity of species compared to the low bird diversity of thick redwood forests. Most of the 60 bird species listed here are residential. Our bird identifications were not made on search patterns designed to record all species. I did not have time during the redwood research to attempt to identify birds which were hard to identify by sight or sound. When the MRA area becomes a natural study area, there will be an attempt to attain a more comprehensive bird checklist. I will relate some of the unique behavior activities that are probably linked to habitat change. Most interesting was the varying abundance of some species from year to year. The drought years of 1975-77 resulted in major disruptions in bird behavior and distribution in the area. The most dramatic was the disappearance of the California thrasher from the MRA. These birds were heard from 1962 to 1975, singing in almost every month, but especially after rains. They nested in a large patch of Northern Coastal Scrub near the northern junction of Hawk Point and Monte Toyon ridges (Figure 3). In the first year of the 2-year drought in 1975, the thrashers stopped singing. Our watered garden is about a half-mile from this thrasher site. One of the thrashers joined the other bird species that were concentrating in our garden. The garden area covered about 1/4 acre, although heavy watering was limited to a much smaller area. The thrasher stayed all summer and until next spring . It did not return to the scrub patch, and thrashers have not reestablished residency in MRA. A humorous behavior of the thrasher was to remain close to our grain feeding area for a covey of around 15 California quail that visited us every winter day. At the beginning of a feeding, the thrasher defended this area of about 10 x 10 feet. It scampered with its long bill extended toward the first quail to come to the feeding station, and continued harassing them for a few minutes. The quail persisted, and the thrasher eventually stopped and watched the quail. The thrasher did not eat grain, but its genetic message apparently was to chase quail away that entered its “territory.” Possibly there is competition with quail for insects or other food items in the thrasher’s natural habitat. There have been major changes in abundance of several species. Varied thrushes were very common in all the wooded areas of MRA during winter until about 8-10 years ago. They are rarely seen in MRA now, and in recent years, not at all. Other birds declining in occurrence are the barn owl, saw whet owl, red-tailed hawk, and orange-crowned warbler. More dramatic than the thrasher’s appearance, was the arrival in 1992 of numerous pygmy nuthatches which had not be previously seen in MRA. They remained about three years. With them were also a marked increase of the winter visitor Townsend warbler, and an increase of a common resident, the chestnut-backed chickadee. The rainfalls in 1990-91 and 1991-92 seasons were below normal (20 and 27 inches respectively), but they were higher than the 14 and 16 inch annual rainfall respectively in the 1975-76 and 1976-77 drought seasons. In 1992, a pair of pygmy owls during daytime frequented a limb of a Japanese maple tree, Acer palmatum hanging over our fish pond. We knew that great horned owls

83 capture fish from streams at night, but we were surprised to see that the sharp talon-like marks on the goldfish that escaped an attack in the fish pond were probably caused by these pygmy owls. Small goldfish had been disappearing, and now we knew why. From their perch about 8 feet above the water, the owls would stare at the fish, moving their heads back and forth. They did not attack the goldfish possibly because we were standing nearby taking pictures. Later, a pygmy owl took a daytime bath in a water puddle made when watering our garden, then flew up into a madrone tree to preen. Pygmy owls have not been seen in daytime in MRA since 1992. Red-tailed hawks have decreased, but about six or seven years ago red-shouldered hawks became numerous and noisy, nesting in several areas of the MRA. This year red shouldered hawks have been observed capturing band-tailed pigeons. In October 2004 before the rains, band-tailed pigeons were probably reacting to the condition of no rains for many months and conducted an invasion we had not seen in the 42 years we lived here. We maintain four small drinking and bathing areas used by several species of birds around the garden. The fish pond also is sometimes used for drinking by birds, but rarely for bathing. One morning a band of from 30-40 band-tailed pigeons started visiting all the water supply areas in our yard for drinking, and eventually for bathing. The 4 x 9 feet fish pond is deep, up to 18 inches, and the pigeons could not bathe adequately by trying to cling on the steep sides. After several tries they eventually followed one of their creative members that landed in the water and bathed while floating. Soon chaos occurred with most of the flock now attracted to the fish pond, creating a remarkable mass of flapping wings, with an occasional pigeon banging harmlessly into the kitchen window, which we were behind. Apparently there was enough reflective effect in the window that they did not see us, and several tried to fly through. They remained in the bathing pattern on the water from 3 to 15 seconds, then flew to an oak or madrone branch nearby to preen. Afterward, all the water devises including the fish pond had a thin layer of a fine a grayish substance, possibly fine pieces of feather and skin. The Steller’s jay is most commonly seen in the wooded areas, the Western scrub jay nests in the brush. The most common resident birds in MRA are: dark-eyed junco, spotted towhee, California (brown) towhee, song sparrow, brown creeper, acorn woodpecker, great horned owl, hairy woodpecker, red-shouldered hawk, chestnut-backed chickadee, bush tit, band-tailed pigeon, winter wren, Bewick’s wren, and wren tit. The pileated woodpecker visited the MRA for about two weeks in spring of 2005 for the first time. This species was reported in many places in Santa Cruz County in 2004. Common breeding summer visitors are: Swainson’s thrush, mourning dove, American robin, black-headed grosbeak, Wilson’s warbler, Anna’s hummingbird, Pacific slope flycatcher, violet-green swallow, and mourning dove. The Townsend warbler appears in fall and remains part of the winter, but is now uncommon. Plants (Tables 4 and 5) The only observed major change in plant diversity and abundance has been the continuing introduction and increase of exotic plants, mostly from the Mediterranean area of Europe. Several years ago the invasive prickly clover appeared on Hawk Point and

84 along the edges of the trails on the west-facing slope of Hawk Point ridge, and in the needlegrass field. A concerted effort to remove this invasive will be initiated. In Happy Valley, my wife and I have removed the English ivy growing on the trees, and a large patch of poison hemlock. The CSP has conducted extensive removal of English ivy, Cape ivy, and periwinkle in the riparian area, and of French broom, Pampas grass, and English holly from the upper trail areas. The purple needlegrass is on the California Department of Fish and Game’s Heritage listing of plants, and was named the State’s official grass in 2005. Before Western influence, the purple needlegrass was one of the most widespread and abundant bunchgrass in the state for native grazing animals. There are flowering plants in the needlegrass field, but the grass fields here are not as colorful as the massive color splashes found in the southern slopes of the coastal range. The flowering plants occur in the spaces between the needlegrass bunches. The somewhat rare California bottle-brush grass is found scattered in disturbed areas of the oak and brush ecotones. It is a large perennial grass with culms over five feet high. On each culm (as many as a dozen culms per plant) is a tight mass of drooping, heavily awned seeds. In mid-summer they turn a bright golden yellow and present a bright patch of color amid the almost monotonous mass of shades of green of the other plants. Be careful to not brush against one of stems when hiking, because the seeds when dried easily fly off when touched, one may land in your mouth. The awns are heavily barbed. I had a very frightening time before I could remove a seed from my mouth. Flowering plants in the brush and oak areas are the sticky monkeyflower, sneezeweed, and blue witch. During spring, the pink flowering currant, the blueblossom, and the small colorful ground rose add color to the brush areas. A thick concentration of golden brodaeia, buttercup, and butter-and-eggs in late spring appears in the saddle area where the Hawk Point and Monte Toyon ridges meet (Figure 2). Occasional patches up to a foot in diameter of blueeyed grass appear in the needlegrass fields with scattered butter-and-eggs and harvest brodaeia. I have not had the time to key out all the grasses in MRA, and remember only a few of them from my grass identification course at U.C. Berkeley. Botanist Dean Taylor listed 30 species of native grasses and 37 introduced grass species for the Aptos Creek watershed. Insects Insect changes are somewhat like that of other species groups, exhibiting a lessening both in diversity and abundance of many species over the years. In one year in the 1970’s, a large number of golden garden spiders, Miranda aurantia appeared in our garden and in the MRA near us. The Ceanothus moth, Hyalophora euryalus was present in the area for about 20 years, but none have been banging into our lit windows at night since then. Casually looking at butterflies we have seen the following species in MRA: Western Tiger Swallowtail, Papilo rutulus; Anis Swallowtail, Papilo zelicaon; Monarch, Danaus plexippus; Callippe fritillary, Speyeruia callippe; Variable checkerspot, Euphydryas chalcedona; common buckeye, Junonia coenia; painted lady, Vanessa cardui; red admiral, Vanessa atalanta; Lorquin’s admiral, Limenitis lorquini; California sister, Adelpha bredowii; mourning cloak, Nymphalis antiopa; and two species of blues or azures.

85 TABLE 1. Mammals Observed in the Mangels Ranch Area Opossum, Didelphis virginianus California mole, Scapanus latimanus Shrew, Sorex, sp Shrew-mole, Neilrotrichus gibbsi Raccoon, Procyon lotor Longtail Weasel, Mustela frenata Striped Skunk, Mephitis mephitis Coyote, Canis latrans Bobcat, Lynx rufus California Ground Squirrel, Citellus beecheyi Western Gray Squirrel, Sciurus griseus Eastern Fox Squirrel, Sciurus niger Merriam Chipmunk, Eutamias merriami Pocket Gopher, Thomomys bottae Deer Mouse, Peromyscus californicus Dusky-footed Woodrat, Neotoma fuscipes California Vole, Microtus californicus Brush Rabbit, Sylvilagus bachmani European Pig, Sus scrofa Mule Deer, Odocoileus hemionus

TABLE 2. Amphibians and Reptiles Observed in the Mangels Ranch Area California Giant Salamander, Dicamptodon ensatus California Newt, Taricha torosa Ensatina, Ensatina eschscholtzii Arborial Salamander, Aneides lugubris California Slender Salamander, Batrachoseps attenuatus Pacific Treefrog, Hyla regilla Red-legged Frog, Rana aurora Western Fence Lizard, Sceloporus occidentalis Northern Alligator Lizard, Elgaria coerulea Rubber Boa, Charina bottae Ring-necked Snake, Diadophis punctatus Sharp-tailed Snake, Contia tenuis Gopher Snake, Pituophis catenifer Aquatic Garter Snake, Thamnophis atratus Western Terrestrial Garter Snake, Thamnophis elegans

86 Birds observed in the Mangels Ranch Area, 1962 - 2004 Turkey Vulture, Cathartes aura Golden Eagle, Aquila chrysaetos Sharp-shinned Hawk, Accipiter striatus Cooper’s Hawk, Accipiter cooperii Red-shouldered Hawk, Buteo lineatus Red-tailed Hawk, Buteo jamaicensis American Kestrel, Falco sparverius California Quail, Callipepla californica Band-tailed Pigeon, Columba fasciata Mourning Dove, Zenaida macroura Barn Owl, Tyto alba Great Horned Owl, Bubo virginianus Western Screech Owl, Otus kennicottii Northern Pygmy Owl, Glaucidium gnoma Northern Saw-whet Owl, Aegolius acadicus Anna’s Hummingbird, Calypte anna Allen’s Hummingbird, Selasphorus sasin Acorn Woodpecker, Melanerpes formicivorus Downy Woodpecker, Picoides pubescens Hairy Woodpecker, Picoides villosus Pileated Woodpecker, Dryocopus pileatus Northern Flicker, Colaptes auratus Olive-sided Flycatcher, Contopus cooperi Western Wood Pewee, Contopus sordidulus Pacific-slope Flycatcher, Empidonax difficilis Hutton’s Vireo, Vireo huttoni Steller’s Jay, Cyanocitta stelleri Western Scrub Jay, Aphelocoma californica American Crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos Common Raven, Corvus corax Violet-green Swallow, Tachycineta thalassina

Barn Swallow, Hirundo rustica Wrentit, Chamaea fasciata Ruby-crowned Kinglet, Regulus calendula Chestnut-backed Chickadee, Poecile rufescens Bushtit, Psaltriparus minimus Brown Creeper, Certhia Americana Pigmy Nuthatch, Sitta pygmaea Winter Wren, Troglodytes troglodytes Bewick’s Wren, Thryomanes bewickii Swainson’s Thrush, Catharus ustulatus Hermit Thrush, Catharus guttatus Varied Thrush, Ixoreus naevius American Robin, Turdus migratorius California Thrasher, Toxostoma redivivum European Starling, Sturnus vulgaris Orange-crowned Warbler, Vermivora celata Townsend’s Warbler, Dendroica townsendi Wilson’s Warbler, Wilsonia pusilla California Towhee (brown), Pipilo crissalis Spotted Towhee, Pipilo maculatus Fox Sparrow, Passerella iliaca Song Sparrow, Melospiza melodia Golden-crowned Sparrow Zonotrichia atricapilla Dark-eyed Junco, Junco hyemalis Black-headed Grosbeak, Pheucticus melanocephalus Purple Finch, Carpodacus purpureus House Finch, Carpodacus mexicanus Pine Siskin, Carduelis pinus American Goldfinch, Carduelis tristis

87 TABLE 4. Partial Listing of Native Plant Species Observed in the Mangels Ranch Area Trees Big-leaf Maple, Acer macrophyllum Coast Redwood, Sequoia sempervirens California Bay, Umbellularia californica California Sycamore, Platanus racemosa Madrone, Arbutus menziesii Coast Live Oak, Quercus agrifolia Shreve Oak, Quercus parvula,var. shrevei Tanoak, Lithocarpus densiflorus Arroyo Willow, Salix lasiolepis Douglas-Fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii Shrubs and Understory Low Vegetation Deer Brush, Ceanothus integerrimus California hazelnut, Corylus cornuta Coyote Brush, Baccharis pilularis California Coffeeberry, Rhamnus californica Oso Berry, Osmaronia cerasiformis California Huckleberry, Vaccinium ovatum Blue Elderberry, Sambucus mexicana Cow Parsnip, Heracleum lanatum Pink-flowering Currant, Ribes sanguineum Sticky Monkeyflower, Mimulus aurantiacus California Sage, Artemisia californica Thimbleberry, Rubus parviflorus California Blackberry, Rubus ursinus Ground Rose, Rosa gymnocarpa Poison Oak, Toxicodendron diversiloba Wild Cucumber, Marah fabaceus Creeping Wild Ginger, Asarum caudatum Bracken Fern, Pteridium aquilum Lady Fern, Athyrium filix-femina Wood Fern, Dryopterus arguta Fern, Polypodium sp.

Giant Chain Fern, Woodwardia fimbriata Western Sword Fern, Polystichum munitum Hoary Nettle, Urtica dioica Hairy Honeysuckle, Lonicera hispidula Gold-backed Fern, Pentagramma triangularis Western Flat-topped Goldenrod, Euthamia occidentalis Marsh Baccharis, Baccharis douglasii Flowering Plants Blue-eyed grass, Sisyrinchium bellum Milk Maids, Cardamine californica Hounds Tongue, Cynogiossum grande Blue Witch, Solanum umbelliferum Douglas Nightshade, Solanum douglasii Common Nightshade, Solanum americanum Yellow Violet, Viola glabella Butter and eggs, Triphysaria eriantha Golden Brodiea, Brodiea lutea Harvest Brodiea, Brodiea elegans California Dandelion, Agoseris grandiflora Hedge-nettle, Stachys ajugoides Mariposa Lily,Yellow, Calochortus luteus California Poppy, Eschscholzia californica Woodland Strawberry, Fragaria fresca Red Clintonia, Clintonia andrewsiana Owls-clover, Castilleja densiflora Hookerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Fairy Bell, Disporum hookeri Long-tubed Iris, Iris macrosiphon Western Morning-glory, Calystegia occidentalis Trillium, western, Trillium ovatum Trillium, giant, Trillium chloropetalum Violet, yellow, Viola glabella

88 TABLE 5. Listing of Introduced Invasive Plants in the Mangels Ranch Area Bamboo, Bambusa sp Blackberry, Himalaya, Rubus procerus Broom, French, Genista monspessulana Clover, prickly, Trifolium angustifolium Eupatorium, sticky, Ageratina adenophora Forget-me-not, Myosotis latifolia Hemlock, poison, Conium maculatum Holly, English, Ilex aquifolium Ivy, English, Hedera helix Ivy, Cape, Delaireia odorata Fireweed, Australian, Erechtites minima Grasses: Rattlesnake grass, Briza maxima Ripgut, Bromus diandrus Wild oats, Avena sativa Pampas grass, Cortaderia selloana Periwinkle, Vinca major Thistle, bull, Cirsium vulgare Thistle, Italian, Carduus pycnocephalus

89 APPENDIX I - The Mill Valley Cluster (Jepson’s Circle) The formation of redwood clusters has not been addressed adequately by researchers. In the text above, a series of discussions above addresses the dynamics of sprout rings (sometimes called “fairy rings”) and their possible role in the formation of what are called circles (Jepson, 1910), or redwood clusters. However, the very common sprout rings around a cut stump are also called “clusters” by harvesters. From experiments in the Jackson Demonstration State Forest, Reed Noss reports how silvicultural practices may remove sprout rings as an “approach to selection management.”5p.239 Review of information in the text above. A cluster is a group of large and small redwoods existing as an isolated permanent grouping surrounded by other plant communities, or may be present within a larger redwood forested area. The size of clusters observed in the Forest of Nisene Marks State Park and in other forested areas I have visited range from 30110 feet across and contain from 12-16 redwoods over 12 inches dbh. Where several isolated groupings of redwoods appear near each other on a slope such as in Happy Valley, the trees that form a contiguous crown cover are considered a cluster. This crown cover inhibits understory growth by greatly reducing light penetration into the center of the cluster (Figures 6-9, and 10). Clusters are uncommon in an uneven-aged old-growth redwood forest. In large redwood forests, spacing of the giants and their self-pruning allows penetration of sufficient light to establish an understory. When I first saw these clusters in the Mangels Ranch area, it reminded me of the experiment in Joseph Kittredge’s Forest Influences course in a redwood grove in Strawberry Canyon, University of California, Berkeley. We learned about the formation inside the grove of a more suitable micro-climate for redwoods that was created by the redwoods. I felt that this adaptation enabled the redwoods to exist in the oak woodland and brush area of the Mangels Ranch Area. At that time I was not concerned how these clusters formed and attained their size and apparently high longevity, with many of the larger trees in the periphery over 700 years of age. It was not until the threat of logging this uncut old-growth forest in 1996 that I became interested in the process of cluster formation. County Environmental officer David Hope, testified at the Calif. Dept. of Forestry and Fire Protection (CDF) hearing on the Timber Harvest Plan. Where Dave Hope had lived in Mendocino County, he had not seen such formations as these clusters. He requested for the county that the area not be cut. I then realized that these clusters were unique and needed protection. Mark Demming of the Santa Cruz County Planning Department had sent a letter to the CDF that Santa Cruz County would appeal a CDF decision to log the MRA because it was one of the few remaining areas of the county containing uncut old growth.

90 The reply at the hearing to Dave Hope’s by the CDF officiating Forester at the hearing, was that these large clusters were rings that formed around “mother trees.” This event started my scientific interest in these clusters. I could not imagine how a ring of redwood trees can continue to expand around a single parent tree. Second generation sprout rings are common around almost every cut stump in the FNMSP, but, in the “fairy ring” hypothesis, where are the rotted stumps of trees that died creating new rings of trees generation after generation? I have not seen or encountered evidence of this in the field or in the literature. And, new generations of young trees forming new rings are not present around the outer perimeter of any of the MRA clusters. New trees in the clusters I have studied remain inside of and among the peripheral boundary trees (Figures 6-8 and 10). Reed Noss5 reveals another possible cluster development process involving lignotubers that form “fairy rings”. My interpretation of the fungus “fairy ring” process projected to the redwood is that lignototuber growth from the next ring of trees expands through the soil eventually forms a circular pattern of trees. The Jepson circle. Evidence given for this possibility is from an article by Willis 51 Jepson in a 1910 article in THE SILVA OF CALIFORNIA. Also, Reed Noss5 referred to the information reported by Harvard University’s Peter Del Tredici50,58 of the Arnold Arboretum, a prominent author on lignotubers. Del Tredici reported a massive 525 ton lignotuber that was revealed by erosion at Big Lagoon south of Eureka (Del Tredici, 1999 58p.19). The growth was 41 feet across and about 16 feet deep, with at least seven trees growing off this massive runaway lignotuber (see above information on pages 58-59). I am reluctant to accept the above as a common formation of clusters because I found positive evidence of the formation process of most of the clusters in Happy Valley. These clusters start their formation where a slump jumble exposes mineral soil allowing redwood seedlings to grow. The seedlings are at first in competition with pioneer plants of abutting plant communities, and then are in competition for light between all the redwoods in the cluster for many hundreds of years. This process results in a cluster perimeter of up to about 20 large redwoods. These peripheral trees form a contiguous dense canopy that precludes a typical redwood forest understory. These slump jumble clusters are long-lived and uneven aged, with many of the peripheral trees over 700-800 years of age. New reproduction in these “slump jumble clusters” is from treefall gaps and possibly light intensity fires. New growth is possible only within the immediate zone of the cluster perimeter. The original land scar edges of the slump jumble are visible, and mark the permanent limits of the cluster (Figures 6-8). New Forming Cluster. This process is confirmed in Happy Valley by a new forming cluster created by a small mechanical clearing of brush near a large cluster about 30 years ago. The cluster process is continuing as described above with most of the centrally positioned redwood saplings dead or dying (Figure 9).

91 However, these slump jumble clusters in the Mangels Ranch Area do not represent the growth formation process of a circle forming in the 1800’s reported by Jepson that is on flat land in the photo of the cluster in Jepson52. I visited the Mill Valley area to find this circle. A redwood circle used for divinity meetings was not in the records of the History Department of the Mill Valley library or the Mill Valley Historical Society. The cluster of redwoods chosen to be similar to the Jepson circle I call the ”Mill Valley Cluster.” It is similar in diameter and number and size of the old-growth stumps as in Jepson’s circle, but is not conclusively the one described by Jepson. Jepson thought the trees (then only evidenced by stumps) forming the original circle were second-growth trees spreading from around a parent tree stump that Jepson presumed was burned. Apparently evidence of the stump was not present. In the centre once stood the parent; the stumps represent the second generation while the living trees are of the third generation at least.52p.133

In the Mill Valley Cluster area, all the large trees adjacent to the now mostly burned and deteriorated stumps are second-growth. Jepson would have called these third-growth. The logging near the mill started about 1836. All the old-growth red-woods were eventually cut on this approximately one-quarter mile long flat area adjacent to a creek. Dr. Richard Beidleman, Historian at the Jepson Herbarium found that Jepson’s Mill Valley circle data were collected by Jepson in 1898, and that Jepson did not say exactly where it was in Mill Valley. The information so far still does not disprove the fact that in this case the Mill Valley Cluster perimeter trees could have been formed by some sort of massive lignotuber growth. This is an important research problem because Jepson’s circle information is the only printed statement of this possibility. Del Tredici reports: The potential dimensions of the redwood lignotuber were first suggested by W.I.Jepson, who described a clump of 45 large redwoods that formed a third-generation “fairy ring” fifty feet by fifty-six feet across.58p.20 (emphasis mine)

All the trees in the area now are in the same size range as in the Mill Valley Cluster. Jepson did not use the poetic “fairy ring” in his report. The earliest reference to “fairy circles” I have seen is in Jack London’s65 THE VALLEY OF THE MOON: “More leaping tree squirrels, more ruddy madronos and majestic oaks, more fairy circles of redwoods ...”.

The following are the quotations from Jepson’s 1898 field notes (note the use of both circumference and diameter):

92 Jepson Field Book Vol. 1. Mill Valley, Nov.7, 1898 (page 182).First circle of Redwoods: 45 x 51 ft., with 45 trees not counting the smaller ones. Circumference of the larger trees in feet and tenths: 6; 5.3; 4.6; 5.2. Also 14 stumps of previous generation. Stumps far from perfect now. Diameter in feet and tenths: 3.7; 3.8; 3; 2.3; 2.3; 3.6; 2; 3; 4.3; 4.1; 4.2; 4.8; 1.9; 2.7. Trunk with hollow centre, one side gone; 3 young trees around it at 5 ft. from ground circumferences - 8ft.; 9ft.; 6ft. Second and third growth in Mill Valley: 30 to 70 ft. high. (From Dr. Richard G. Beidleman, Research Associate, Jepson

Herbarium. UC Berkeley, October 14, 2004) After receiving these data from Dr. Beidleman, I returned to the Mill Valley Cluster hoping to find the diagnostic chimney tree with three large redwoods nearby. I could only imagine some evidence of it. If this is the “Jepson’s circle”, the chimney tree was cut or fell down. However, the stump of the chimney tree could look like several of the stumps that have fire cavities. A high degree of fire evidence from the logging practices of those days was throughout this small clearcut forest. What is most important is to determine if redwood clusters that are not identifiable as slump jumble clusters could be formed by expanding lignotubers. The popular poetic “fairy ring” is believed to be the process by some people. If the cluster at the Old Mill park we have chosen is not Jepson’s circle, it is still a case for lignotuber expansion. Slump jumble clusters I have studied (Figures 6-8) do not form a growth of almost abutting trees forming a distinct circle of trees as does the Mill Valley Cluster (Figures 10 and 11). As Del Tredici relates58, Jepson “first described” circle growth, indicating this near circular pattern is rare. Jepson had visited redwood forest stands throughout most of the redwood range. At this point, one solution of this enigma is to genetically test the origins of the trees in the Mill Valley Cluster. If they are from one parent tree, as surmised by Jepson and by those who believe in the mother tree/”fairy ring” process, the process may be validated. Because of the evidence of the massive 41 foot wide 525 ton lignotuber near Eureka reported by Del Tredici, it could still be recognized that lignotubers may be involved in the formation of large clusters. Lignotubers obviously are important because ground sprouts originate on them, but the question is, how often and how far are lignotubers involved in development of large expanding clusters from parent trees?

Figure 10. Diameters at dbh, burl-lignotuber growths, and stump remains of the possible â&#x20AC;&#x153;Jepson circleâ&#x20AC;? in Mill Valley.

Figure 11. Photos of second-growth redwoods in the Mill Valley Cluster, July 2004. Note the severe wearing of burl growth at the base of each tree.

95 Appendix II Examples of tree growth in response to light, ground water, rainfall, and injury to the cambium of a redwood downed in the Mangels Ranch Area. In January, 2005 a redwood was cut down because it was beginning to lean over a cabin after heavy rains. This tree was cut in sections and remains along the edge of a dirt road where it has provided educational evidence of the possible effects of rainfall, ground water (from both from rainfall and a new septic tank leach field), light intensity, and injury to the cambium formation zone in the buttress in 1982. The following analysis of cause and effect of tree growth is mostly subjective because measurements were not made of light intensity reaching the tree, and hydrogen isotope experiments were not conducted to determine how much water intake was from rainfall or groundwater that including a new leach field. However, the tree has been observed for over 40 years, and there is considerable information available about the tree and its habitat. This includes: (1) Diameter and annual ring growth data for trunk cross sections throughout the length of the tree. (2) Annual rainfall records for Santa Cruz that has less average rainfall than Aptos, but is representative of the rainfall each year for Aptos. Fog drip is extremely low in this area and is insignificant. (3) The damage done to the base of the study tree, and a leach field installed nearby in early 1982 appear to have been causes of growth change. (4) Increasing height of the water table around the leach field, and removal of an oak tree in 1995 increasing direct sun and sky light to the tree may have added to increased growth in this phase. The study tree was at least 61 years of age and 80 feet in height when cut down. Fifty annual growth rings appeared at 8.4 feet above the ground (Figure 12), but at 2.0 feet above ground, 59 rings are present. Accounting for at least one or two yearâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s growth below two feet, the age was at least 61 growing seasons. Incomplete rings are not present, and, at least since 1982, extra rings or missing rings did not occur. This is important because it had been reported in the literature that when counting rings on large redwood trees, consider the accuracy somewhere between plus or minus ten years. Fires can interrupt the formation of growth rings, but fires have not been recorded in this area for well over 100 years. The study tree was located at the edge of a dirt fire road where a ditch on the upper side of the road serves as a winter drainage channel for part of Hawk Point Ridge. The tree was under a dense canopy of Shreve oak on a 50% + slope. Reduction of light was also caused by large Douglas-firs and old-growth redwoods several hundred feet away to the east and south. The damage to the tree that created the highly distorted

96 buttress (Figures 12 and 4.17) occurred in 1982 when it was about nine inches in diameter. At that time a cabin had to be moved because it was now on an overhanging bank on Mangels Gulch after the bank erosion of the major storm of the first week of January. The highest runoff in Mangels Gulch is rarely over 3 feet deep, but in this storm it was nearly 8 feet deep. A new large septic drainfield had to be installed midway between the main house and to where the cabin was to be moved. The cabin was moved to within 20 feet of the study tree that was now 15 feet from a leach field. During each of these operations heavy equipment was used including a backhoe and trucks with winches and cables that were anchored to the bases of trees. One of the cables was attached to a large madrone tree and the other to the study redwood. The madrone was inspected but was not damaged. Close inspection was not made at that time to see if damage had occurred to the redwood tree. In 1982, the diameter of the trunk at 2.0 feet from the ground (Figure 4.17) was about 9 inches. In 2005, at 2.0 feet above the ground the longest diameter of the now distorted buttress was 33 inches (Figure 4.17), and in 2005, the diameter was 25 inches at 8.4 feet from the ground (Figures 4.4 and 12). Besides responding directly to the injury in 1982, the tree had been growing eccentrically to reach light under oak canopy. The tree for the about 40 feet of its height grew at an angle to the ground to reach the skylight over the abutting dirt roadbed. In 1995, the study tree received more direct sun and more skylight when a large Shreve oak uphill that was shading the study tree was removed. This appears to have contributed to an increase of tree growth. Serious drain field problems started about 12 years ago. The water table depth rose from 11 feet depth in June, 1982 when the leach field was installed to 6.5 feet below the surface in June, 2005. As soon as the leach field was completed, water from this septic system may have reached the roots of this the study tree.

Analysis The following is what I surmise are contributing factors to growth changes that appear to be in three growth phase periods (Figure 12.) Phase 1. During the early growth period from up to 1982 there was no apparent relationship between rainfall extremes and growth - it appeared that light was the transcending growth limiting factor. Growth greatly increased after the 1982-83 heavy rainfall years, but at the same time injury of the cambium at the base may have contributed to increased tree growth and distorted buttress growth (Figures 4.17 and 12).

97 The redwood is a resilient and adaptive species that has the ability to compensate for injury by rapid growth and formation of vegetative structures such as sprouts and reiterations. Part of this process is that a hormone that normally inhibits the production of dormant buds, sprouts, and other vegetative structures is reduced in production when a redwood is stressed. Possibly the process of rapid production of the cork and vascular cambium cells in and near the injured area in 1982 may have partly been from a hormonal change. Dormant buds sprout upon injury or fire on the trunk and from burls and lignotubers forming sprout rings and reiterations. This tree has several sprouts growing from the soil within two feet. One is 11 inches dbh in diameter that could be a 1980â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sprout. There is no proof that this younger tree is not a seedling, but the three other sprouts only a few inches in diameter within inches of the parent tree are possibly from underground lignotubers. Phase II. In this phase, a close relationship existed between rainfall and growth increment, with growth more than tripling from 1982 to 1986. However, growth was reduced during the severe rain scarcity in 1989 and 1900, showing that rainfall was still a major limiting factor in spite of possible leach field water availability. After 1982, injury to the cork cambium in addition to increased rainfall (and possibly now also leach field water) resulted in a highly variable growth pattern in the lower trunk (Figure 4.17). Possibly half of the roots are in the leach field area to the east, and the other half are located on the west side of the tree on a steep slope. In this phase, rainfall had a strong relationship with growth until 1988 when growth continued at a high level in spite of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;droughtâ&#x20AC;? period of 1989-1990. As mentioned above, the water table height in the leach filed rose from 11 feet from the surface when installed in June,1982 to about 6.5 feet from the surface in June, 2005. Phase III. The lack of correlation of the extremes of rainfall and growth rate from 1992 to present indicates a more stable growth similar to the first phase, but at over 4-5 times in the growth rate. However, the overall trend of more rainfall and greater growth continued throughout this phase when in until 2002 both growth and rainfall declined slightly. This could have resulted in a higher rate of growth now that the study tree is now receiving the greater amount of its water from the highly enriched leach field. Light may no longer be a major limiting factor now that a canopy of a large oak was removed from the sunny side of the redwood. However, erratic annual rainfall from 19932000 may have contributed to a continually saturated leach field. In conversation with arborists, it is common knowledge that having tree roots in a drain field system will make the leach areas function better. What is most important is that this study tree indicates that this redwood had rapid dynamic growth patterns to respond to stress and increase of nutrients and light.

Figure 12. Annual rainfall from 1970-2004 compared with growth of annual rings of a 25-in. diameter (avg. dbh) redwood downed in January, 2005 in Mangels Ranch Area (see also Figure 4.4).

99 GLOSSARY The Guide is an expanded glossary with most of the definitions given in the text where the topic is first mentioned. However, certain subjects need more definition, especially some of the scientific and technical terms in the quotations. Adventitious. When a structure develops in an unusual place. In this paper, reference is made to Willis Jepson who in 1910 considered that when basal buds sprouted off â&#x20AC;&#x153;rootsâ&#x20AC;? around stumps, they were adventitious. The redwood is the only conifer that sprouts from lignotubers and burls at the base of the trunk Allelopathic. Allelopathic plant species produce chemicals in the soil that negatively affect other plants. Fires are important to many species in chaparral areas because poisonous chemicals in the ground produced by other plants are destroyed by the heat of the fire, giving advantage to competing species in vegetation recovery. Alluvial. Alluvium is soil deposited by flowing water on flood or alluvial plains. Along the rivers of northern California where there are large stands of redwood, flooding is important for the redwood. If a deep layer of alluvium covers the trunk, dormant basal buds can create a new layer of roots in the new alluvial soil. Archegonia. Redwoods and other conifers (Gymnosperms), and mosses, ferns and some other plants, do not have a pistil-ovary organ for seeds. The archegonia is an egg producing organ in the bracts of the female redwood conelet. Fertilization takes place when pollen released into the air from the male conelets enters the female cone. Autecological. The ecological study of a single organism and its environment. Bole. The trunk of a tree. Chaparral. The chaparral is a foothill biome of small-leaved shrubs in a summer hot and dry habitat, and moist winters. Chaparral areas have been heavily burned to make more grazing and crop land since the Spaniards and Anglos came to California. Contiguous. Touching or connecting without a break. This term is the principal characteristic of cluster canopies. Contiguous crowns are also part of the description of logging requirements for timber harvest permits. Cotyledon. A special leaf in the seed that most often furnishes food for the seedling. Crustose-lichen. The thallus of a certain type of lichen which is thin, crusty, and closely attached to rock substrate. A lichen is a symbiotic combination of fungus and algae. Debris Flow. There are several types of debris flows depending upon the size of the eroded material. The debris flows in this area are of unconsolidated sand, mixed with light loam.

100 They flow quickly down the slope. In MRA in 2000, one slid a thousand feet to Mangels Gulch creek bottom in a few minutes. This is opposed to slump jumbles which are slow flowing and of deeper more consolidated loam, and may be stopped by a heavy root mass. Dormant Basal Buds. Among conifers only the bigcone Douglas-fir and coast redwood have these buds on the trunk. Many other species of trees have these buds on trunks that form piggyback trees when downed, but need viable roots to keep the tree alive. Arroyo willow, oak trees, California Bay and many of the understory shrubs sprout in this way. The buds in a redwood tree remain dormant when the plant is healthy because of a growth hormone which inhibits their growth until the tree is stressed, such as by fire. Ecotone. The boundary between plant communities where there is a mixing of species. With redwood clusters, there is no mixing or at least the ecotone boundary is very abrupt due to the intense shading of the contiguous canopy. Edaphic. A habitat condition that is influenced by physical and chemical soil structure and topography rather than by climate. Edaphic characters are somewhat stable in a given area from year to year. Climates can be highly unstable. Floristic. The study of the number, distribution, and relationships of plants. Foliose-lichen. A more advanced type of lichen in which the thallus is thick and leaflike. Geomorphology. Study of the evolution and configuration of land forms - the origin of earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s topographic features. Geotropism. The growth of an organism in response to earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s gravity. A positive geotropism is to grow downward as roots do. A negative geotropism is growing upward against gravity as trees, or as reiterations on downed living piggyback nurse trees and on higher broken redwood limbs. Meristems. Are perpetually young tissues in a plant that form new cells until the plant dies. Mesic. A mesophyllic plant is adapted to moderately moist habitats. The redwood is a prime example of a mesic plant, but requires more atmospheric moisture than other trees, and may also be referred to as a hydrophyllic plant. Mosaic. In plant communities, this refers to a patchwork over an extended area of several communities and vegetative types, sometimes without clear boundaries (ecotones) between the plant communities. These areas have a high diversity of plants and animals, and are characteristic of the Mangels Ranch Area.

101 Ontogenetic. The origin and development of an individual organism from embryo to adult. Peeler. In harvesting lingo, a “peeler” is the forester who peels the bark off a cut trunk before it is milled. Another “peeler” is a growth that has sprouted off the top edge of a stump that will eventually peel off. These are dangerous growths near houses. Primeval. Original or ancient - the earliest of age or ages. Any reference using primeval (and pristine) is qualified in that there is no place on earth that has not been affected in some way by human activities, now including global warming. Reiteration. A tree-like growth from a dormant bud at the break of a large limb, or off the dorsal surface of a downed living nurse tree called a piggyback tree. Scrub. Straggly, stunted, sparse vegetation growing thickly together. The land covered by this growth is called a scrub area. In this area, coyote brush is typical. Shrub. A woody plant of low height with several stems arising from the base without a single trunk. The blueblossom and coffeeberry are shrub species. However, when these species grow in more xeric areas, they may assume a scrub structure. Topography. Precise description of a place giving the relative positions of land forms and structure; an accurate and detailed description of a place. Transpiration. Release of water vapor through the pores (stomata) of a leaf. Xeric. Dry and desert-like.

102 LITERATURE CITED The references are identified as superscripts in the text and appear here mostly in numerical sequence. One publication which contains many articles referred to in this paper is given in full here to avoid repetitive listing of the source. It will be identified as PROCEEDINGS for each reference of that publication: LeBlanc, John. ed. 1996. PROCEEDINGS of the Conference on Coast Redwood Forest Ecology & Management, June 18-20, 1996. Humboldt State University, Arcata, California. 162 pp. UCSC Sci. Lib: SD 397 R3 C65 Call numbers are also included for several natural history and redwood text books in the Santa Cruz County public and UCSC libraries. 1. Bakker, Elna.1972. An Island Called California: an ecological introduction to its natural communities. Berkeley and Los Angeles. Univ. Calif. Press. 361 pp. Pub. Lib: Central. 574.9794 BAK; UCSC Sci. Lib: QH105C2B3 2. Zinke, Paul. 1988. The redwood Forest and Associated North Coast Forests, pp 679698. In Terrestrial Vegetation of California, expanded edition, eds. Michael G. Barbour and Jack Major. Sacramento, California Native Plant Society. 3. Libby, W. J. 1996. Ecology and Management of Coast Redwood -Keynote Address. PROCEEDINGS: 1-3. 4. Bowcutt, Fredrica. 1996. Park Management Enriched by Cultural Diversity: Case Study From Sinkuyone Wilderness State park, Mendocino County, California. PROCEEDINGS: 85-86. 5. Noss, Reed F. ed. 2000. The Redwood Forest - History, Ecology, and Conservation of the Coast Redwoods. Island Press, Covelo, CA. 339 pp. Pub. Lib: Central, Boulder Creek: 634.9758 RED; UCSC Sci Lib: SD397 R3 R455 6. Journal of Forestry. 2000. 98(7), July (Ethics Issue): pp 8-18. UCSC: SD1 J64 98:7 7. Leopold, Aldo. 1949. A Sand County Almanac. Oxford Univ. Press, N. Y. 226 pp. 8. _______ 1953. Round River. Oxford Univ. Press, N Y. 173 pp. 9 . Munz, Philip A., and David D. Keck. 1959. A California Flora. Univ. Calif. Press. Pub. Lib.: Aptos, Scotts Valley, Central, Live Oak R581.9 M92 10. Barbour, Michael G., and Jack Major. 1988. Terrestrial Vegetation of California. Expanded edition. Sacramento, California Native Plant Society. Special Pub. 9; UCSC Sci. Lib. QK149 T44 11. Johnston, Verna. 1994. California Forests and Woodlands - A Natural History. Univ. Calif. Press. Berkeley. 222 pp. Pub. Lib: Central, Aptos, Boulder Creek, Live Oak, Outreach Service. 577.3097 JOH

103 12. Schoenherr, Allan A. 1984. A Natural History of California - California Natural History Guides # 56. Univ. Calif. Press. Pub. Lib: Aptos, Boulder Creek, Central, Capitola, Central 508.9794 SCH 13. Weaver, John E, and Frederic E. Clements. 1938. Plant Ecology. McGraw-Hill. 14. Reid, Leslie. 1996. Time, Space, and Redwood Trees. PROCEEDINGS: 42-45. 15. Kittredge, Joseph. 1948. Forest Influences - The Effects of Woody Vegetation on Climate, Water, and Soil. McGraw-Hill Inc. 16. Storie, Raymond, et. al. 1944. Soil Survey of the Santa Cruz Area, California USDA, Soil Survey Division. (UCSC Sci. Lib: S599.C2 S8) 17. Bowman, Roy H. et. al. 1980. Soil Survey of Santa Cruz County, California. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Soil Survey, in Cooperation with Calif. Agricultural Experiment Station. (UCSC: Sci. Lib.) 18. Hickman, James C. ed. 1993. The Jepson Manual . University of California Press. 1400 pp. Pub. Lib.: Central 581.9794 JEP 19. Lanner, Ronald. M. 1999. Conifers of California. Cachuma Press, Los Olivos, California. Pub. Lib.: Aptos, Central, Scotts Valley - 585.0974 LAN 20. Hewes, Jeremy Joan. 1981. Redwoods - The Worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Largest Trees. Gallery Books, N.Y. 191 pp. Pub. Lib: (oversize) Capitola, Felton, La Selva Beach 585.2 HEW 21. Viers, Stephen. 1996. Ecology of the Coast Redwood. PROCEEDINGS: 9-12. 22. Wilcox, Wayne. 1996. Coast Redwood as a Future Supplier of Wood Products. PROCEEDINGS: 48-50. 23. Kuser, J. E. 1996. Redwood as an Exotic. PROCEEDINGS: 55-59 24. Evarts, John, and Marjorie Popper. 2001. Coast Redwood - A Natural and Cultural History, Cachuma Press. Los Olivos, California. Pub. Lib.: (all) 585.5 COA 25. Sugihara, Neil G. 1996. The Dynamics of Treefall Gaps in Alluvial Flat Coast Redwood Forests. PROCEEDINGS: 94-95. 26. Spreiter, Terry A, James F. Franke, and David L. Steensen. 1996. Disturbed Lands Restoration: The Redwood Experience. PROCEEDINGS: 140-146. 27. Fox, Lawrence III. 1996. Current Status and Distribution of Coast Redwood. PROCEEDINGS: 18-20. 28. Tuchman, E. K., et. al. 1996. The Northwest Forest Plan. Wash. D.C.: USDA Office of Forestry and Economic Assistance. 29. Sawyer, John O., Dale A. Thornburgh, and James R. Griffin. Mixed Evergreen Forest - Chapter 10. 1988. In Terrestrial Vegetation of California,expanded edition, eds. Michael G. Barbour and Jack Major, pp. 359-381, Sacramento, California Native Plant Society. UCSC SCI. LIB: SD 397 R3 C85 30. Allen, Gerald, et. al. 1996. Seventy-two Years of Growth on a Redwood Sample Plot: The wonder plot revisited. PROCEEDINGS: 61-62. 31. Adams, Jeffrey et. al. 1996. Comparison Between Growth of Douglas-Fir and Redwood Regeneration in Uniform Selection and Group Selection Silvicultural Systems. PROCEEDINGS: 72-73.

104 32. Helms, James, and Christopher Hipkin. 1996. Growth of Coast Redwood Under Alternative Silvicultural Systems. PROCEEDINGS: 74-77. 33. Piirto, Douglas et. al. 1996. Implementing Uneven-Aged Redwood Management at Cal. Poly’s School Forest. PROCEEDINGS: 78-81. 34. Rodrigues, Kim. 1996. The History of Conflict over Managing Coast Redwoods. PROCEEDINGS: 52-54 35. Griffen, J. R., and W. B. Critchfield, 1972. The Distribution of Forest Trees in California. Research Paper PSW-82, USDA Forest Service. 36. Zinke, Paul, et. al. 1996. Pattern and Processes in Forests of Sequoia sempervirens. PROCEEDINGS: 26-30. 37. Becking, Rudolph. 1996. Seed Germinative Capacity and Seedling Survival of the Coast Redwood. PROCEEDINGS: 69-71. 38. Fritz, E. and J. L. Averell. 1924. Discontinuous Growth Rings in California Redwood. Jour. Forestry XXII: No. 6. 39. Esau, Katherine. 1953. Plant Anatomy. John Wiley & Sons. 40. Bingham, B. B. 1984. Decaying logs as a substrate for conifer in an upland oldgrowth redwood forest. Master’s thesis, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA. 41. Dawson, Todd. 1996. The use of Fog Precipitation by Plants in Coastal Redwood Forests. PROCEEDINGS : 90-93 42. Greenlee, Jason M. and Jean H. Langenheim. 1990. Historic Fire Regimes and Their Relation to Vegetation Patterns in the Monterey Bay Region of California. American Midland Naturalist. 124 (2): 239-253. UCSC Sci. Lib: QH 1 A35 43. Greenlee, J. M. 1983. Vegetation, Fire History, and Fire Potential. PHD Dissertation, UCSC. UCSC Sci. Lib. 44. James, Susanne. 1984. Lignotubers and Burls - Their Structure, Function and Ecological Significance in Mediterranean Ecosystems. The Botanical Review. 50(3) July-Sept.: 225-262. UCSC: Sci.Lib. QK 1 B335 45. Finney, Mark A. 1996. Development of Fire Scar Cavities on Old-growth Coast Redwood. PROCEEDINGS: 96-98. 46. Sher, Stanley, and Gretchen Wilson. 1996. Tumorigenesis in Coast Redwood. PROCEEDINGS: 99-101. 47. Orr, Robert T., and Dorothy B. Orr. 1968. Mushrooms - and Other Common Fungi of the San Francisco Bay Region. Univ. Calif. Press. Calif. Nat. Hist. Guides # 8. 71 pp. 48. Libby, W. J., T.S. Anekonda, and J.E. Kuser. 1996. The Genetic Architecture of Coast Redwood. PROCEEDINGS: 147-149. 49. Gause, G. W. 1966. Silvical Characteristics of Bigcone Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga macrocarpa).USDA Forest Serv. Res. Paper PSW-39, 10 pp.

105 50. Del Tredici, Peter. 1998. Lignotubers in Sequoia sempervirens: Development and Ecological Significance. Madrono 45(3): 255-260. UCSC Sci. Lib.: QK.1 M 183. 51 Jepson, Willis L. 1916. Regeneration in Manzanita. Madrono. 1. 1916-1929 52. _______ 1910. The Silva of California. Memoires of the Univ. of Calif. UCSC Sci. Lib. Q111.C3 v.2 53 . Hinds, Norman E. 1943. Geomorphology -The Evolution of Landscape. Prentice Hall. NY 54. Rasp, Richard A. 1999 (Fourth Printing). Redwood:The Story Behind the Scenery. KC Publications, Las Vegas. 54 pp. 55. Borrass, Thembi. 1996. Fall and Rise of the Dyerville Giant. PROCEEDINGS: page 157. 56. Eifert, Larry. 2002 (6th printing). The Distinctive Qualities of Redwoods. Estuary Press. Port Townsend, WA. 48 pp. 57. Misuraca, Rick. 1992. Reedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Mill. The Mill Valley Historical Review, Spring 1992. 58. Del Tredici, Peter. 1999. Redwood Burls: Immortality Underground. Arnoldia, 29(3): 14-22. 59. Schoenherr, Allan A. 2001. California Redwood: What is the state tree? Fremontia 29 (1), pp34-35, Jan. 60. Becking, Rudolf W. 1982. Pocket Flora of the Redwood Forest. Island Press. Covelo CA. Pub. Lib.: Boulder Creek, La Selva Beach, Capitola, Central, Scotts Valley. R582B38. 61. Brewer, William. 1966. Up and Down California in 1860-1864. Berkeley, University of Calif. Press, 3rd edition, 1966. 772 pp. Pub. Lib: Aptos, Central. 917.94BRE: UCSC McH: F864. B75 62. Lyons, Kathleen, and Mary Beth Cooney-Lazaneo. 1988. Plants of he Coast Redwood Region. 197 pp. Los Altos, Calif. Looking Press. Pub Lib.: Aptos, Boulder Creek, Felton, La Selva Beach, Central 581.97947 L98 63. Pavilk, Bruce M., Pamela C. Muick, Sharon G. Johnson, and Marjorie Popper. 1991. Oaks of California. Cachuma Press, Los Olivos, and the California Oak Foundation. 184 pp. 64. Preston, Richard. 2005. Climbing the Redwoods. The New Yorker, Feb. 14 and 21, 2005.

106 REVIEWS OF REDWOOD LITERATURE FOR INTERPRETERS AND DOCENTS As a scientist, I feel an obligation to present an accurate Guide, and to point out errors being read by an interpreter who unknowingly may pass on the error. For the older books to not contain a newer fact is not an error. The only four errors were misstatements of facts that were known at the time. These errors appear in the reviews. I pointed out omissions of certain basic subjects in case the reader would be interested in those subjects. I also noted there are varying interpretations of the cause or formation of certain redwood structures and growth patterns. I have listed in small print the library call numbers the publications that are available in the Santa Cruz Public Library system and UCSC libraries. The arrangement of the annotated listing is not in rank of relative importance. Instead, I have grouped the authors in several categories: by publisher, natural history, and species identification. Reviews (The Literature Cited numbers of authors cited in this text are given in small superscript) • The Cachuma Press and Other Glossy-paper Library Series 1. Coast Redwood - A Natural and Cultural History, edited by John Evarts and Marjorie Popper24, published in 2001, was written by Michael Barbour, Sandy Lydon, Mark Borchert, Marjorie Popper, Valerie Witworth, and John Evarts. This is an oversize glossypaper book that has two basic categories: (1) Species distribution, life history, and ecology of the redwood in the first four chapters on pages 1-80; and (2), the history of harvesting, preservation, conservation, and management practices on pages 81-205. The first section on the life history and adaptations includes 134 color photo-graphs showing most of the redwood growth adaptations, habitat, ecosystems, and wildlife of a redwood forest. The second section also has dramatic photographs - 105 in black-and white and 45 color photographs - of the history of redwood harvesting and protection. The outstanding watercolor drawings of redwood cones, seeds, bracts and needles by E. O. Murman is included. (Additional Murman watercolors are presented in Ronald Lanner’s book on conifers, see below in this section). The extensive bibliography covers 10 pages of the book. A listing with addresses of 22 “Resources,” covering research, action organizations, funding, and educational organizations is given. Four Appendices include comparison of the three redwood species, average rainfall and temperature of the redwood region, common and scientific names of plants, and timber harvest figures for selected counties.

107 The authors did not discuss lignotubers, but did discuss redwood burls that essentially are the same, except lignotubers include food storage and underground functions. Sprout rings and “fairy rings” are discussed. Height and width of the tallest and widest redwoods were not given. Record redwood height is occasionally changing among several trees in National Redwoods Park and in Humboldt Redwoods State Park. All county public libraries. 585.5 COA (Other information on historic events in this book is included below in the review of the J.J. Hewes book, Redwoods, the worlds’ tallest trees. These two publications compliment each other on several subjects, and together present a thorough history of redwood harvesting history.)

2. Ronald M. Lanner, 1999 Conifers of California19 is a beautiful glossy-paper oversize description of the 52 conifers native to California. Conifers include 50 species in Family Pinaceae, and the two redwoods, Coast redwood and Giant Sequoia, in Family Taxodiaceae. Included are the two yews in the Family Taxaceae that are not conifers. A distribution map accompanies each species. Most species have from two to four color photographic ecoscapes of the habitat of that species, showing the topography, growth form of the trees, and occasionally a bird or flower characteristic to that habitat. What makes this scientific identification book unique among publications is the inclusion of outstanding art work for all but five of the conifer species by Eugene O. Murman who was born in 1874. His works are full page, extremely detailed, high quality watercolors showing needles, cones, seeds, bracts, and branchlets. Murman’s finely nuanced drawings are worth more than several pages of written description. Illustrations include five high quality contemporary drawings by Susan Bazell. The Appendices include a table on the comparison of needles and cones in the hard and soft pines, a discussion of conifer hybrids, keys to the Genera based on cones and on leaves, and an alphabetical list of conifers growing naturally within California. The annotated bibliography gives 84 listings. Libraries: Aptos, Central, Scotts Valley. 585.0974 LAN 3. Oaks of California was written by Bruce M. Pavlik, Pamela C. Muick, Sharon G. Johnson, and Marjorie Popper.63 The 185 page book was published in 1991 by Cachuma Press and the California Oak Foundation. This glossy identification and life history book is important because the redwood areas near Aptos are dominated by the Shreve oak, tanoak, and Coast Live oak. These species are involved in competitive interactions in oak woodland, mixed evergreen, and redwood communities. Oaks of California is very detailed with color photos of the 18 California oak species and their habitats. The text and photographs includes many aspects including diversity, ecoscapes, wildlife of California oaks, along with information of oaks and human past, and preserving oaks for future generations. A key to the tree oaks is given. The appendices include maps of the topography and lists of common names of plants, insects, vertebrate species, and endangered species associated with oaks. A glossary of 70 terms and oak

108 structures and forms is included. (At the time of printing of the 1991 edition, the Shreve oak, Quercus parvula var shrevei was not fully accepted by oak taxonomists. At this time, it has been accepted by Hickman in Jepson’s Manual, by the California Native Plant Society, by Dean Taylor of the Jepson Herbarium in his recent checklist of plants in the Aptos Creek watershed, and by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. If the present acceptance by the authors and organizations above is upheld, then the range of the Shreve oak would extend along the maritime coast from San Mateo County to near Santa Barbara. The Shreve oak would replace the Interior Live Oak for this area of California.) 4. Redwoods - The World’s Tallest Trees by Jeremy Joan Hewes20 was copyrighted in 1981 by Bison Books Inc., and published by Gallery Books in 1984, 192 pages. This book, along with the Coast Redwood edited by Evarts and Popper above, depicts almost everything concerning the redwood, from fossil development to the need for protection of old-growth forests today. These books compliment each other, both books tell the same story but each with different historic black-and-white photos and drawings. Only one photograph appeared in both books out of 224 total historic photos between the books (119 in Hewes and 105 in Evarts and Popper). This photograph was of the Excelsior Redwood Company’s spur railroad with logs loaded for hauling in Eureka. All the other photos may include the same subjects but are different. For instance, Hewes shows a team of 14 oxen towing 14 12-20 foot logs on a skid road in Mendocino County. Evarts and Popper have team of 10 oxen towing 10 similar sized logs in Santa Cruz County. Hewes has a picture of many people including John Muir and President Teddy Roosevelt, surrounding a huge Giant Sequoia in Mariposa County. Evarts and Popper have a similar picture in front of a redwood in Del Norte County, with President Herbert Hoover in the line of people holding hands around the tree. They both have photographs of Native American residents at the initiation of timber harvesting, showing conical plank-and-shake houses and traditional clothing. Evarts and Popper show photographs of Coast Miwok, Tolowa, and Yurok tribes for the coastal Indians. Hewes shows similar photos and drawings of Yurok and Pomo for the coast redwood tribes, and Yosemite and Shoshone types for the Giant Sequoia area. Drawings and color photos are of the plants and tree and plant structures are highly instructive. In Chapter 3, she also includes Giant Sequoia life history and growth form primarily through photographs and drawings. If the reader is interested in scenes of old-style forest destruction and attitudes toward nature, Hewes Redwoods is a splendid source. Large pictures strongly depict three types of action that brought about the harvesting controls aimed at today. To me the most revealing of contemptuous human attitudes to nature is on page 121.

109 A 9 x 12 inch black-and-white picture shows two loggers about 16 feet above the ground sitting on the front of a bulldozer that has been driven so that the front half of the equipment hangs in the air when resting on top of cut 6-7 feet diameter redwood logs. The loggers on the front edge of the bulldozer, are looking down at the photographer. One interpretation of this photograph is to depict the modern way of harvesting that the bulldozer brought to the forests that should be honored with a picture which plainly shows what this piece of modern equipment can do. The other imagery could be a representation of self-destructive human attitudes toward nature. For at least a hundred thousand years humans have had to survive in a nature they could not control, and knew little about what was going to happen next concerning food, water, and protection. Human technology, and social and cultural behavior, enabled humans to temporarily increase their carrying capacity - until they became overpopulated again. This picture shows strongly not only human control over nature, but a stronger imagery that we can “conquer” nature. Another example of this cultural attitude in Redwoods, is the 12 x 18 inch photograph on pages 70-71 that depicts the felling of the Mark Twain Giant Sequoia in 1891 in Kings Canyon National Park. The tree is falling half way to the ground that has been cleared for its arrival for exhibition! The caption says: “Sadly, the proud loggers downed what may have been the most perfect Big Tree of them all.” A third enlightening 9 x 12 photograph on page 126 shows the bleak result of redwood clearcutting in the old-days where no tree species remained standing. Travelers through redwood country who brought home with them this desolate image inspired the beginnings of the Sempervirens Fund, Save-the-Redwoods League, Trust for Public Land, and stimulated other forest protection action. In college I was taught the Life Zone nomenclature for the different bands of specific plants, mostly trees, when changing altitudes in the Sierra Nevada’s. Today, vegetative classification is of plant communities containing certain dominant species in different geographic areas (see Terrestrial Vegetation of California below.) For those not familiar with the Life Zone concept, J. J. Hewes presents a color figure on page 32 of the four Life Zones of California. The redwood and Giant Sequoia are in the Transition Life Zone. Under today’s system, the redwood is in the Pacific Northwest Floristic Province, in the Redwood Forest community, and the Giant Sequoia is in the Sierra Nevada Montane Forest plant community of the Sierran Floristic Province. In the figure on page 53 of typical tree species on the slopes by altitude of the Sierra Nevada mountains, the tree figure labeled Coast Live Oak should read Interior Live Oak. Coast Live oaks do not grow in the Sierras. On page 13, “hartwood” should read heartwood. In a table on page 20, the 35 feet diameter coast redwood figure should be in the Giant Sequoia column. Pub. Lib.: (oversize) Capitola, Felton. 585.2 HEW • University of California Press Series - Here are four that include redwoods: 1. Up and Down California by William H. Brewer61 is a fascinating 575 page record of letters and notes by a team of geologists under the State Geologist of

110 California, Josiah Dwight Whitney. This book contains an outstanding natural history and topographic description of California in the late 1860’s by William Brewer, a geologist and botanist. The book was first printed in 1930 by the Yale University Press, went out of print, then was published by the University of California Press in 1966. Brewer was the head of the field team in 1860 to 1864 that climbed many mountains throughout California, many for the first time. The geologists in the seven team crew named some mountains they climbed - Mount’s Whitney, Brewer, Gardiner, Silliman, and Clarence King, all of which are in Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. Brewer mentions a few plant species, including two of most interest to him, the Giant Sequoia and coast redwood. Giant Sequoia information appears on 12 pages, and the redwood is mentioned on 10 pages. Of most interest to Brewer were the diameters of redwoods. Near Santa Cruz, he reports most of the trees had 10-12 ft. diameters, the largest between 19 and 20 feet. He did not state whether the diameters were at dbh, so these data cannot be used as official. He did not give the exact location of the widest tree. The index in Brewer’s book is detailed, and for those who have traveled around the state, it is exciting to read how locations you have visited were used and their condition in the 1860’s. Frequent interactions with Native Americans are instructive, especially the Indians’ monitoring of their survey as the team moved through Owens Valley with “Indian smoke signals by day, and fires on the ridges at night.” Brewer also mentions an important behavior of the Indians protecting trees from fire near the junction of the middle and south forks of the San Joaquin River. Brewer, page 540: “Once we came on a camp fire still burning, but the Indians were out of sight. In this valley hundreds of pine trees have the earth dug around them to protect them from fire, for pine seed or nuts form an important article of food with the Indians. One species has very large cones, with large seeds ... hundreds of bushels of seeds are gathered for food.”

The exact location of these most likely Gray Pines is not given. Native Americans have been known to use fire to clear land for many purposes, but this is a unique method of Indians to protect a food supply of a tree from fire. Lanner 19, p70 for Gray Pine, points out that the Indians: ...” were wise to harvest the large nuts of this pine. The kernels are 25% protein and 49% fat, and 95% of the fats are the polyunsaturated oleic and linoleic acids.” Pub.Lib: Aptos, Central. 917.94 BRE; UCSC F864.B75 2. Allan A. Schoenherr12 in 1992 published A Natural History of California. He needed to have 767 pages to relate all the plant communities and descriptions of most common species in the State. To accomplish this task in a one-year sabbatical leave given by Fullerton College is astounding. He emphasizes the necessity for describing the ecological parameters of the geology, topography, soil type, and slope configuration for any plant species and its associated plant species

111 Begins with descriptions of the Natural Regions of California, then moves onto Basic Ecology and Basic Geology. Ten natural regions are described, with lengthy descriptions of the highly diverse Sierra Nevada, Cismontane Southern California, and California Deserts regions. The redwood discussions on pages 283-287 in the Coastal Ranges region are primarily on physical limiting factors, however, the discussion offers limited redwood life history. The discussion includes listing of the most common associated plants, its dependency of moist maritime air, the redwoodâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s resistance to decay, and its distribution determined by endemic and climatic conditions - wind, flooding of alluvial flats, salt spray from ocean winds, and dry blowdowns. Libraries: Central. 508-794 SCH 3. Verna R. Johnston11 published California Forests and Woodlands in 1994. Since she limited herself to forests and woodlands, her 222 pages were adequate to present an ecological approach to species description. The 60 color photo-graphs of flowers, seeds, trees, salamanders, birds, mammals, and ecoscapes of forests are on glossy-paper. Johnston gives redwood forests first attention. Her listing of maximum redwood height was 368+ feet was the same, and a diameter of 15 feet (a foot less) than most other authors listed. Reed Noss5 in 2000 printed a table of redwood heights and widths in which some of these measurements were updated. A near complete review of redwood life history was presented in the pleasant language of an interpretive trail brochure. It is a pleasure to enjoy emotional contemplative feelings in a book through description of the sounds and behavior of plant the associated animals and birds in an ecosystem. The following is the caption of a detail-ed drawing of a group of redwoods with associated plants and birds: Redwood trees rise arrow-straight above the Winter Wrens that flit among the Redwood Sorrel and Western Sword Fern of the forest floor. Chestnut-backed Chickadees search tree leaves for insects. Salmonberry forms a shrub layer.

Her above description holds true for a typical redwood understory for northern California. Salmonberry is not present in the Aptos Creek watershed. Her presentation of birds in a redwood forest is not just listings the birds, but invites the contemplation of bird sounds: The shaded Redwood Forests house relatively few birds. An enormous quiet often settles among the trees, interrupted only occasionally by the croak of a Common Raven (Corvus corax), the tap of a woodpecker, the scold of a Winter Wren, the high, thin lisps of Golden-crowned Kinglets, (Regulus satrapa), the harsh calls of Stellerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Jays (Cyanocitta stelleri).11p.24

A behavior of one of the most ubiquitous understory plant in redwood forests, the Redwood Sorrel, is described: Carpets of Redwood Sorrel spread heart-shaped leaflets everywhere over the spongy brown earth, leaflets so well

112 adapted to the changing light and shade of the Redwood Forest that they droop dramatically in full sun, wilting from 11p.24 excessive water loss (transpiration).

An error appears on page 16 - that the “redwood has a taproot”. Was this a typo, substituting an “a” for “no”? One possible reason for this mistake is the imagery of a drawing on opposite page 17 of the added growths to the root system after each deposition of flood soil around a redwood. After each of four floods, the root system sprouted new feeder and structural roots in the new soil, creating what appears to be a deep taproot growing from the top, which it is not.. Libraries: Central, Aptos, Boulder Creek, Live Oak, Outreach Service. 577.3097 JOH 4. An important University of California Press book is the plant identifier’s new rendition of The Jepson Manual, Edited by James C. Hickman18, published in 1993. I will not elaborate on this 1400 page tome, but will suggest to some people who have not had a course in botany that it is not impossible to learn how to identify many plants. A very detailed glossary of terms is given, and fine line drawings of diagnostic parts of almost every plant are given. These drawings are an improvement over the original 1923 Willis Jepson’s Manual of Flowering Plants of California. • Reed. F. Noss5 in 2000 published his 340 page book The Redwood Forest - History, and Conservation of the Coast Redwoods, Island Press, Covelo, California. He was supported by Save-the-Redwoods League to undertake this task. A team of 35 researchers has brought together a comprehensive data-based detail of the redwood and many of its associated organisms. Unlike many of the other publications reviewed here, color photographs on glossypaper are not presented, but black-and-white drawings of tree forms are included. Historical logging scenes and methodology are not presented visually. Instead, many Figures and Tables have been prepared to supply analyzed data to scientifically describe the redwood. They have submitted 32 Figures, 22 Tables, seven Appendices, and nine Boxes (highlighted) for specific subjects. A list of plant species is necessary for plant community descriptions, but in this book on pages 60-63, the reader might wonder why Teresa Sholar’s “Preliminary Checklist of 176 plant species in Van Damme State Park” in northern California is necessary. I found it quite important, because comparisons of associated species in the central and northern parts of the state are important to describe the adaptations of redwoods to variances of habitat. I used Dr. Dean Taylor’s checklist of 533 plants in the Aptos Creek drainage (nearly all of the drainage is in the FNMSP) to compare the species that appear commonly in two areas over 300 miles apart, and how many of the species are in a “southern” more xeric park are not listed in a “northern” mesic park. Briefly, 88 species (one half of the total) of plants present in Van Damme State Park are also present in the FNMSP. This demonstrates that redwood habitat has a degree of continuity throughout. The Van Damme State Park area thus has another 88 plant species that are not present in FNMSP. The same 88 plant species represent only 17 percent of the plants in the Aptos Creek Drainage, with 445 more species than in Van Damme State Park.

113 The difference in the diversity of the plant communities in the drier part of the coast is obvious, with far more “Mediterranean” plants in the south. However, I do not know many of the plants collected in Van Damme State Park were included in their “preliminary checklist” listing. The differences disclose much about the adaptations of the redwood to compete and survive within in the more xeric area where the redwood is surrounded by many more plant associations and severed climate conditions than are present in the northern woods. About the four and a half pages (310 species and sub-species) of Fungi Associated with Redwood in Appendix 3.2. What is useful about this total fungi listing is to relate the high numbers of non-visible organisms in an ecosystem that includes hundreds of species of fungi, lichens, plants, invertebrates (especially insects), that only the experts are aware of. A redwood ecosystem is extremely diverse, even though plants, birds, and mammals, may be limited compared to neighboring ecosystems. Reed Noss includes a detailed discussion of the lignotuber, which some authors do not mention. These authors may have decided to not mention lignotubers for public library publications because of its complicated physiological growth. A discussion of the closely related redwood burl may be all that is necessary for the public, but interpretive specialists should be aware of the specific functions of lignotubers. To demonstrate how closely related these growths are, recent information on redwood lignotubers is presented in a 1999 article in Arnoldia by Dr. Peter Del Tredici titled “Redwood Burls: Immortality Underground.”58 Reed Noss’s discussion of the lignotuber reveals that the structure may be important in revealing the formation of “fairy rings” (Noss5 pp 110,114). I collected information in the Mangels Ranch Area and found that a massive lignotuber may not be the cause in all cases. Further research is needed to look further into cluster and ”fairy ring” formation, including the Mill Valley Jepson circle (see Guide text pages 57-61 and Appendix I), which is not a slump jumble cluster. Genetic evidence may solve the problem. The discussion on the lignotuber is a good example of presenting difficult and controversial scientific information that stimulates important research that may prove valuable for the health and productivity of the redwood as global warming increases. Of most importance was the tree size information in Noss’s Table 4.1,“Diameter and Breast Height (dbh) Height, and Trunk Wood Volume of the Tallest and Largest Known Redwood Trees.” Most of the redwood publications either used the commonly cited National Geographic Tree for height (it is now in fourth place), and a not-cited 16 foot diameter tree for maximum width. His Table 4.1 lists 15 trees over 20 feet in diameter - the widest being 25.8 feet dbh. The tallest redwood changes because each of four or five giant trees, almost at the same height, grow at varying rates. The presentation of data in his Table 4.1 does not give the tallest tree at this time. The tallest tree was not mentioned in the table, it is now the “Stratosphere Giant” in Humboldt Redwood State Park (see my text page 15).

114 Part of the problem of giving the exact location by park personnel and authors of the tallest redwoods is to not broadcast exactly where they are, to protect them. Some “antisocial activists” cut down a giant redwood near the Highway through Richardson’s Grove apparently to anguish environmental activists and protectionists. Exceptional care is being taken by Federal and State personnel to protect these largest trees. Noss’s book is strong in relating ways of harvesting that can be developed to preserve the sustainability of a redwood forest, and assure the continuity of redwood ecosystems with their associated plants and animals. In Chapter 9, Lessons From the Redwoods, he summarizes 16 basic functions of the redwoods that we scientifically know, following by three basic sustainable models needed for ecological management (his page 267), one of them includes: “Arguably all remaining old growth should be protected.” Pub.Lib.: Central, Boulder Creek: 634.9758 RED; UCSC SD 397 R3 R455 • Michael G. Barbour and Jack Major10 edited another massive data-base works for plant communities that defined and described the Floristic Provinces and their Plant Communities for California in The Terrestrial Vegetation of California, new Expanded Edition, 1988. This project was organized by the California Native Plant Society, and was first published in 1977 in Sacramento as the Society’s Publication 9, with 1030 pages. The contributors included 37 volunteers most knowledgeable of particular plant communities and areas of the state. All plant communities were completed except for the riparian areas that are very diverse throughout the state, requiring much effort. The plants in FNMSP are the California Floristic Province, which includes the Mixed Evergreen and Oak Woodland plant communities, and the Pacific Northwest Floristic Province, which includes the Redwood Forest and Coastal Prairie and Northern Coastal Scrub plant communities. A Literature Cited section is given for each article, but there are no subject indexes. The Mixed Evergreen Forest, pages 359-381, was written by John D. Sawyer, James R. Griffin, and Dale Thornburgh; the Oak Woodland section was written by James R. Griffin, pages 383-415; the Redwood Forest and Associated North Coast Forests, pages 678 to 698, was written by Paul J. Zinke; and the Coastal Prairie and Northern Coastal Scrub, pages 733 -760 was written by Michael Barbour, Dean W. Taylor, Harold F. Heady, Theodore C. Foin, Mary M. Hektner, and W. James Barry. UCSC Sci.Lib. QK 149 T44 • The major work of most importance in reviewing recent redwood life history information was the Proceedings of the Conference on Coast Redwood Forest Ecology & Management, June 18-20, 1996. at Humboldt State University, Arcata, California, 162 pp. The 104 authors and co-authors presented 46 papers and 12 Poster Abstracts that were edited by John LeBlanc. To determine how valuable this document would be to you, note the 19 papers cited from this document in the text. UCSC Sci. Lib., SD 397 R3 C65

115 • A flowering plant identification book with color photos is being used by local docents is in the county libraries: Kathleen Lyons and Mary Beth Cooney-Lazaneo62 in 1988 published their 197 page color photo flower identification book Plants of the Coast Redwood Region by Looking Press, Los Altos, Calif. It includes color photographs for each flowering species with identification drawings. Most of the flowering redwood habitat plants in the FNMSP are included, except for a few that live in dryer habitat than in the north. Common plant names change over the years. Most botanists now choose the common names given in the revised Jepson’s Manual or on the California Native Plant Society’s flower posters. There are a few flowering plants in this book that continue to have several common names. For instance, Lyons and Cooney-Lazaneo and the California Native Plant Society give the name “Wake Robin” for Trillium ovatum. In Jepson’s revised manual it is called White or Western Trillium. Lyons and Cooney-Lazaneo used the formerly common name “Fetid Adders Tongue” for Ophioglossum californicum, whereas in Jepson’s revised manual it is named the “California Adder’s Tongue. The California Native Plant Society names it “Slink Pod”. The common names given this exceptional field identification book are well known and usable, even though a few common names may be slightly dated. Pub. Lib.: Aptos, Boulder Creek, Felton, La Selva Beach, Central. 581.97947 L98. • Rudolph Becking60 in 1982 published his 237 page Pocket Flora of the Redwood Forest by Island Press, Covelo, CA. This has been a favorite among redwood forest admirers. Included are fine ink drawings of the diagnostic flowers, leaves and other parts of each of the 212 more common plants throughout the red-wood’s range. An additional 30 color photographs of major species are included, and keys to the Families and of some keys to the Genera of species are given. Pub. Lib.: Central, Boulder Creek, La Selva Beach, Capitola, Scotts Valley. 582 B38 • Identification of flowering plants and bushes are available on 22 x 34 in. wall posters published by the California Native Plant Society, 909 12th St., Suite 116, Sacramento CA 95814. Four posters with color drawings of twigs with leaves and flowers show nearly all the flowering plants of the redwood and associated plant communities. These are: Wildflowers of the Redwood Forest with 58 species; Wildflowers of the Coast with 34 species; California Native Plants - Spring Wildflowers with 55 species, and Shrubs of the Coast Ranges with 34 species. • Richard A. Rasp54, Chief Park Naturalist/Interpreter, wrote Redwood, the Story Behind the Scenery. This 55 page oversize 9 x 12 in. glossy-paper stapled magazine format was published in 1989 by KC Publications, Inc. Las Vegas. The book was edited by Mary Van Camp -- the copy I have was of the 4th printing, 1999.

116 Color photographs depict not only the redwood in its different shapes and forms, but gives well chosen examples of redwood habitat and topography of the foggy Northern California Coastline. Photographs of several birds, mammals, and flowers are given considerable space. It has a photograph of the Giant Sequoia for comparison. Pub. Lib. : central, 585.2 RAS â&#x20AC;˘ CSP Park Ranger Chris Sanguino gave me a copy of a 5.5 x 8.5 inch informative and attractive handbook with accurate redwood life history. The 48 page handbook written by artist Larry Eifert56 is titled The Distinctive Qualities of Redwoods, published by Estuary Press, Port Townsend, WA. The 6th printing was in 2000. Every page except two has fine detailed drawings (53 total) of plants, flowers, birds, amphibians, mammals, and the many growth forms of the redwood. The cover drawing is in water-color. Drawings of the Giant Sequoia and Dawn Redwood are included. The descriptions are similar to the prose of Verna Johnston. For instance, in Eifertâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s discussion of the barn owl in a redwood grove: Both creatures flew further into the grove. With them, their cries receded into the forest leaving me alone with my thoughts.

117 INDEX When numbers are joined by a dash as 32-36, the discussion on that topic appears on each page in the sequence. Underlined page numbers give extended information, including the glossary. When the page number is in bold, the subject is in a Figure or Table. The superscript after each authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s name is the reference number in the Literature Cited section A Biodiversity, 2 Aborigines, 41,43,61 31 Biome, 7 Adams, Jeffrey , 29,103 Adventitious buds, 58,59,99 Bird Discussion and Listing, 82,83, 86 Blackberry, California, Rubus ursinus , Advocate Tree, 5,29 11,63,65, 77 Agave, Desert, Agave deserti, 37 Blowdowns, (see treefalls) Age of redwood (and other trees), Blueblossom, Ceanothus thyrsiflorus, 16,28,33 70,76-77,84 Alder, red, Alnus rubra,9 Board Feet, 1,29 Albino, redwood, 49 Bobcat, 79,85 Allelopathic, 48,99 Bole, (see trunk), 24,99 Allen, Gerald, et al30, 29,103 Alluvial forest, 12,35,38,99 Botanists, 7,78 Amphibians in MRA, 81,85 Bowcut, Fredrica4, 3,102 Annual rings, 24,33-34,40 Bowman, Roy H.17,12,13,103 Apical, 34 Bracken, Pteridium aquilinum, 11,19,78 Aptos Creek and Road, 5,6,9,11,13,29, Branches, 17,28 30,47,77 Branchlets, 16,17, 21,32,63,65,74 Brewer, William H., 105,109-110 Archegonia, 33,99 Arnold Arboretum, (VI),90 Bridges, Janet, 78 Australian Fireweed, 26,88 Broom, French, Genista monspessulana, 26,84,88 Autecological, 2,45,99 Burl, {ix},12,18,29,55-57,113 B Bakker, Elna1, 1,7, 36,103 Buttress, 18,24,29 Banana slug, 39 C Barbour, Michael and J. Major10, California Department of Forestry (CDF), 27,61,69,90,92 7,14,48,102,106,114 Bark, 16,18,20,39,46,48,72 California Native Plant Society, Bay, California, Umbellularia 7,114,115 californica, 9,10,26,37,49,72 California State Parks, (CSP), (viii),(x) 37 Becking, Rudolph , 32,33,37,51,104Cambium, 20,21,24,40.48 105,115 Canopy, 9,15,21,25-26,28,39,40,51,62, Beidleman, Richard, 59,91,92 73 Ben Lomond loam, 12 Chain fern, 23 Big Basin State Park, 40,41,46,47 Chamise, Adenostoma fasciculatum, 48 40 Bingham, B. B. , 35,104 Chaparral, 44-45,47,48,99

118 INDEX Checklist of Plants for Mangels Ranch Area, 87 Chetco River Drainage, Oregon, 31 Chimney tree, 21-22,40,46 Chipmunk, Merriam, Eutamiais merriami, 80,85 Chlorophyll, 49 Christmas tree, 21,53 Clearcut, 1,25,30,61 Climate, 1,9,10,31,40,41,69 Climax, 8-9,12,25,29,40 Circles, 57-61,69,89-90 Circular pattern, 52,69 Clone, 50,51,52 Clusters, (viii},6,11,53,57-62,63,64, 65-68,69 Coastal Prairie, 6,7,11,13,45 Coffeeberry, California, Rhamnus californica, 19,23,36,63,65, 73,74-75,77 Competition between plants, 8,25,31,71 Conelets, 17,32,34 Conifer, 16,48,55,56,107 Contiguous, 89,90,99 Corralitos, 53,61 Cotyledonary node, 56,99 Coyote, 79,85 Coyote brush, Baccharis pilularis, 11, 70,78,87 Creep erosion, 62 Creosote bush, Larrea tridentata, 16, 52,72,73 Crown fires, 34,47 Crown gall, 49 Crown needles, 17,32 Crustose-Lichen, 9,99 Culls, 1,30,59 Cultural values, 1,3 Currant, pink-flowering, Ribes sanguineum, 77,87 Cuttings, 12,51 D

Damping off, 38 Dawson, Todd, 37-38,104 Dead standing tree, 22,35 Debris flow, 99 Deer, mule, Odocoileus hemionus, 79,85 Dehydration, 31 Del Tredici, Peter50, 56-58,60,90,91, 92,104,105 Demming, Mark, 89 Diameter of a tree (dbh), 15,18,28,29, 34,70,96 Diversity of species, 78 Dogwood, creek, Cornus serica, 73,87 Dormant basal buds, 26,31,50,54-57,100 Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga menzeisii , 9,10,11,12,23,26,29,45,47,54,67,96 Downed tree, 25,36 Drought, 2,9,10,47 Duff, 22,33,38,39,51,69 Dyerville Giant, 15 E Earthquake (1989), 73 Ecological, 3,47,56 Ecological education, 4,45 Ecological trends, 2-3 Ecologists, 1-3,4,7,8,40,46,70 Ecoscape, 4,107 Ecosystem, 2-3,7-9,40,113 Ecotone, 1,77,100 Edaphic, 10,40,100 Eifert, Larry56, 105,116 Elderberry, blue, Sambucus mexicana, 77,87 Ensatina, Ensatina eschscholtzii, 81,85 Environment, 3,45,56 Ethics Code and choices, 2,3 Ethical, 2 Epiphytes, 49 Esau, Katherine39, 34,104 Esthetic, 47 Eucalyptus, 14,56,57, Evapotranspiration, 71

119 INDEX Evarts, John, and Marjorie Popper24, 14,15,25,26,32,36,39,46,49,50, 53,54,57,103,106,108 Even-aged forest, 30 Exotic plants (see Introduced plants) F Fairy Ring, 50,51,53,57-60,61,69,72,8992,107 Federation Tree,15 Feeder roots, 48 Feral pig (wallowing), Sus scrofa, 80,85 Fertilization, 33 Finny, Mark A.45, 46,49,104 Fir, Bigcone Douglas-, Pseudotsuga macrocarpa, 55 Fire, 8,9,12,25,39,40,46,47,49,50,53, 55,71 ----- Cavity, 18,21 ---- Crown fires, 47 ---- Mean Fire Interval (MFI), (ix), 40-45 Lighting-Volcanic Regime, 40-41 Aboriginal Fire Regime, 40-41,43,47 Spanish-Mexican Fire Regime, 40,41, 43-45 Anglo Fire Regime, 43,44-45 Recent Fire Regime, 40,45 Fire Scars, 34,39,46,47,71 Fire suppression, 47 Fireweed, Australian, Erechtites minima, 26 First generation, 28 Floods, 8,9,12,33 Floristic Province, 100,114 Fog, 10-11 Fog drip (fog precipitation), 16,37,38,70 Foliose-Lichen, 9,100 Food storage, 20,57 Forest of Nisene Marks State Park (FNMSP), (ix), 5, 6,7,12,13,25,28,29,31,46, 47, 51, 61,77,78

Forget-me-not, Myosotis latifolia, 26,88 Founders Grove, 15 Fox, Lawrence III27, 34,103 Fritz, E. and J. Everall38, 33 Frog: Pacific treefrog, Hyla regilla, 81, 85 ------- red-legged, Rana aurora, 81,85 Fungi, 33,51,69 G Galleta Grass, Hilaria rigida, 37 Gause, G. W.49, 55-56,104 Genetic traits and material, 16,51,56,71 Geology, 9,25,110 Geomorphology, 69,100 Georgeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Picnic Area and Flat, 5,49,61 Geotropism (positive and negative), 55, 56,100 Germination, 31,33 Giant Sequoia, Sequoiadendron giganteum, 15,16,31,34,108,109, 110 Ginko, 56 Global warming, 4,78 Goosepen, 18,46,59 Gopher, pocket, 80 Grass, 43 Grazing, 44 Greenlee, Jason, Phd. thesis, 40 Greenlee, Jason M. and J. Langenheim45, {ix},40-43,45,46,104, Griffen, J. R35, 31,104 Grizzly bear, 41 Growth regulators, 34,50 Growth ring (see annual rings) Grove, 25 H Happy Valley, (vi),6,9-12,13,28,37,38, 47,61,70,73,76-77,79,89-90 Harvesting, 1-3,12,26,28,30 Hawk Point Ridge, 6,10-11,13,28,29,30, 47,70

120 INDEX Hazelnut, California, Corylus cornuta, 43,87 Heartrot fungi, 49 Heartwood, 24,29,48-49 Helms, James 32, 29,104 Hemlock, Western, Tsuga heterophylla, 35,36 Hewes, Jeremy Joan20, 16,25,31,33, 34,108,109 Hexaploid, 16 Hickman, James C.18, 12,14,26,103,112 Hinds, Norman E.53, 62,105 Hope, David, 69,89 Houndâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tongue, Cynoglossum grande, 87 Hugo Loam, 12 Humidity, 9,41,70 Humboldt Redwoods State Park, (vi), 15,52-53,107 Humboldt State University, 2,3,15, 57,102 Humus, 22,33,38,52,69,73 Hydrological studies, 38 Hydrosere, 9 I Inner bark, (see phloem) Insect attack, 33 Insects in MRA, 84 Interpretive sites, 4 Introduced plants, 3,25-26,88 Ivy, Cape, Delaria odorata, 26,88 ---- English, Hedera helix, 25,26,88 J Jackson State Demonstration Forest, 89 James, Susanne44, 47-48,56-57,104 Jan Caral and Agnes Van Eck Mem. Grove, 25 Jepson, Willis51,52, (vi},14,57,55-60,105 Jepson Circle, (vi},57-60,89-92 Jepson Herbarium, (vi),78 John Reed Mill Site, Mill Valley, 59 Johnston, Verna11, 7,14,31,34,36,53,55,

57,102,111-112 Joshua Tree, Yucca brevifolia, 37 Journal of Forestry6, 3,102 K Kiosk, 5 Kittredge, Joseph15, 10,69,89,103 Kunze, Allan, 71 Kuser, J. E23, 16,103 L Land ethic, 3-4 Landscape, 3 Land scar, 62,63,69,71,77, Landslide, 8,9,12,25,32,38,62,69,77 Lanner, Ronald M.19, 14,15,16,32,55, 103,107,110 LeBlanc, John, 14,102,114 Leopold, Aldo7,8, 3-4,102 Libby, William J.3, 2,14,31,52-53,102, 104 Life Zones, 109 Light, 7,28,37,38,97,98 Lightning fires, 40-41, 42,47 Lignotuber, (ix},12,19,53,55-56,57,60, 61,90,92,107,113 Litter, 19,22,38,39,70 Living Nurse Tree, 19,35,54 Log, redwood, 35,72 Logging, 28,53 Loma Prieta Logging Period, 30-31 London, Jack, 60 Lower Park area, 12,30,47,49 Lydon, Sandy, 47,106 Lyons, Kathleen, et.al., 105,115 M Madrone, Pacific, Arbutus menziesii, 6,9,29,72,87 Mammals in MRA, 78-81,85 Management of Forests, 2 Mangels Gulch Creek, 6,13,30 Mangels Ranch Area (MRA), (v),(viii), (ix),4,5,6,7,12,22,28,

121 INDEX 30,36,37,42,46,47,49,52,54, 59,60, 69,70, 76,78,85-88 Mangels-Van Eck Redwood, 6,13,29, 30,54 Manifest Destiny, 44 Manzanita, Arctostaphylos andersonii, 48 Maple, big-leaf, Acer macrophyllum, 9,10,73,74 Marcelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Forest, 29 Mark Twain Giant Sequoia, 109 Marten, Humboldt, Martes americana humboldtenis, 45 Mean Fire Interval (MFI), (see fire) Mediterranean climate, 10,26,83-84,113 Medocino County, 3 Mendocino Tree, 15 Meristem, 34 Mertz, Karl, (v) Mesic, 39,100 Micro-environment, 10,69-70 Miller, Steven, 76 Mill Valley, (vi),59,91,94,113 Mineral soil, (vi),12,26, 62, 71 Misurace, Rick57, 91,105 Mixed Evergreen Forest, 6,43,107 Mohave Desert, 72 Monkeyflower, Sticky, Mimulus aurantiacus, 11,78 Monte Toyon Conference Grounds, 5,6, 69,76,78 Monte Toyon Ridge, 6,10-12,13,47 Monoecious, 32 Mosaic of plant communities, 10,11,100 Moss, 9,23 Mother Tree, 52-53,58,60,61,69,90,92 Muir, John, 108 Munz, Philip A. and D. Keck9, 7,31,102 Murman, E.O., 106-107 Murrelet, marbled, Brachyramphus marmoratus, 45 Mushroom, 51

Mycorrhizae, 33 N National Geographic Tree, 15 Natural history library, (x),106 Nature trail, (viii), 4 Needle bundle, 17 Needle desiccation, 17,31 Needlegrass, Purple, Nassella pulchra, (viii),6,11 Nematodes, 39 Newt, California, Taricha torosa, 81,85 Northern Coastal Scrub, (x),6,7,10,11, 13, 72 Noss, Reed F.5, (vi),3,12,14,15,16,27, 28,31,33,35-37,50,54,57,58, 61, 89,90,102,112-113 Nurse Plant and Nurse Tree, 19,34-37,54 Nursery Log, (x),23,35-36,65,74 Nutrients, 7 O Oaks: Coast live oak, Quercus agrifolia, 9,11,23,30,77,107,109 Interior live oak, Quercus wislezenii, 108-109 Shreve, Quercus parvula var shrevei, (vi),(viii), 6,9-11, 22,23, 29,30,37,47,63,73,74,77,107,108 Oak woodland, 6,11,13,43,46 Octopus tree, 36 Old-growth forest, (ix),1,25,26,28-29,61, 72,89,108 Old-growth tree, 1,15,27-28,30,59,8990,114 Old Mill Park, Mill Valley, 59 Olympic National Park, 54 Omega Redwood, 18 Ontogenetic, 56,57,100 Orr, Robert T., and Dorothy Orr47, 51,104 Oso Berry, 78,87 Owl, pygmy, Glaucidium gnoma, 82-83,

122 INDEX 86 ------, spotted, Strix occidentalis, 45 P Pacific Northwest Floristic Province, 7 Parent tree, 59 Pathogenic fungi, 32,33,38,69 Patrickâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Point State Park, 36 Pavlik, Bruce M. et. al., 105,107-108 Peeler (see stump peeler) Peripheral trees of a Cluster, 11,52,53, 69,71,72,76,77 Phenolics, 33,49 Phloem, 20,48 Philosophical terms, 3 Phototropism, 19 Pigeon, band-tailed, Columba fasciata, 83,86 Piggyback Tree, 19 Pine, bristlecone, Pinus longaeva, 16 -------- , gray, Pinus sabiniana, 110 Pioneer species, 26 Plantation, 1,34 Plant Communities, 1,7-10 Plant Discussion and Listing, 83-84,87 Poison oak, Toxicodendron diversilobum, 11,78 Pollen cones (conelets), 17,32-33 ------- grains, 33 ------- shedding, 32 Polypodium, 23,87 Pourroy Area of Lower Park, 5,12,29,77 Prairie burning, 43 Primeval, 101 Purple Needlegrass, Nassella pulchra , (viii),6 R Rabbit, brush, 80,85 Rainfall, 10,95-97,98 Rasp, Richard54, 15,105,115-116 Redwood - life history, (x) - Dawn, Metasequoia

glyptostroboides, 31 - forests, 6,25-26 - structures, 14,16,17-24 - superlative tree, 14,15,16 - does not die of old age, 16 - maximum diameter of, 15 Redwood-Mixed Evergreen Community, 10,29 Redwood National Park, (vi),15 Redwood Piggyback Nurse Tree, (see Piggyback Tree) Reed, Agnes, (v) Reed, Emmitt, 73 Reedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (John) Mill site in Mill Valley, 59 Reid, Leslie14, 4,10,12,70,103 Reinhabitor, 3 Reiteration, 18,19,34,54,55,60,101 Reptiles in MRA, 81,85 Residual forests, 29-31 Residual old-growth, 18, Residual second-growth Forest, 30 Richardson Grove, 25 Rodrigues, Kim, 30,34,104 Roosevelt, Teddy, 108 Root hairs, 33,39 Roots, 19,35,36,39,48,54,55,56 Root-pull pit, 12,19,26,38,53,63,65,71 Root radical, 33 Rootwad, 12,19,26,38,55,65 S Sagebrush, California, Artemisia californica ,11 Salamander, Calif. slender, Batrachoseps attenuatus, 81,85 Sanguino, Chris ( CSP Ranger), 116 Santa Cruz Mountains, 44 Sapling, 21,34,51,65,71,74-75,76 Sapwood, 20,24,49 Save-the-Redwoods League, 112 Sawyer, John O., et. al.29, 29,103

123 INDEX Scale, 17 Scher, Stanley (and G. Wilson)46, 49 Schoenherr, Allan A.12, 7,8,15,16,37,52, 72,103,105,110-111 Scrub, 7,8,11, 40,47,63,65,71,74,76,82, 101 Sea salts (aerosol), 31 Second generation, 30,58 Second-growth, 1,30-31,60,61,72 Seed germination, 31,32,48 Seed production, 17,32,33,39, Seedlings, 2,12,16,26,33,35,38,39,51-52, 55,62,71,76 Seedling roots, 39 Self pruning, 15,18,25,72,73 Sempervirens Fund, 109 Seral stages, 8,9,28,30 Sere, 8-9 Shade tolerance, 25,39,78 Shading, 1,25,26,37 Sher, Stanley, and Gretchen Wilson46, 49,104 Shrub, 9,26,52,101 Sillett, Steve, 15,49 Silviculture, 25,61 Size classification, 34 Slash, logging, 44 Slope dynamics, 10 Slope percentages in clusters, 63,65,67 Slump Jumble dynamics, 12,22,38,52, 62,63,65,71,90,92 Slump jumble cluster, 11,52,62,63,65, 67,71,74,76-77 Snag, 22,35 Snakes, ------- W. terrestrial garter, Thamnophis elegans, 81,85 ------- gopher, Pituophis catenifer, 73,81,85 -------- rattlesnake, 81 (not observed in area) ------- ring-necked, Diadophis

punctatus, 81,85 ------- sharp-tailed, Contia tenuis, 81,85 Snow tolerance, 9 Society for Ecological Restoration, 3 Soil types and conditions, 4,9,12,13,33, 35,36 Soquel State Demonstration Forest, (vi) Sorrel, Redwood, Oxalis oregona, 78, 111 Spaniards, 43,53 Spiketop, 21 Spohrer, Chris, (v) Spreiter, Terry A., et.al.26, 26,103 Sprouts, 16,18,37,50,51,55,57,71,73,74 Sprout ring, (x),18,46-49,57 Spruce, Sitka, 35,36 Stand, 25 Stand cluster, 11,62 Steel bridge, 5 Stem, 73 Stockton, David, (vi),15 Storie, Raymond, et. al.16, 12,103 Stratosphere Giant, 15 Stump peeler, 21,54,59 Successional forest stages, 9,28 Sugihara, Neil G.25, 26,35,36,38 Sunlight (too little, and too much)â&#x20AC;&#x161; 39 Sustainability, 3 Sycamore, Western, Platanus racemosa, 9 T Tallest Tree, 15,113,114 Tannins, 33,49 Tanoak, Lithocarpus densiflorus, 6,9,2526,30,50,61,77 Taylor, Dean, (vi),78,84,112, Taproot, 48,52,58,112 Terrace trail, 30 Terrestrial vegetation, 1,7,109 Third generation, 30,59,60,61 Third-growth, 30-31 Thrasher, California, Toxostoma

124 INDEX curvirostre, 82,86 Timber Harvest Permit (THP), (viii), 27,69 Timber workers, 3,27 Topography, 7,9-11,25,41,61 Transpiration, 17,39,101 Treefall, 25,35,54,63,65,67 Treefall gap, 25,26, 38,71,76,77 Trunk, 18,54 Trust for Public Land, (v),(viii) Tuchman, E. K.28, 28,103 Tumorigenesis, 49 Twisted Grove, 5,77 U U.C. Riverside, 56 Undercutting erosion, 25 Understory, 19,25,46,52,62,63,65, 76,77 Uneven-aged Forest, 25,30,52,89 USDA Northwest Forest Plan, 28 V Van Eck, Agnes, 73 Vegetative Types and Plant Communities, 9,11 Viers, Stephen21, 16,31,39,47,50,51,103

Vole, California, Microtus californicus, 80,85 W Weasel, longtail, 80,85 Weaver, John, and F. E. Clemens13, 8,9,103 Wilcox, Wayne22, 16,103 Wilderness experience, (vii},1 Widlife events and species listings, 7888 Willow, arroyo, Salix lasiolepis, 9,37 Windthrow (fallen tree), 25 WOLF school, 78 Woodpecker Granary, 18 Woodpecker, pileated, Dryocopus pileatus, 83, 86 Woodrat, 18,39,65 X Xeric, 7,101 Xerosere, 9 Xylem, 20,40,48 Z Zinke, Paul2,36, 2,31,33,36,102,104